Aesthetic Value

Aesthetic value is the value that an object, event or state of affairs (most
paradigmatically an art work or the natural environment) possesses in virtue of its
capacity to elicit pleasure (positive value) or displeasure (negative value) when
appreciated or experienced aesthetically.Everything that is valuable is valuable in a
variety of ways. Art objects often have sentimental value, historical value or financial
value. Wilderness can have economic value as well as recreational value. But great art
works are thought to possess a distinctive sort of non-instrumental and non-utilitarian
value that is of central concern when they are evaluated as art works. It might be
thought that this value is beauty, but many artworks are not beautiful. So it is more
plausible that beauty is a particular species of the value in question. The aesthetic
value that a work of art possesses (and most would extend this to the natural
environment) has to do with the sort of experience it provides when engaged with
appropriately. If it provides pleasure in virtue of our experience of its beauty,
elegance, gracefulness, harmony, proportion, unity, etc., we say that it has positive
aesthetic value. If it provides displeasure in virtue of ugliness, deformity or
disgustingness we may say that it has negative aesthetic value. One important thing to
note is that the pleasure or displeasure underwriting aesthetic value is best thought of
as directed at the object in question rather than being merely caused by it (Stecker,
1997).

The term 'aesthetic' (which is derived from the Greek word 'aesthesis', meaning
sensory perception) only gained philosophical currency in the eighteenth-century after
British Enlightenment theorists, such as Shaftesbury (1711), Hutcheson (1725), and
Hume (1757) had developed influential theories of the sense of beauty and the faculty
of taste - capacities that allegedly enable us to make judgements of beauty or ugliness.
Baumgarten's (1750) introduction of the term 'aesthetics' emphasised the sensory,
rather than intellectual, nature of such judgements. This then evolved into Kant's
(1790) conception of aesthetic judgements as non-conceptual and rooted entirely in
pleasure or displeasure. Kant distinguishes a sub-category of aesthetic judgments (viz.,
judgments of the beautiful) that he characterizes as disinterested, i.e., independent of
any interest in the existence or practical value of the object. This Kantian conception
of a disinterested judgment rooted in hedonic experience is the foundation of many
contemporary theories of aesthetic value.
Moral Value
Moral values help shape the character and personality of individuals. Children are
taught about it through moral stories.
Moral values such as integrity, determination, loyalty, truthfulness, honesty, giving
respect to each other etc should be inherited by every individual. As stated earlier
moral values help us distinguish between what’s right and wrong, good or bad for you
as well as society. So, as a result, your decision making power improves naturally.
Respecting each other no matter what age of the person standing in front of you helps
you gain good relations at every walks of life, be it family, workplace, or society. It
also helps in finding the true purpose of your life.
Now if moral values are so fruitful to humans then why is it that there are too many
people who don’t follow such a morally right life. Why are there crimes happening in
this world? Or disbelief towards each other among citizens on this earth?
This world is a tempting place, offering quick fixes to problems we face, which
eventually brings us back to the main problem. Following moral values in life takes a
lot of patience and sacrifice but it surely helps one to analyze the problem or difficulty
one faces in life and find the solution The trick about moral values is that the results
of following such a disciplined or determined lifestyle are not at all observable in
day-to-day life. But only at the difficult times when people trust you, and keep faith in
you, do you realize that your way of living is what made them trust you today. These
values will surely help you, but only in the long run, or you can see the actual results
in the long run.
So to sum it up. A person who is determined to follow a meaningful life patiently
follows moral values in his life without the fear of getting judged and hence stands
out in the crowd.
To find out more on this topic I recommend you to read the following article, which
explains it deeply.
Cultural Value

A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just.
Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory
focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism
focuses on the shared values within a culture. For example, American
sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American
society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an
equal opportunity to attain these values. Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted
that Americans share the common value of the “American work ethic,” which
encourages hard work. Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American
values, including accomplishment, material success, problem‐solving, reliance on
science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice,
individualism, responsibility, and accountability. A culture, though, may harbor
conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the
value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism.
Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between people's actions and
their professed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish
between what people do and what they say.Real culture refers to the values and
norms that a society actually follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and
norms that a society professes to believe.
Scientific Value

Throughout history there has been an intense interconnection between science

and philosophy on the one hand and morale and ethics on the other. This
interconnection is cognate with the interdependence of the ancient Greek concepts
episteme - scientific knