VOL. 82, NO.

27 JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH SEPTEMBER 20, 1977

Cenozoic Evolution of Antarctic Glaciation, the Circum-Antarctic Ocean,

and Their Impact on Global Paleoceanography
JAMES P. KENNETT

GraduateSchoolof Oceanography,
Universityof RhodeIsland,Kingston,RhodeIsland02881

Deep-seadrilling in the Antarctic region (Deep-SeaDrilling Project legs 28, 29, 35, and 36) has
providedmany newdata about the developmentof circum-Antarcticcirculationand the closelyrelated
glacial evolutionof Antarctica.The Antarctic continenthas been in a high-latitudepositionsincethe
middle to late Mesozoic.Glaciation commencedmuchlater, in the middle Tertiary, demonstratingthat
near-polarpositionis not sufficientfor glacialdevelopment.Instead,continentalglaciationdevelopedas
the present-daySouthernOcean circulationsystembecameestablishedwhen obstructingland masses
movedaside.During the Paleocene(t = •65 to 55 m.y. ago),Australiaand Antarcticawerejoined. In the
early Eocene(t = •55 m.y. ago), Australiabeganto drift northwardfrom Antarctica,formingan ocean,
although tireurn-Antarctic flow was blocked by the continental South Tasman Rise and Tasmania.
During the Eocene(t = 55 to 38 m.y. ago) the SouthernOceanwas relativelywarm and the continent
largelynonglaciated.Cool temperatevegetationexistedin someregions.By the late Eocene(t = •39 m.y.
ago) a shallowwater connectionhad developedbetweenthe southernIndian and Pacificoceansoverthe
SouthTasmanRise.The first major climatic-glacialthresholdwas crossed38 m.y. ago near the Eocene-
Oligoceneboundary,when substantialAntarctic seaice beganto form. This resultedin a rapid temper-
ature drop in bottom watersof about 5øC and a major crisisin deep-seafaunas.Thermohalineoceanic
circulationwas initiatedat this time much like that of the presentday. The resultingchangein climatic
regimeincreasedbottomwater activityover wide areasof the deepoceanbasins,creatingmuchsediment
erosion,especiallyin westernpartsof oceans.A major (•2000 m) and apparentlyrapid deepeningalso
occurredin the calciumcarbonatecompensationdepth(CCD). This climaticthresholdwas crossedas a
resultof the gradualisolationof Antarctica from Australia and perhapsthe openingof the Drake Pas-
sage.During the Oligocene(t = 38 to 22 m.y. ago), widespreadglaciationprobablyoccurredthroughout
Antarctica,althoughno ice cap existed.By the middleto late Oligocene(t = •30 to 25 m.y. ago), deep-
seatedtireurn-Antarcticflow had developedsouth of the South Tasman Rise, as this had separated
sufficientlyfrom Victoria Land, Antarctica. Major reorganizationresultedin southernhemispheredeep-
seasedimentdistributionpatterns.The next principalclimatic thresholdwas crossedduring the middle
Miocene(t = 14 to 11 m.y. ago) when the Antarcticice cap formed.This occurredat about the time of
closureof the Australian-Indonesiandeep-seapassage.During the early Miocene,calcareousbiogenic
sedimentsbeganto be displacednorthwardby siliceousbiogenicsedimentswith higherratesof sedimen-
tation reflectingthe beginningof circulationrelatedto the developmentof the Antarctic Convergence.
Sincethe middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has remaineda semipermanentfeatureexhibiting
somechangesin volume.The most important of theseoccurredduring the latestMiocene(t = • 5 m.y.
ago) whenicevolumesincreasedbeyondthoseof the presentday.This eventwasrelatedto globalclimatic
cooling,a rapid northwardmovementof about 300 km of the AntarcticConvergence, and a eustaticsea
leveldrop that may have beenpartly responsiblefor the isolationof the Mediterraneanbasin.Northern
hemisphere
ice sheetdevelopment
beganabout2.5-3 m.y. ago, rel•resenting
the next majorglobal
climaticthreshold,and was followedby the well-knownmajor oscillationsin northernice sheets.In the
SouthernOceanthe Quaternarymarksa peakin activityof oceaniccirculationasreflectedby widespread
deep-seaerosion,veryhigh biogenicproductivityat the AntarcticConvergenceand resultinghighratesof
biogenicsedimentation,and maximum northward distribution of ice-rafted debris.

INTRODUCTION Thefirstofthese
isrelated
tothedevelopment
ofthecircum-
The presentworld oceancirculationsystemhasexhibited Antarctic circulation systemas southernland massesmoved
major changesthroughtime as a resultof the topographic aside, creating unrestrictedlatitudinal flow; the secondis a
evolutionof the oceanbasins,changingpositionof continents, generallyreciprocalbreakup of equatorial and lower-latitude
and the earth'sclimaticand glacialevolution,especiallyin the circulationas land massesmovedacrossor developedin these
polar regions.Three major elementsof paleoceanographicregions;the third element is related to the developmentand
changecan be distinguished for the Cenozoic. historyof bottom watersof the oceansin responseto climatic
A. Diminishingequatorialcirculation. and glacialeventsespeciallyin the polar regions.Thus two of
1. Destructionof Tethian Seaway(early to middle Ce- the three major elements involved in global Cenozoic pa-
nozoic). leoceanographic evolutionare directlyrelatedto eventsoccur-
2. Blockingof IndonesianSeaway(middleto lateCeno- ring at high latitudes,particularlyin the southernhemisphere.
The evolution of the Southern Ocean itself has had a funda-
zoic).
3. Bridgingof CentralAmericanSeaway(Pliocene). mental influenceon the developmentof Antarctic glaciation,
B. Developmentof circum-Antarcticcirculation. which in turn has affected the direction of global climatic
evolution, including the north polar region.
1. Openingof Australian-Antarctic
Seaway.
2. Developmentof KerguelenPlateau. Until rather recently,little was known about the long-term
3. Opening of Drake Passage. climatic,glacial, and paleoceanographic recordof the South-
ern Ocean and Antarctica. Knowledgewasmostly restrictedto
C. Development
ofpsychrospheric
circulation;
linkedwith
polar glacialevolution. the latestCenozoicbasedon studiesof piston core sequences
and from accessiblegeomorphologicalevidencein areasnear
Copyright¸ 1977by the AmericanGeophysical
Union. the peripheryof the Antarctic continentwhich are not covered
Papernumber7C0347. 3843
3844 KENNETT: PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

TABLE 1. Data on the Four DSDP Expeditions to the Southern 6. Antarctic Convergence;principal site of siliceousbio-
Ocean
genicproductivityand sedimentation.
DSDP 7. AntarcticConvergence sharplyseparatesdominantlysi-
Legs Duration Data liceous and calcareous sediments.
8. Shallowcalciumcarbonatecompensation depth(CCD).
28 Dec. 1972 to Feb. 1973 10 Antarctic sites, Australasian
sector
9. DistinctiveAntarctic, Subantarctic,and temperatesur-
face water masses.
29 March-April 1973 8 Subantarcticsites,Australasian
sector !0. Major seatof cold bottom water production.
35 Feb.-March 1974 4 Antarctic sites, SE Pacific sector 1!. Icebergsedimentrafting to northern Subantarcticwa.
36 April-May 1974 4 Subantarcticsites,Falkland ters.
Plateau area
The SouthernOceanregionis important for severalreasons:
it is the seatof formationof muchof the world'sabyssaland
deep waters resultingfrom Antarctic sea ice formation; it
by ice. Since December 1972, however, this dramatically forms a criticalcomponentof the thermohalinecirculationof
changedwhen the first of four deep-seadrilling legsof the theworld oceanthroughthe productionof bottomwatersand
Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) commencedactivities in through upwellingof intermediatewaters near the Antarctic
present-dayAntarctic and Subantarcticregions(Table 1). Convergence; it is a regionof formationof deepoceancurrents
During these expeditions,26 siteswere drilled, thesebeing that may causewidespread deep-seaerosion;it represents
the
equallydistrilbuted throughout thepresent-day Antarcticand primary mixingarenabetweenthe present-dayoceans,affect-
Subantarcticwater masses(Figure 1). The initial reportsfor ing in turn chemicalbudgetsof eachoceanand biogeographic
eachof theselegs(leg28, Hayeset al. [ 1975];leg29, Kennettet patterns;it is the seatof productionof muchof the present-day
al. [1975a];leg35, Hollister et al. [1976];and leg36, Barker et biogenicsilica due to upwellingof nutrient-richwatersnear
al. [1977a]) form the basisfor our recent advancesin under- the AntarcticConvergence; it represents
an importantsiteof
standingof paleoclimatic,paleoglacial,and paleoceanogra- ice-rafted terrigenous sedimentsfrom Antarctica; and the
phic evolutionof the region.The purposeof this paperis to SouthernOceanis intimatelylinked with the climaticregime
reviewmajor trendsestablishedduringthesenumerousstudies of the continent. Each of the environmental characteristics of
of the DSDP sequences. the present-dayAntarctic Ocean has not been permanent
It is appropriateto summarizebrieflythosemajor present- throughoutthe Cenozoicbut is the result of a continuing
day environmentalcharacteristicsof the SouthernOcean re- dynamicevolutionof the high-latitudeenvironmentalregime.
gion and Antarctica, most of which are well known. The deep-sea sedimentary sequences sofar obtainedhavepro-
1. Major ice cap; East and West Antarctica. videdinformationthat haseitherenabledthe timingof the
2. Major ice shelves;extensiveseaice development;lacks develc•pment ofthese featuresorplaced certainconstraints
on
vegetation. our knowledgeof this timing. Useful summarieson various
3. Circum-Antarcticcurrentsystem. aspects of Antarctic environmental developmentinclude
4. Widespreaddeep-seaerosion. Hayes and Frakes [1975], Kemp et al. [1975], Kennettet al.
5. Steepsurfacewater temperaturegradientbetweenpolar [1974, !975b], Craddockand Hollister [1976], Barker eta!.
and tropical regions. [1977b],and Drewry [1975, 1976].The chronologyappliedto

30' O*

60 o ß $$/
ANTARCTICCO ß25/

,•ANTARCTIG
$26

90' .90*

•ß Jr•4
R YI

e274 ß•69

150' 180ß 150"

Fig. 1. Locationof DSDP coresin the SouthernOceanregionand present-day

distributions
of the Antarctic,Sub-
antarctic,
andcoolsubtropical
watermasses,eachrespectively
separated
by AntarcticandSubtropical convergences.
 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3845

the geologicalepochsin this discussionare after the scheme land from Australiaand Antarctica60-80 m.y. ago, forming
establishedby Berggren[1972a]. the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, while
Australia remained firmly connectedwith Antarctica. Ap-
APPROACHES TO SOUTHERN OCEAN PALEOCEANOGRAPHY
proximately55 m.y. ago, spreadingceasedin the Tasman Sea
In order to review more critically the statusof our under- region, and Australia detached from Antarctica and com-
standingof paleoenvironmentaldevelopmentat southernhigh menceddrifting northwardtoward its presentposition [Weis-
latitudeswe need to examine the typesof evidenceand data sel and Hayes, 1972; McGowran, 1973; Deightonet al., 1976],
that have beenusedby variousinvestigatorsin their analyses. forming a deep oceanseawaybetweenthe continents(Figure
What is the evidencefor the timing of the initiation of deep- 2). Although this spreadingcommencedduring the early Eo-
water circulation south of Australia or through the Drake cene,a completedeep-oceanpassagewaybetweenthe two con-
Passageas part of the circum-Antarctic flow? What is the tinents did not developuntil well after initiation of spreading
evidencefor the initiation of sea ice formation adjacent to because the continental South Tasman Rise remained in close
Antarctica or for when the Antarctic ice cap formed? The connectionwith Victoria Land, Antarctica, forming a shallow
followingdiscussionconsidersapproachesusedfor analysisof water barrier to circum-Antarctic flow. The reconstructions
paleocirculationand those used for paleoclimaticand glacial (Figure 2) show that the South Tasman Rise would not have
developmentincluding factors related to sea ice and bottom clearedVictoria Land sufficientlyfor deep-oceaniccirculation
water formation. to develop at least until the time of the Eocene-Oligocene
boundary (t = 38 m.y. ago) and can be expectedto have
Paleocircutation Analysis
occurredat sometime duringthe Oligocene(t = 38 to 22 m.y.
Geophysicalconstraints. The primary control over pa- B.P. [Kennettet al., 1975b;Deightonet al., 1976]). The region
leocean9graphic changeis continentaland plate tectonicmo- south of Tasmania is structurallycomplicatedby numerous
tions, which are determinedprincipally from geophysicalevi- subparallelfracturezones[HayesandConoily,1972],and thus
dence.The geophysicaldata place certain constraintson the the existinggeophysicalevidenceis by itself of insufficient
interpretation of the timing of particular paleocirculation resolutionto provide the timing of the openingof the deep
eventssuchas the developmentof passageways as continents seaway south of the South Tasman Rise. Furthermore, the
moveapart.The circum-Antarctic currentdeveloped during bathymetrichistoryof suchdevelopingoceanicseawaysis also
the Cenozoicas a resultof the isolationof Antarctica,bythe critical in controlling paleoceanographicdevelopmentbe-
development of the DrakePassage between SouthAmerica cause,A. L. Gordon [Hayes and Frakes, 1975]has considered,
and the Antarctic Peninsula and the formation of a continu- any topographichigh with an averagedepth of about 1500 m
ously deep seaway between Australia-Tasmania and East or lesswould serveas an effectivebarrier againstsignificant
Antarctica. circumpolarcurrent flow. This information is lacking in the
Geophysicalreconstructionsof the southwesternPacificand South Tasmanian region. As a result of theseconstraintsim-
the Australian-Antarcticregionshave beenbasedon magnetic posedby the geophysicaland structuraldata the sedimentolo-
anomalypatterns.The oldestidentifiablemagneticanomalies gical evidencein the regionbecomesimportant in assistingto
in the southwestPacificregion are approximately80 m.y. old resolvethe paleoceanographichistory.
and occuralongthe southwestmargin of the Campbell Plateau The opening of the Drake Passagerepresentsthe other
[ChristoffelandFalconer,1972].Seafloor of approximatelythe primary structural event involved in the development of
sameage is thought to occur on both marginsof the Tasman SouthernOcean circulation. The existingsea floor magnetic
Sea beyondanomaly 32 [Hayesand RingiS,1973]. Anomalies anomaly data in this region do not appearto be of sufficient
adjacentto New Zealand record the separationof New Zea- resolutionto definepreciselythe time of the opening of the

150 o

Fig. 2. Successive positionsof Australia relativeto Antarctica as Australia movednorthward during the Cenozoic.The
positionof Australia at 38 m.y. ago (Eocene-Oligocene boundary)is shown(stippled)to includethe SouthTasmanRise,
which is of continentalcrust and which preventedthe developmentof deep circum-Antarcticflow well after spreading
commenced(modifiedafter Weisseland Hayes [1972]).
3846 KENNETT:PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

Drake Passageto circumpolar circulation, but the possible rifting and continental spreadingwhen the continentswere
identification of magnetic anomaly 6 age ocean crust in the located closetogether, depositionof terrigenoussilt and clay
Drake Passage(Herron and Tucholke [1976]; Figure 3) sug- facies took place. The age of this facies is diachronous
geststhat the passage
wasformedno laterthan about21 m.y. throughout
theregion,reflecting
different
agesforinitiationof
ago (earliestMiocene). Barker andBurrell [1976] considerthat the basins: the Paleocene and the Eocene in the Tasman Sea
the major phase of opening commencedabout 30 m.y. ago Basin and the Eocene and the Oligocene in the southeast
(middle Oligocene), althougha shallowgap may have existed Indian Ocean between Australia and Antarctica. As the oce-
earlier. Thus the geophysicaldata seemto indicateopeningof anic realm became establishedwith further spreading, in-
the Drake Passageregionbetween30 and 22 m.y. ago (middle creasedbasinal isolation from terrigenoussourcesoccurred,
and biogenic productivity increasedin surface waters. The
to late Oligocene), although it is not clear if shallow barriers
preventeddeepwatercirculation [Tucholkeand Houtz, 1976]. terrigenousfacieswas then succeeded'bylate Paleogenebio-
Changesin sedimentfacies. In addition to the geophysical genicooze in the Tasmanianregion (Figure 4). This informa-
evidence which forms the basis for tectonic reconstructions, tion has been vital in the interpretation of the history of
primary data for paleoceanographicinterpretationsobtained circumpolar deep circulation south of the South Tasman
are from the sedimentaryrecord.The evolutionof sedimentary Rise.At site280, immediatelysouthof the SouthTasmanRise,
faciesforms a basisfor paleoenvironmental analysisof the the earliest marine sedimentsoverlying basementof Eocene
oceanicrealm, providing information suchas the availability age are of the terrigenoussilt and clay facies,depositedat a
and sourcesof terrigenoussediments,the relative importance basinmargin relativelynear a sourcearea of detritalsediments
of biogenicsedimentaryprocesses, and the nature of the deep- rather than near the center of the basin [Kennettet al., 1975b].
sea environment where erosion has not removed the record. A lack of primary sedimentarystructuresand poor sediment
One of the clearestand bestdocumentedexamplesof the study sorting suggestsluggishbottom water circulation.Addition-
of changingsedimentaryfaciesin the SouthernOcean region ally, high organic carbon content indicatesthat the basin was
in response to paleoceanographic development is for the alsopoorly oxygenatedduringmuchof the time of deposition,
southwestPacific Basin, the Tasman Basin,and the southeast and very low biogeniccontent suggestslow biogenicproduc-
IndianOcean[,4ndrews et al., 1975;Hampton,1975;Kennettet tivity, although almost complete elimination of an original
al., 1975b]. In this region most of the sediment has been biogeniccomponentcannot be ruled out. Biogenicsediments
grouped into three facies:terrigenoussilt and clay, siliceous becomeincreasinglyimportant during the Oligocene,replac-
ooze, and calcareous ooze-chalk. At several sites these facies ing the early terrigenoussediments.Immediatelyto the south
succeedeach other in this order (Figure 4). At early stagesof in the Antarctic continental margin area the sequenceat site ,

40øS

50'

ß 207

ß
ß \\

ALEXANDER
DSDP• PETERI ¾,•
ISLAND
324
7(7'
120 ø 105ø 90 ø 75 ø 60 ø 50øW
ANOI•LY NO.
5 6 7 10 15 20 22 25 30 32 33

I '
i , I, ,, I , , m )111,ml I I
, I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I '
o lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
AGE(my.)

Fig. 3. Magnetic anomaliesand principal structuralfeaturesin the southeastPacificBasin. Scaleat bottom showsagesof
magneticanomalies[after Herron and Tucholke,1976].
 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3847

274 recordsterrigenoussedimentationduring the early Oligo- ments and the rate at which they are removed. The rate of
cene,a hiatus during the late Oligocene,and lessterrigenous removal dependson processesat the ocean floor that either
sedimentinput during the Neogene.The sitesin the region physicallytransportsedimentsto other regioiasor chemically
indicatethat althoughnorthwardspreadingof Australia com- dissolvethem [Moore et al., 1977]. Several studieshave dem-
menced53 m.y. ago in the early Eocene, open ocean condi- onstratedthat well-definedunconformitiesare widely distrib-
tions did not develop in the South Tasmanian sector until uted throughout various parts of the ocean basins,including
within the Oligocene.Furthermore, the sedimentologicalevi- thosein the southernhighlatitudes.In thisregionthe distribu-
dencedoes not support the presenceof any major deepwater tion of breaksin the Cenozoicsedimentaryrecordis a record
circumpolarcirculationuntil during the Oligocene. of the complexinterplay betweenthe developmentof ocean
TheCenozoic sequencesdrilledin theBellingshausen Basin topography, the circum-Antarcticcurrent, which although a
and the Falkland Plateau regions record that open ocean wind-driven surfacecurrent, is attenuatedto abyssaldepths
processeshave occurred in these regions during the entire [Gordon,1971], and the developmentof the climatic and gla-
Cenozoic, although significantchangeshave occurred in the cial regimeof Antarctica, especiallyas this has controlledthe
distributionof biogenicsedimentationassurfacewater masses formation of bottom waters. In the vicinity of Australia and
developed[CraddockandHollister, 1976;Barker et al., 1977b]. New Zealand the distribution of unconformities has been sum-
Unconformities. A further important criterion that has marized and discussedby Kennett et al. [1972], Carter and
been employed in the study of SouthernOcean paleoceano- Landis [1972], Edwards [1973], Hayes and Frakes [1975],
graphyis the temporaland geographicdistributionpatternsof Kennett et al. [1975b], and Davies et al. [1975]. Although
deep-seaunconformities.Whether erosion,nondeposition,or local factorscancomplicatethe recordof unconformitydistri-
sediment accumulation occurs on the sea floor is determined butions,in generalthe history of deep-seaerosionforms co-
by the dynamic balancebetweenthe rate of supply of sedi- herent patterns in Cenozoic sequencesof the Tasmanian-
,

28O 281 282 283

METERS 4176M 1591M 4202M 4729M
0

MID- •

III Za.,•.
OLIGOC
ENE i•i?!!!i!

200 - '

!i::::i::::!::
= CALCAREOUS
OOZE
.ii:i:i:i
• ORCHALK
J!i!::?:i::i
!:!:i::•
TERRIOENOUS
SILT N
ii!:!:i:!:
:::::•::
ANDCLAY
/i:::::::::::!i::i
::: GLAUCONITIC
OR
E
SOD- !:.iiiil.i:• *** DETRITAL
SAND -

ß > v BA
SALT BAS
EMENT •.•

• SCHISTBASEMENT J::'•i•'"t:
600

Fig. 4. Simplifiedstratigraphyfor four DSDP sitesdrillednear Tasmania.Unconformitiesindicated[afterKennettet al.,

1975b].
3848 KENNETT.' PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

Antarctic sector and further north in the Tasman and Coral

Paleoclimaticand PaleoglacialAnalysis
seas.In the more northern sitesthe Paleogenerecord tendsto
be disruptedby numerousunconformities,some of which are •lmostall interpretationsof theglacialhistoryof Antarc-
of regional extent. In contrast, the Neogene sequencesin this tica are basedon analysesof the deep-seasedimentaryrecord.
region are relatively continuousand have been little affected Information from the terrestrial sequencesis usually rather
by deep-seaerosion [Kennett et al., 1972]. In the Southern fragmentary exceptfor thelatestCenozoic, whereadequate
Ocean sectorto the south, however, the situation is generally exposures providea basis forimportant glacial
historicalin-
oppositewith more continuousEoceneto early Oligocene formation [e.g., Mayewski, 1975]. Some terrestrial evidence
sections preserved, while the middle to late Oligocene existsfor early and middle Tertiary glaciations [Craddocket
and younger sedimentshave often been removed by deep- al., 1964; Rutford et al., 1968, 1972; Le Masurier, 1972a, b;
sea erosion.Kennettet al. [1975b] have interpretedthese Drewry, 1975],the evidenceof whichwill not be reviewedhere.
changingdistributionpatternsas reflectinga major changein Le Masurier[1972a]haspresented volcanogenicdatawhichhe
oceanicCirculationduringthe middleOligocene(t = •30 m.y. considersto representevidencefor an icecap on WestAntarc-
ago)asthecircumpolar
currentdeveloped
southof theSouth tica by the latestEoceneor earliestOligocene.
Severalmarine
TaSman Rise. The most strategicallylocated DSDP sites to approachesare summarizedas follows.
recordthis processare sites274, 280, 281, and 282 (Figure 1). Oxygenisotopicevidence. Oxygenisotopicanalysisof bio-
All record continuousdepositionfrom the time of formation genic calciumcarbonatein DSDP sequences has beenvital in
of basementduring the middle to late Eoceneuntil about the the interpretationof the paleoglacialdevelopmentof Antarc-
middle Oligocene,at whichtime the sequences becomehighly tica and of paleotemperatureevolutionin the SouthernOcean.
disrupted by unconformitiesconsideredby Kennett et al. The isotopic signal is a result of two main features:growth
[1975b]to haveformedasa resultof deepcircumpolarcurrent temperatures
and the isotopiccompositionof seawater[Emi-
activity.COntinuous
deposition
fromthelateEocene
to pres- liani, 1954, 1955].An increasein the x80/•60 ratio of foramini-
ent day in site269 far to the westof the Tasmanian-Victoria fera during glacial episodesreflectsboth an increasein the
Land sector(Figure 1) took placebecauseit was sufficiently x80/x60 ratio of seawater and an additional enrichment in the
removedfromthe highlyactivebottomcurrents that have fi•O of the testsdue to a temperaturedecrease.Emiliani ar-
occurred at times south of the South Tasman Rise. gued that about two thirds of the signalwas due to a temper-
Further to the north in the northern Tasman Sea, the Coral ature changeand onethird dueto a changein the •O/•O ratio
Sea, and the Samoan Passage,widespread disconformities of seawater.Subsequently,Shackleton[1967], Shackletonand
within the Paleogene[Edwards, 1973; Johnson,1974] were Oœdyke[1973],and othershavearguedthat the proportionsof
createdby northwardflowingbottom watersgeneratedin the the effectsare reversed,i.e., that about two thirds of the signal
Ross Sea sector of Antarctica. The changingimportance of is due to a changein seawatercomposition.What w9uld the
thesebottom currentsduring the Paleogeneis consideredby oxygenisotopiccomposition of the oceansbe if all of the
Kennettet al. [1972]to haveresultedfrom climatic-glacialexistingcontinental
ice meltedand were mixed"ihtothe
events in Antarctica which affected the production and the oceans?If the continental ice sheetswere eliminated, Craig
intensityof bottom waters.After the circumpolarcurrentde- [1965] estimatedthat the oceanswould becomedepletedin
veloped during the Oligocene,northward flow through the fi•O by 0.52%0.This figure has been used in the published
TasmanSea becamegreatlydiminished,and relativelycontin- temperature
estimates
of SavinandDouglas
[1973].Shacklemon
uous sedimentarysequenceswere depositedthroughout the andKennett[1975b]presentedthe resultsof a modeldeveloped
Neogene (t = 22 m.y. to presentday). by Shackleton [1967] in which the Antarctic ice sheet was
Attempts have also been made to date the inception of estimatedto have b•O of-50%0. Upon complete melting,
circumpolarflow through the Drake Passageby using the seawaterwould become depletedin b•80 by 0.92%o.
distribution of unconformities on the limited number of In interpretingisotopicpaleotemperaturedata of Miocene
DSDP sequences in that region.In B.ellingshausen
Basinsite and youngersamplesit is importantto be able to estimatethe
323, Tucholkeet al. [1976] recorded a possibleimportant changesboth in size and in isotopiccompositionof the polar
hiatus representingthe middle Paleoceneto Oligocene(t = ice capsas a function of time. Shackletonand Kennett [1975a,
•60 to 22 m.y.B.P.). They also suggestedthat this uncon- b] have interpreted SubantarcticCenozoic oxygen isotopic
formity was formed by the developmentof deepwatercircum- data to demonstrate that the Antarctic ice cap began to de-
polar circulationthroughthe Drake Passageby the early Mi- velop rapidly in early middle Miocene and had essentially
ocene. This interpretation, however, may not be correct reachedits presentform by early late Miocenetime (Figure 5).
becausethe site is located far to the west of the Drake Passage Savin et al. [1975] also have interpretedthe rapid isotopic
and the unconformitymay merelyrepresentan intensification changesin the middle Miocene as marking the time of the
of bottom water activity in this region during the Paleogene onsetof rapid accumulationof the Antarctic ice sheetbut did
due to paleoclimaticor other factorsand may in no way be not feel that it waspossibleto resolvesatisfactorilythe magni-
related to the opening of the Drake Passage. tude of the ice effectfrom the temperatureeffect.Nevertheless,
In the Falkland Plateauregionall of the DSDP sites(leg36) it seemshighly probable that the isotopicfluctuations,when
contain disconformitiesrepresentingthe middle and late Eo- they are based on deep-seabenthonic foraminifera younger
cene and the early Miocene. Factors controlling the in- than the middle Miocene, are largelya measureof ice volume
tensificationof bottom currentsforming thesebreaksin sedi- fluctuationsin the polar regions.Thus the oxygen isotopic
mentation are not clearly known, and insufficientdeep-sea record as a measureof estimatingabsolutepaleotemperatures
drilling in the regiondoesnot allow differentiationof bottom dependson whether the materialsare youngeror older than
current effectsdue to circumpolarcurrent activity from those the middle Miocene, older oxygenisotopicanalysesproviding
related to northward flow of bottom waters across the Falk- a directmeasureof paleotemperaturein both deepwater (Fig-
land Plateau region from Antarctic sources,especiallythe ure 5) and surfacewater (Figure 6) environments[Shackleton
Weddell Sea region. and Kennett, 1975a, b; Margolis et al., 1975]. Thus the Sub-
 KENNETT:PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3849

antarctic foraminiferalsequences which have been analyzed
for oxygenisotopicchanges(Figures5 and 6) provide vital
informationon pre-middle MioceneSubantarcticsurfacewa-
ter temperatureoscillationsand bottom water temperatures
and post-middleMioceneice volumefluctuations.
Evidence from ice rafting. The stratigraphicdistributionof
ice-rafted sedimentsis another important parameter for an
understanding of Antarcticglacialdevelopment.The termgla-
ciation is usedin the generalsensehere and is not meant to
imply onlythe initiationor the presenceof icecaps.The glacial
developmentof Antarctica has proceededby various stages
commencingwith the developmentof glaciation at higher
elevations,the expansionof inlandglaciationand thenceto sea
level,the developmentof significantseaice formation, and the
constructionof thick ice capsfollowed by an expansionof ice
shelves.A more elaboratemodel has beendevelopedby Tuch-
olkeet al. [1976].
Eachstepis critical
in thepaieoglacial
evolution, and the history of each needsto be interpretedby
usingdifferent approaches.
The first appearanceof ice-raftedsedimentdebrisin marine
sequences
aroundAntarcticamust havebeen relatedtO the
initiation of extensiveglaciationat sealevel and the produc-
tion of the first icebergs.During the early stagesof such
glaciation the distribution of ice-rafted debris would be re-
stricted to areas close to the continent. Later northward ex-
pansionof ice-rafteddebriswould occurasglaciationbecame

$ •"0,%o w.r.t.P.O.B.

+4.0 +3.5 +3.0 +2..5 +2.0 +1..5 +1.0 +0.5 0 -0..5 -1.0
281
I STOCENE

OCENE
_

MIOCENE

D-MI OCENE

EARLYMI OCENE

277

D-LATE
GOCENE

D-OLI$OCENE

ARLYOLI$OCENE

EOCENE

D-EOCENE

MID-EARLYEOCENE
ß

EARLYEOCENE

PALEOcENE

• 5øc 1oøc 15øc

BottomWaterTeml)erature

Fig. 5. Oxygenisotopicdata (deviationper mil from PDB) and early and middleCenozoicpaleotemperatures
for
benthonicforaminiferaat three SubantarcticDSDP sites(277, 279, and 281) [after Shackletonand Kennett, 1975a].
3850 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

• Is0, %0 w.r.t.P.D.B.

+•5.0 +2.5 +2.0 +1.5 +1.0 +0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0
2BI
. I I [ I I I ]
PLEI5TOCENE

PLI OCENE

LAT MIOCENE
.

- Mi D-MI OCENE

. EAF MIOCENE
ß

ß /

ß
.

ß MII)-LATE
.' OLIGOCENE

i
.
MI
D-OLI
GOCENE
.

- EA! •1 GOCENE
.

' M I D'EOCENE
.-

:
D-EARLYEOCENE

. '.,.....

- '• EAI
EOCENE
.

LAN PALEOCENE
' ! I i i
o*c 5'c 1o*c 15'c

SurfaceWaterTemperature

Fig. 6. Oxygenisotopic
data(deviation
per mil fromPDB) andearlyandmiddleCenozoic palcotemperatures
for
planktonicforaminifera
at threeSubantarctic
DSDPsites(277,279,and281)[afterShackleton
andKennett,
1975a].

more extensive on the continent and as the Southern Oceanusingvariousapproaches whichincludethemegascopic identi-
cooled. The finer scale distribution patterns would be con- fication of exotic pebblesand cobblesand of nonturbidite
trolledby the interreactions
of a numberof factors,suchasthe sands,the grain sizeanalysesof fine-grainedsediments, and
availability of sedimentarymaterials on the continent, the scanningelectronmicroscope examinationof quartzsandsur-
face textures[Margolisand Kennett, 1971; Tucholkeet al.,
thermalstructureof the glaciers,the sizeof the glaciersand ice
shelves and their total seaward flux, near-surface seawater 1976;PiperandBrisco,1975;Margolis,1975;Barrett,1975].
temperatures,and surfacecurrent patterns[Warnke, 1970; One of the major problemsthat remainsconcernsthe in-
Margolis and Kennett, 1971; Hayes and Frakes, 1975]. The itiationof iceraftingin varioussectorsof the SouthernOcean.
intensityof ice rafting cannotbe equatedwith the intensityof This problemlargelyresultsfrom an inadequatenumberof
glaciation. Intense ice rafting will be observedfar north of marinesequences of Paleogeneagein areascloseto the conti-
Antarctica when it is fully glaciatedand closerto Antarctica nent.AnotherproblemwhichHayesandFrakes[1975]clearly
when it is lessglaciated[Weather,1973; Watkinset al., 1974; identifyconcerns the recognitionof the firstoccurrence
of ice-
Tucholkeet al., 1976]. rafted debris at a time when the debris is relatively rare be-
The distribution of ice-rafted debris has been examinedby causeof more limitedglaciation.They have thus suggested
 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3851

that the first occurrence of ice-rafted debris should be taken as

largedifferencesin the planktonicbiota. This observationhas
a minimum age of ice rafting for each site. It seemsthat the been used by severalworkers studyingAntarctic Cenozoic
first unequivocalidentificationof ice-rafteddebrisin Antarctic sedimentarysequences as an index of prior positionsof the
marine sequences is late Oligocenein age(t = -,•25m.y.B.P.) Antarctic Convergence[Kennettet al., 1975a;Hayes and
in near-continentalsectionsin the RossSeasector[Hayesand Frakes, 1975; Tucholkeet al., 1976]. On the other hand, it is
Frakes, 1975]. Reported ice-rafteddebrisof Eoceneage from not knownif this sedimentaryboundaryhasreflectedthe same
the southeastPacific sector[Geitzenaueret al., 1968;Margolis water massboundaryor temperaturechangesduring the Ce-
and Kennett,1971] in piston coreshas not yet beenconfirmed nozoicas it doesat the present-dayAntarcticConvergence.
by deep-oceandrilling [Tucholkeet al., 1976]. On the other For instance,Kempet al. [1975]notethat althoughit is tempt-
hand, little or no deep-drilled material of the same age was ing to equatethe factorswhichhavein thepastdeterminedthe
obtained in the southeast Pacific sector to substantiate these siliceous-calcareousboundarywith the present-dayAntarctic
reports.Although no evidenceof glaciationof Paleogeneage Convergence,the parallel is not exact,sincethe modernoce-
hasbeendiscoveredin the EastAntarcticaregion,it is possible anic boundary separatesdiatomaceousooze from calcareous
that West Antarctica may have been partly glaciatedduring foraminiferalooze,whilethroughoutmuchof theNeogenethe
the Eocene [Geitzenaueret al., 1968; Margolis and Kennett, ancient boundary separateddiatomaceousfrom calcareous
1971;Le Masurier, 1972a, b; Rutford et al., 1968, 1972]. Oxy- nannofossiloozewith lessforaminifera.Nevertheless, a gen-
gen isotopic evidenceat this time indicatesthat no large ice eral association throughoutthe Cenozoicbetweenthe distribu-
accumulationscould have existedeven if glaciation is even- tion of siliceous oozesandice-rafteddebris(Figure8) supports
tually confirmed. the contentionthat the siliceous
oozeshaveapproximated the
All of the results of ice-rafted sediment distributions from positionof surfacewaterswith temperaturecharacteristics like
DSDP legs28, 29, and 35 showprogressivenorthward expan- thoseof the present-day Antarcticwatermass[Tucholkeet al.,
sion of the northern ice-rafted limits (Figures 7 and 8), the 1976].
most extensivedistribution of which occursduring the Qua- Studiesof the temporal distributionof diatomaceoussedi-
ternary. ment(Figure8) haveshownthat thefirstsediments of thistype
Distribution of siliceousand calcareoussediments. In the were depositedclosely adjacent to Antarctica and that the
presentoceanthe Antarctic Convergence(polar front) sharply northern limits of this provincehave expandednorthward
coincideswith the depositionof calcareousbiogenicoozesto duringthe Neogene(Figure8), creatingdiachronous biogenic
the north from siliceousbiogenicoozesto the south, resulting sedimentary facies[Kempet al., 1975;Tucholkeet al., 1976].
from the rapid temperaturechangein surfacewaterscreating Anotherrelatedapproachwhichhasbeenwidelyusedis the

35"

• •SITES
ALONG
100'-110'
LONG.
)
•--•._•__]
•SITES
FROM
ROSS
SEA-VICTORIA
LAND
AREA)

274 COMMON UNCOMMON

•

273 PROVENANCE
CHANGEFOR DETRITUS
?5*

270-271-272
(COMBINEDI I

80'

O. • PLIOcENE
[ LATE
MIOCENE
, I M•DDLE
MIOCENE
I EARL ARt
Y OII,GOCEN[
5 1o • 15 20 25 30 35

MILLIONS OF YEARS

Fig. 7. Age of first appearance

of ice-raftedsediments
as a functionof paleolatitudeof leg28 drill sites[afterHayesand
• Frakes, 1975].
3852 KENNEW:PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

SITE 266 278 267,A,B 322 269 323 268 325 274 324
o

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.:.: .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
.:.•.:.•.:.:.:.•.:.:.:.:<.:.:.•.:.:.•.•.:.•.:.:.•.:.•.:•:.:.:.:•:.:.:•:.:.:.:.:•:.:.:.:•
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,:!½i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:!:!:i:i:i::.',
,
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
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20 • "======================================.
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::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ":::: ß½.:.,.•.:•:•:.:.:.:•:.:•:•:•:.:.:.:.:.:•:.:•:•:.:.:.:•:•:•:<.:.:•.:.:.:.:.•.:.:•:.:.:•:•:. .:.:.:.:...:..:.:......: ..........
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i i ' ..}:.•..•:.•.•.:.•.:.:.•:.:•:•:•:.:.•.•.:•:•:.:•:•.:•:•.:.:.:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:•.::5:.:•:•:.5>•:•:•:i•:::•:•:•.•:•:.•

BOTTOM , , ""::::i:i:!:i:i:!:i:!:i:!:!:i:i:i:i::
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30

..... ============================================
•/LATE ,! >-
_ DIATOMACEOUS
SEDIMENT MAESTRICHTIAN ,__? ß
-i,•

•OCCURRENCEOF EARLIESTICE-RAFTEDDEBRIS
IN DSDP DRILL SITES - LEGS 28, 29, 35
40 i i •
55ø 60ø 65ø 70ø
LATITUDE(øS)

Fig. 8. Temporal and geographicdistribution of diatomaceoussedimentand ice-rafted debrisin SouthernOcean DSDP

sectionsdrilled during legs28, 29, and 35. Note diachronouslatitudinal distribution [after Tucholkeet al., 1976].

determination of siliceousbiogenic sedimentationrates as a that involve paleontologicalstudies of planktonic and ben-

generalmeasureof the productivityof surfacewater massesin thonic microfossils.These are not reviewed here but clearly
the region (assuminglittle dissolutionof opaline silica) and represent worthwhile approachesbecausethe biogeographic
thus the rate of upwelling of nutrient-rich intermediatewaters. developmentof faunas and floras is intimately related to the
Changesin sedimentationrates may reflect either latitudinal evolution of the water massesthemselves.These approaches
movementof highly productive surfacewaters or changesin include the comparisonof biostratigraphicsequencesin the
productivity with time at the samelocation. These two effects different sectors of the Southern Ocean as a measure of the
are difficult to differentiate,although one DSDP site(site 278) relativebiogeographicisolationof theseareasbeforethe devel-
located at the present-day position of the Antarctic Con- opment of the circumpolar current [Foster, 1974; Jenkins,
vergencemay have recordedchangesin biogenicproductivity 1974], the biogeographicdevelopmentof assemblages as the
through the middle and late Cenozoic. This is possibleat this Antarctic and Subantarctic water massesdevelopedin the
location becausethe Antarctic Convergenceis presently di- regionduringthe Oligoceneand Neogeneleadingto the devel-
verted relatively southward and is fixed in position becauseof opment of distinctivepresent-dayfaunasand floras [Kaneps,
topographiccontrol by the Macquarie Ridge, which interferes 1975; Edwards and Perch-Nielsen, 1975; Jenkins, 1975],
with circumpolar flow [Gordon,1971;Kennettet al., 1975a].As changesin diversity of planktonic microfossilassemblages as
the Macquarie Ridge has been a prominent topographic fea- an indicationof surfacewater temperaturechanges,and past
ture throughout the Neogene [Kennett et al., 1975a], the An- interrelationshipsand characteristicsof faunal and floral ele-
tarctic Convergencenear site 278 has probably been in a ments of the region [Edwardsand Perch-Nielsen,1975; Burns,
relatively stable position, thus largely recording productivity 1975; Margolis and Kennett, 1971; Ciesielski, 1975].
changesthrough time. At this site the Oligoceneis represented Another approachthat has providedimportant paleoenvi-
by carbonate oozes.The first siliceousoozesare of early Mio- ronmental information is the studyof the historyof terrestrial
cene age and at theselatitudes probably reflect siliceouspro- floras of Antarctica. This is mostly recorded in pollen se-
ductivity associatedwith the early developmentof the con- quencesin a few marine nearshoreregions.Virtually no sim-
vergence. Moderately low sedimentation rates indicate, ilar recordis preservedor exposedin nonmarinesedimentary
however, that siliceous biogenic productivity was low and sequenceson the land itself. Cranwell et al. [1960] and
upwellingwas sluggish.Alternations of siliceous-richand cal- Mclntyre and Wilson [1966] have shown from marine sections
careous-richbiogenicsedimentsin the middle Miocene almost that a cool temperate forest occurred at least in parts of
certainly record minor latitudinal fluctuationsof the Antarctic Antarcticaduringthe Eocene.KempandBarrett [ 1975]studied
Convergence.A considerable increase in siliceous biogenic the palynologyof site270 in the RossSea,a sequence contain-
productivity that began about the middle to late Plioceneand ing a late Oligocenelow-diversitycool temperateflora domi-
has continued to the present indicates an intensificationof nated by pollengrainsof Nothofagus.This flora seemsto have
upwelling associatedwith the Antarctic Convergence.This is been eliminated from the Ross Sea region by the early Mio-
assumedto be related to higher rates of oceanicturnover in cene,and rare pollen fossilsthat do occur are consideredto be
responseto the late Cenozoic glacial development[Kennettet reworked. Unfortunately, the sedimentarysequenceimmedi-
al., 1975a]. ately below the late Oligoceneis highly condensedand poorly
Biogeographiceuidence. Other criteria have been utilized dated,sothe natureof pre-lateOligocen
e florasis stillpoorly
by numerousworkers to assistin paleoceanographic analysis known except for the fragmentary information presentedby
 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3853

Cranwellet al. [1960] and by Mclntyre and Wilson[1966]. The major avenuesof interoceancirculationduringthe Eo-
Oxygenisotopictemperatureswere muchwarmer during the cenewere in the equatorialand low-latituderegionswith un-
Eocene,.and similar temperateforestswere probably much restricted connections in the Indo-Pacific-north of Australia
more extensive.Additional progressfor understandingof the and the Atlantic-Pacificthrough the Middle American Sea-
Antarcticvegetationduringthe Paleogeneis still limitedby the way. Middle-latitude interocean circulation existed between
availabilityof suitablesequencesand the differentiationof the Indian and Atlantic oceans south of Africa and in the
reworked from nonreworkedpollen occurrences. northern
hemisphere
via theTethianSe9way,
whichwasbe-
SYNOPSIS OF ANTARCTIC CENOZOIC PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC
cominghighly restrictedduring this time [Frakesand Kemp,
AND GLACIAL HISTORY
19731.
The earlyCenozoic(Paleogene)palcotemperaturerecordof
Eocene:t = 55 to 38 m.y. A go the high southernlatitudes(Antarcticfind Subantarctic)is
Palcomagneticevidenceshowsthat the Antarctic continent markedby ratherrapid temperaturedecrease superimposed on
has essentiallybeen in a polar positionsinceat leastthe Late a steady climatic cooling commencingin the early Eocene
Cretaceous[McElhinny, 1973;Lowrie andHayes, 1975].Initial (Shackleton and Kennett [1975a]; Figures 5 and 6). The
glaciation followed by ice cap formation, however, did not Subantarcticwasmarkedby warm surfacewater temperatures
commence until muchlaterin the middleCenozoic[Shackle- whichdecreased from 19øCin the early Eoceneto 11øC by the
ton and Kennett, 1975a, b; Savin et al., 1975], demonstrating late Eocene [Shackletonand Kennett, 1975a]. Bottom waters
that near-polarposition is not sufficientfor glacial develop- wererelativelywarm,reflecting highsurfacetemperatures ad-
ment. Instead,continentalglaciationdevelopedasthe present- jacent to the Antarctic continent. These also decreased
day SouthernOcean circulation systembecameestablished throughthe Eocenesimilarto Subantarcticsurfacewater tem-
when obstructingland massesmoved aside. During the Pa- peratures. Temperatures onat leastpartsof thecon'tinent
were
leocene(t = •65 to 55 m.y. ago), Australia and South Amer- warm enoughduringthe Eoceneto supporta cool temperate
icawerejoined to Antarctica[WeisselandHayes, 1972;Herron vegetation (Nothofagusflora),a conclusion basedon palyno-
and Tucholke,1976]. Insufficientdeep-seasequences of Paleo- logicalevidence [Cranwellet'al., 1960;Mclntyreand Wilson,
ceneagehavebeenobtainedfrom SouthernOceanlatitudesto 1966]. PaleontOlogicalevidencefrom Eocenesequences else-
provide information on the paleoceanographic conditions. where in the world shows that warm humid conditions were
During the early Eocene(t = 53 m.y.B.P.), Australia com- prevalent [WolfeandHopkins,1967;FrakesandKemp,1973].
menced
driftingnorthward
fromAntarctica,
forminganocean Evidencefor glaCiationduringthe Eocene[Geitzenauer
et
between the two continents which has continued to increase in al., 1968;MargolisandKennett,1971;Le Masurier, 1972a,b] is
size[Weissel
andHayes,1972;Edwards,
1975].Thefollowing not conclusive
and remainsto be •onfirmedby furtherdeep-
is a summaryof Antarctic-SouthernOceanpaleoceanographic seadrilling off West Antarctica. High surfacewater temper-
and glacialcharacteristicsduring the Eocene(t = 55 to 38 m.y. aturesindicatedby the oxygenisotopicevidencedo not sup-
ago). port the existenceof ice rafting of sedimentsat that time,
1. Cooltemperate climate andvegetfition of Antarcti ca. especiallyto suchnorthern palcolatitudepositionsof the se-
2. Glaciation restricted;possiblelocal glaciation in West quences described by Margolis andKennett [1971].If glacia-
Antarctica. tion did occurat sealevelat any time within the Eocene,it was
3. Warm surfacewater temperatures;
decreasing
sub- probablyrestrictedto the West Antarctic sector.During ttie
antarctictemperatures(• 19øCin early Eoceneto 11øCin late late Eocene(t = •38 m.y. ago), calcareousbiogenicsediments
Eocene). were depositedadjacent to the continent, and siliceousbio-
4. Bottom waters relatively warm. genicsedimentation
is largelyUnknown
fromthe region
5. Calcareousbiogenic sedimentationadjacent to conti- [Hayes and Frakes, 1975;Kennett et al., 1975b].
nent. The first majorAntarcticclimatic-glacial
threshold
was
6. Aastralia beginsmovingnorthward(•53 m.y. ago). crossedabout 38 m.y. ago near the Eocen½-Oligocene
bound-
7. Shallowbarrier to circumpolarcirculationat South ary. Oxygenisotopicchanges
in deep-sea
benthonic
foramini-
Tasman Rise. ferafromthe Subantarctic
[Shackleton
andKennett,1995a;
8. Late EoCeneshallowwaterconnection
developed
be- KennettandShackleton,
!976] andthe tropicalPacificregion
tween southern Indian and Pacific oceans: South Tasman [Savinet al., 1975]indicatethai bottom.temperatures
de-
Rise. creased
rapidlyby apPrOximately 5øC(Figure9) to approxi-
The deepbasin forming to the southwestof the SouthTas- mate present-daylevelsat the respectivewater depthsfor each
manRiseduring
theEocene
asa result
ofsP•reading
receiveddrilledsequence.
Thistetnperature
reduction
wascalculated
by
fine-grainedpoorlysorteddetritalsediments with little bio- Kennett and Shackleton[1976] to have occurredwithin 10•
genic material and high organiccarbon contentreflecting years, which is remarkably abrupt for preglacial Tertiary
highlyrestricteddeepwatercirculationand a lackof anydeep times,andisconsidered •o representthetimewhenlarge-scale
circumpolar current flow [Andrewset al., 1975; Hampton, freezingconditionsdeveloped'.atsea level aroUridAntarctica,
1975].Circumpolarcurrentflowwasblocked by continentalforming the first signifii:antsea ice. It is inferred that at this
massesassociatedwith the present-daySouth Tasman Rise time,Antarctic bottomwaterbeganto be prodriCed, that
andtheDrakePassage, whichcontinued throughout theEoc- bottomwaiertemperatures fell to approximate present-day
ene, althoughrather shallow water marine connectionsof values,formingthePsychrosPhere [Benson, 1975a],andthat
outerneritic-uppermostbathyalwaterdepths (about100-300 thermohaline circulation deEeloped muchlikethatin thepres-
m) formedoverthe SouthTasmanRiseduringthelateEocene ent ocean. Savin et al. [1975] believethat bottom water tem-
(t = -,-40m.y. ago;Kennettet al. [1975a]).This shallowwater peratures continued to drop later in the Cenozoic, but
marine connectionprobablyproducedthe first directcommu- Shackleton
andKennett[1975a,b] believeanysuchtemper-
nicationsbetweenshallowwater and planktonicmarine organ- ature changecannot be easily differentiatedfrom ice volume
isms of the southern Indian and Pacific oceans. related oxygenisotopicchanges.
3854 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

Temperature(C) Eoceneforms to thinner, more highly ornamentedOligocene

5 6 7 8 9 0
and youngerforms.Benson[1977]considers that the younger
formsdevelopedthinner walls to conservecalciumcarbonate
but addedornamentationto compensate for resultinglossof
shell strength.
Decreasein surfacewater temperaturein the Antarctic also
createdmajor chdngesin the high-latitudeplanktonicfora-
miniferal faunas, which at the beginningof the Oligocene
assumedcharacteristicstypical of the present-dayassemblage
which includesvery low diversity and relatively simple mor-
_

20 Earliest phology [Kaneps,1975].

Oligocene:t = 38 to 22 m.y. Ago

Oil
-

20 -
The conspicuousclimatic coolingnear the beginningof the
Oligocene [Devereux, 1967; Edwards, 1968; Jenkins, 1968;
Shackletonand Kennett, 1975b] producedwidespreadglacial
conditionsthroughoutAntarctica.The followingis a summary
of Antarctic-Southern Ocean paleoceanographicand glacial
characteristics
duringtheearlyto middleOligocene
(t = •38
to 30 m.y. ago).
:3022 Latest
Eocene 1. Large oceanicregionbetweenAntarcticaand Australia.
2. No circum-Antarctic current, but shallow water Tasma-
+ 1.75 + 1,5 "- 1.25 "1.0 "- 0.75 + 0.50
nian connection.

Deviation in 'sO concentration from PDB (",,,,) 3. ProlongedAntarctic glaciation but no ice caps;sea ice
production.
Fig. 9. Paleotemperature curveand oxygenisotopedata for ben-
thonic foraminifera in latest Eocene-earliestOligocenesedimentsof 4. Antarctic bottom water production;extensivedeep-sea
DSDP site 277 (Subantarctic). Bottom temperaturevalueswere calcu- erosion throughout ocean basins.
lated by usingthe procedureof Shackletonand Kennett[1975a].The 5. Cold Antarctic surface waters; Subantarctic surface
duration of the temperaturedrop of 4øC within core 20 is calculated temperaturesof •7øC; cool global climates.
from sedimentationrates at betweenonly 75,000 and 100,000 years.
6. Calcareousbiogenic sedimentsextend closeto Antarc-
Thicknessis plottedfrom top of core 19, whichis 168.5m belowthe
ocean floor [after Kennettand Shackleton,1976]. tica; restrictedsiliceousbiogenic sedimentation.
The extent of this glaciation is not known, but the oxygen
isotopicevidenceindicatesthat no ice capshad yet developed
The drastic changein climate near the Eocene-Oligocene on Antarctica [Shackletonand Kennett, 1975a, b; Savin et al.,
boundaryincreasedbottomwateractivitythroughoutmuchof 1975]. Subantarcticsurfacewater temperatureshad fallen to
the deepoceanbasins,particularlyin westernsectors.This is about 7øC by the early Oligocene,a value whichis similar to
based on the widespread occurrence of deep-sea uncon-
formities centerednear the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (Fig-
lOO
ure 10; Rona [1973], Kennettet al [1972], Moore et al. [1977],
and Moore and Heath [1977]). In terms of deep-seaerosion
this event is one of the most dramatic for the entire Cenozoic.
Also coincidingwith this eventwasa major and apparently ß 80
rapid deepening(about 2000 m) of the calcium carbonate
compensation depth(CCD) (Figure 11), whichcreateda sharp .01 ,
contrastbetweencarbonate-poorlate Eoceneand carbonate-
rich early Oligocenedeep-seasediments[Van Andel et al., • 60,
1975;Bergerand Winterer,1974].This conspicuous changein ß

.o
the CCD has beeninterpretedby Van Andel et al. as resulting
from a major changein the natureof bottomwatersaffecting
concentrationsof CO2 as proposedby Berger [1970, 1973]. -o 40

Highly oxygenated'young'bottomwatersarenot ascorrosive E

to the tests of foraminifera and coccoliths as 'old' bottom
waters that are rich in CO2. Bottom waters during the Eocene o
are considered to have been richer in CO• because of lower .,_,20

productionof oxygen-richpolar waters,but the development L

of seaicein the Oligocenecreateda higherturnoverof oxygen-

rich Antarctic bottom waters in the deepoceanicbasins.As a
result the CCD deepened. 0 • •l'•l•l,•l ,o.l,ol,•l•l,•l,•,l,•,
The very sharpdrop in bottomwatertemperatures nearthe 0 ' lb' 2b' 3'0'4'0'5'0' 6'0
AGE (rn.y.B.P.)
Eoaene-Oligocene boundaryalso produceda major crisisin
deep-seabenthonicfaunas[Benson,1975,1977;Douglas,1974] Fig. 10. Percentageof sampledDSDP sections
containing
hiatuses
(legs1-32). Data from Moore eta/. [1977]havebccncorrectedfor
affectingboth ostracodsand benthonicforaminifera.Deep-sea overrepresentationof areaswhich havebccndenselysampled.Note
ostracod faunas at this time show the most important changes increasein hiatus distributionin late Eoceneto carly Oligoccnc[after
for the Cenozoic.Thesechangedfrom heavy,lessornamented Moore and Heath, 1977].
 KENNETT:PALEOCEANOGRAPHY 3855

oiP• MIOCENE I OLIGOCENE I EOCENE 1. Development of relatively unrestrictedcircum-Antarc-

I / L I ,4 1 E i L I E I L I tic current.
2. Majorreorganization
of deep-sea
sedimentation
pat-
terns in southwest Pacific and Southern Ocean.
CCDpoc 3. Ice rafting adjacent to Antarctica.
q
4. Siliceous biogenic sedimentary belt narrow but ex-
panding.
5. Diatom depositionincreasesin southwestAtlantic sec-
tor. ß

6. Cooltemperate
vegetation
disappearing.
i
It is alsopossiblethat at this time the Drake Passageregion
beganto open [Barker, 1977; Craddockand Hollister, 1976].
Thus the circumpolarcurrent becameestablished[Kennettet
al., i975b], and a major reorganizationresultedin southeast
Pacificand SouthernOcean sedimentpatterns.This was mani-
I festedby the development
of lateOligocene
throughNeogene
I
I disconformitiesin deep basins south of Tasmania and an
I
I almostreciprocalchangeto essentiallyuninterruptedNeogene
/
sedimentationin northern Tasman Sea and Coral Sea regions
/
[Kennettet al., 1972, 1975b].The latter resultedfrom a reduc-
tion in northwardflow of bottomwatersthroughthe Tas-
5- man-Coral Sea regionsas the western boundary current be-
camestronglyestablished
to the eastof New Zealand(Figure
13). Sediment distribution patterns indicate that no sub-
i

sequent so
major changeshave occurredin the patternsof deep-
AGE BEFORE PRESENT (m.y.)
sea circulation sincethe late Oligocene,although conspicuous
Fig. 11. Variation of calciumdarbonatecompensation depth fluctuationsin intensityhave occurredin bottom water activ-
(CCD) duringtheCenozoic for equatorial
zonebetweenlatitudes
3øN ity.
and3øS(CCDeq)andfor thePacificnbrthof latitude4øN andsouth
of latitude4øS(CCDpac)from VarlAndelet al. [1975]andcomparison During the middle to late Oligocenethe siliceousbiogenic
with CCD curvesof Heath [1969] and Berger[1973]. Note major belt was narrow but expanding[HayesandFrakes, 1975],and
plungeof all CCD curvesnearEocene-Oiigocene boundary[fromVan diatomaceous sedimentation commenced in the southwest At-
Andel et al., 1975]. lantic sectorof the Southern Ocean [Barker et al., 1977a, b].
Cool temperatevegetationpersistedin the Ross Sea region

present-day
values.Antarcticsurfacewatertemperatures
are
also inferred to have reached values close to those of the
presentday [Shackletonand Kennett,1975b].A diversityof
paleontological
evidencethroughoutthe worldindicatesrela-
tivelycoolglobalclimates[Hornibrook,1971;Edwards,1968;
WolfeandHopkins,1967;FrakesandKemp,1973].Ice-rafted
sediments becameconspicuousat thistime closeto the Antarc- J :,
tic continent[Hayesand Frakes, 1975]. Calcareousbiogenic •c ''/' ---' '• : •: " I
sedimentscontinuedto be depositedcloseto the continent, ..:?-•••••.:.•::..'.:4•0:•
).. ..+..:...... :t•:
• •
while siliceousbiogenicsediments,althoughexpandingin im- ....:.;.:/"••••••••;.•::.•::.:-..
?:.:"• .:•:.:.
•':•'-[ •o8, •
-.-:::'.
......'..:'.'...L::•-:]].•
:...::f".::.:
'-.::"-': .' i .... ß .. -
por[ance,remainedhighlyrestrictedandinconspicuous in dis- ....
..:. ...: '"-::-.:..'.:.•::.:•:...:.:.;:--':':•
. ;:::'
tribution [Hayesand Frakes, 1975;Tucholkeet al., 1976]. < :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
"ß '
.....
•'::•[
27:
••?•?•:•??:•:?:
?.:-.••.:. •:::-.:-• .....
.-:/• + -:...
As a result of cool polar climates,vigorousbottom water
circulationwasparticularlypronounced
throughmuchof the .•:::-
::':
..:.::::F
ß-'-" • e"'J.'.•.'
• • ....ß...:.:"
'
early Oligocene,causingextensivedeep-seaerosion.Widely
distributed unconformities in the Tasman and Coral seas re-
sulted from the northward movementof actively eroding bot- x .....
-;:::"
'•" •-----.:'::•:.•::.
•::'::".:.::....-::
.'::
tom watersderivedfrom Antarctica(Figure 12; Kennettet al.
[1972, 1975b]).
By the middleto late Oligocene(t = •30 to 25 m.y. ago) a
substantial ocean had formed between Antarctica and Austra-
lia, whileequatorialcirculationnorthof Australiahadbecome
rather restricted.At this time, major changesoccurred in
EARLY OLIGOCENE
oceaniccirculationin the southernhemisphereas deepcircum-
Antarctic flow developedsouth of the South Tasman Rise, Fig. 12. EarlyOligocene
(37 m.y.B.P.) reconstruction
of Austra-
which by this time had sufficientlyclearedVictoria Land, !ia, Antarctica,and New Zealandand associated
ridges[after Weissel
andHayes,1972]withsuggested
directionof bottomwatercirculation
Antarctica(Figure 13). The followingis a summaryof Antarc- (arrows) northward from Antarctic sourcesthrough the Tas-
tic-SouthernOceanpaleoceanographic and glacialcharacter- man-Coral Sea area and west of Australia. No circum-Antarctic cur-
isticsduringthe middleto late Oligocene(t = '-•30to 22 m.y. renthaddevelopedby thistime,butcurrentsflowedacrosstheshallow
ago). South Tasman Rise [after Kennettet al., 1975b].
3856 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY
Fig. 13. Late Oligocene(30 m.y.B.P.) reconstructionsof Austra-
lia, Antarctica, and New Zealand and associatedridges[after Weissel
and Hayes, 1972] showing the direction of the circum-Antarctic cur-
rent south of Australia and New Zealand and a westernboundary
current east of New Zealand. This direction has been retained until the
present [after Kennett eta!., 1975b].
until the end of the Oligocene, at which time it disappeared
[Kempand Barrett, 1975]. Drewry [ 1975] suggests,partly from
geomorphologicalcriteria, that extensiveice fields and local
ice caps had developedby the late Oligocene.
Early Miocene: t = 22 to 14 m.y. A go
Bytheearlypartof theNeogene
•hebasicpatterns
of water Antarctica.
OxygenisotopicdatafromtheSubantarctic
mass distributions in the Southern Ocean had become estab-
lished.During theNeogene,however,the relativeimportance temperaturesincreasedby about 3øC to levelssimilar to those
of the various water massesand the intensityof oceanicproc-
essesdid changesubstantially,therebyaffectingsedimentdis-
tribution. One of the more conspicuouschangesis related to
siliceousand calcareousbiogenicsedimentdistributionsasthe
former continued to expand at the expenseof the latter, and
sedimentationrates showed related increases[Kemp et al.,
1975;Hayes and Frakes, 1975;Kennettet al., 1975b;Craddock
and Hollister, 1976]. The early Miocene also marks the estab-
lishment of a permanent steep temperature gradient between
the polar and tropical regionsrelated to the developmentof
polar to tropical surfacewater massbelts.Thesehave largely
retained their identity during the middle and late Cenozoic
glacial changesbut have oscillatedlatitudinally. The following
is a summaryof Antarctic-SouthernOceanpaleoceanographic
and glacial characteristicsduring the early and middle Mio-
cene (t = 22 to 10 m.y. ago).
Early Miocene
1. Increased Subantarctic surface water temperatures to
10øC; global warming.
2. Increase in Antarctic surface water temperatures and
slight warming of Antarctic bottom waters.
3. Permanent steep temperature gradient establishedbe-
tween polar and tropical regions.
4. Major permanent reorganization of global planktonic
biogeographicprovinces.
5. Expandinginfluenceof siliceousbiogenicsedimentbelt
6. SharpdifferencebetweenAntarcticsiliceous
and Sub-
antarctic calcareousbiogenic sedimentation..
7. Clear differences between Antarctic and Subantarctic
microfossilassemblages.
Middle Miocene
1. Developmentof major ice cap on East Antarctica.
2. Northward extension of ice-rafted sediments to south-
ern Subantarctic latitudes.
3. Late middle Miocene; drop in surface water temper-
atures.
This global change is also reflectedby a parallel develop-
ment of latitudinal biogeographicalprovinciality in oceanic
planktonic assemblages,which have also maintained their dis-
tinctivecharacteristicsthroughoutthe Neogene[Kennettet al.,
1972]. Of particular importance is the establishmentby the
early Miocene of sharp differencesbetween Antarctic and
Subantarctic microfossil assemblages[Burns, 1975; Edwards
and Perch-Nielsen,
1975]and a relatedsharpbreakbetween
Antarctic siliceousand Subantarcticcalcareousbiogenicsedi-
mentation.This boundaryis stronglydiachronousthroughthe
Neogene as the siliceousbiogenic province expanded north-
ward [Kempet al., 1975; Tucholkeet al., 1976]. Biogenicsedi-
mentationrates,as monitoredat site278 on the present-day
Antarctic Convergence,show major changesduring the Neo-
gene [Kennettet al., 1975a]. In the early Miocene, low sedi-
mentation rates suggestthat upwelling remained sluggishin
northern Antarctic waters. Alternations of siliceous and car-
bonate-richbiogenicsediments
in the middleMiocenerecord
minor fluctuationsin the positionof the Ahtarctic Con-
vergence.
Ice-rafted sediments are recorded for the first time in DSDP
sequences
from the southeastPacificsectorcloselyadjacentto
clearly
record that in the early Miocene, Subantarcticsurfacewater
of the late Eocene.Bottom water temperaturesalso increased
by about 2øC during the early Miocene, reflectingan increase
in surfacewater temperaturesadjacentto the Antarctic conti-
nent[Shackleton
andKennett,1975a,b]. A relateddecrease
in
the flow of Antarctic bottom water in equatorial Pacific se-
quencesis inferred by Van Andel et al. [1975] on the basisof
fewer hiatuses,a shoalingof the CCD, decreasingwidth of the
equatorial carbonate-richzone, and other featuresresulting
from CO•. buildup and increasedcarbonatedissolution.The
temperature increase recorded in early Miocene Southern
Ocean sequences is also reportedin other regionsof the world
on the basis of a variety of paleontologicalevidence[Horn-
ibrook, 1971].
Middle Miocene: t = 14 to 10 m.y. Ago
The next major global climatic threshold was reachednear
the beginningof the middle Miocene(t = • i4 m.y..ago), at
which time the East Antarctic ice cap developed(Figure 5;
Shackletonand Kennett [1975a, b] and Savin et al. [1975]). The
oxygen isotopic evidenceindicates that previous to this, no
significantice volumeshad accumulatedon the Antarctic con-
tinent. The causeof this event remainsunexplained,and it is
unknown why ice cap developmentwas delayedan additional
10-15 m.y. from the time of oceanicisolation of the continent
 KENNETT:
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY
and the developmentof the circumpolarcurrent. Savin et al.
[1975] have speculatedthat the ice buildup resultedfrom the
initiation of circumpolarflow through the Drake Passagere-
gion in the middle Miocene,but the latestevidencesuggests an
earlier development.It may not be a coincidencethat develop-
ment of the ice cap occurred at a time of warmer global
climates,becauseincreasedprecipitationon the Antarctic con-
tinent may have resultedfrom slightly warmer Antarctic sur-
face waters. The buildup of the ice cap was essentiallycom-
plete by the late middle Miocene to early late Miocene
(t = '-•10 to 12 m.y. ago; Shackletonand Kennett [1975a, b]).
The developmentof the' ice cap led to further northward
expansionof the siliceousbiogenicsedimentbelt and of ice-
rafted debris [Tucholke et al., 1976]. The first reported ice-
rafted debris in site 278 on the Antarctic Convergencein the
Ross Sea sectorand the Bellingshausen Basin occurredin the
middle Miocene [Margolis, 1975; Tucholkeet al., 1976; Crad-
dock and Hollister, 1976]. By this time the lysoclinein equa-
torial Pacific regionsbecameestablishedclose to its present
position, probably in responseto full Antarctic glacialdevel-
opment [Van Andel et al., 1975]. By the end of the middle
Miocene the paleontologicaland oxygen isotopic evidence
indicatesthat polar surfacewater temperaturesbegan to de-
creaseagain [Edwardsand Perch-Nielsen,1975; Burns, 1975;
Shackletonand Kennett, 1975a, b].
Late Miocene.'t = 10 to 5 m.y. A go
Since the middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has
remained a semipermanentto permanent feature exhibiting
some changesin volume. Global climates Were cool during
much of the late Miocene [Ingle, 1967;Kennett, 1967; Wolfe
and Hopkins, 1967], and ice rafting and the siliceousbiogenic
sediment belt continued northward expansions [Hayes and
Frakes, 1975; Tucholkeet al., 1976]. Ice-rafted debrisbecame
conspicuousfor the first time in the Falkland Plateau region
[Barker et al.; 1977a, b]. Toward the end of the Miocene and
during the earliest Pliocene a distinct and rapid northward
movement (300 km) occurred in the siliceousbiogenic sedi-
ment belt in both the southeast Pacific and Indian Ocean
regions[Kempet al., 1975;Tucholkeet al., 1976].This eventis
equated with a rapid northward movementof the Antarctic
Convergenceand Antarctic surfacewater mass [Kemp et al.,
1975] and is consideredto be relatedto a major expansionof
the Antarctic ice cap at this time [Shackletonand Kennett,
1975b], a northward extensionof the Ross Ice Shelf much
beyond present-daylimits [Hayes and Frakes, 1975], and a
possibleincreasein volume of groundedice about 1.8 timesthe
presentvolume (Queen Maud glaciation:t = >4.2 m.y. ago;
Mayewski [1975]). This is basedon terrestrial geomorpholo-
gical and sedimentologicalevidence.Rates of siliceousbio-
genic sedimentationalso increasedin Antarctic waters.
Outside of the Antarctic regionthis eventis consideredto be
related to a major late Miocene climatic cooling recordedin
various regions[Kennett,1967;Ingle, 1967, 1973;Bandy, 1967;
Casey, 1972;Kennettand Vella, 1975;Barron, 1973],although
this has been contestedby Beu [1974] on the basis of New
Zealand molluscanfossils.Furthermore, a distinct regression
of the sea as recordedin shallowersequencesof this age is
probably the resultof relatedglacial-eustaticsealevellowering
[Kennett, 1967; Shackletonand Kennett, 1975b; Berggrenand
Haq, 1976;Ryan et al., 1974;Van Couveringet al., 1976].It has
also been suggestedthat the latest Miocene (Messinian Stage)
isolation of the Mediterranean Basin and resultingevaporitic
sedimentationmay have partly resultedfrom this glacial-eu-
3857
static lowering. The following is a summary of Antarc-
tic-Southern Ocean paleoceanographic and glacial character-
isticsduring the late Miocene (t = •5 m.y. ago).
1. Global cooling.
2. Increasesin ice rafting and siliceousbiogenicsedimen-
tation rates.
3. Latest Miocene-earliest Pliocene:developmentof An-
tarctic ice sheetthicker than present.
4. Conspicuousglobal sea level regression.
5. Pronouncednorthward shift (300.km) of the Antarctic
Convergence.
6. Extensionof Ross Ice Shelf much beyond presentday.
7. Mediterranean Basin isolated.
An early Pliocene ice retreat [Shackleton and Kennett,
1975b;Berggrenand Haq, 1976]resultedin subsequentmarine
transgression.Geological evidenceon the Antarctic continent
also indicatesa conspicuousdecreasein the volume of Antarc-
tic ice following the Queen Maud glaciation (t = >4.2 m.y.
ago; Mayewski [1975]).
Plioceneand Quaternary
Although evidenceexists for late Miocene cooling in the
northernhemisphere[Ingle, 1967; Wolfeand Hopkins, 1967],
no evidenceexists for ice sheet developmentuntil the late
Pliocene, about 2.5-3 m.y. ago [Shackletonand Kennett,
1975b;Berggren,1972a, b], when a further global climatic
thresholdwaspassed.Sincethen, major oscillationshavecon-
tinued in northernhemisphereice sheetsforming the classical
Quaternary glacial and interglacialepisodes[Emiliani, 1954;
Shackletonand Opdyke, 1973]. In the SouthernOcean, further
increasesoccur in siliceous biogenic sedimentation rates,
which apparentlyreacheda maximum during the late Qua-
ternary [Kennettet al., 1975b;Tucholkeet al., 1976;Craddock
and Hollister, 1976] and are assumedto be the result of in-
creasedbiologicalproductivityreflectinghigher rates of up-
wellingand oceanicturnover.The followingis a summaryof
Antarctic-Southern Ocean paleoceanographicand glacial
characteristics
duringthe Plioceneand Quaternary(t = 5 m.y.
ago to presentday).
1. Further increasesin siliceousbiogenic sedimentation
rates;possiblyreachesmaximum in late Quaternary.
2. Northward extension of ice-rafted sediment limits.
3. Antarctic ice sheet retreats from late MiOcene-earliest
Pliocene maximum.
4. Late Pliocene(•2.5-3 m.y.)--northern hemisphereice
sheetdevelopmentand subsequentoscillations.
5. WidespreadSouthernOcean deep-seaerosion.
Continuedcoolingis indicatedby the first recognizedmajor
glaciations in southernmost South America in the middle
Plioceneabout 3.5 m.y. ago [Mercer, 1976]. Further north-
ward increasesin ice-rafted limits also occur, so that these
reach a maximum for the entire Cenozoic [Margolis, 1975;
Hayes and Frakes, 1975]. In the Southern Ocean the Qua-
ternary marks an apparent peak in activity of oceanic circUla-
tion as reflectedby widespreaddeep-seaerosion. This is as-
sumed to reflect major developmentof Antarctic bottom
water, intensification
of circumpolar
flow, and increased
globalwatermassturnoverdueto steeplatitudinaltemper-
ature gradients in both hemispheres[Watkins and Kennett,
1972;Kennett and Watkins, 1975].
It is not yet known why northern hemisphereice sheet
formation should take place so much later (• 10 m.y.) than
that on Antarctica, but the explanationis probably relatedto
late Cenozoicneotectonism[Hamilton, 1965;Kennettand Thu-
3858 KENNETT: PALEOCEANOGRAPHY

nell, 1975; Vogt, 1972;Adamset al., 1976]and further changes Acknowledgments. I thank T. H. Van Andel for his encour-
in oceaniccirculationpatternssuchasthoseresultingfrom the agementto write this review.This researchwas supportedby grant
OPP75-15511 (Office of Polar Programs) of the National Science
closure of the Middle American Seaway [Hamilton, 1965; Foundation.
Woodring,1966; Crowell and Frakes, 1970; Keigwin, 1976].
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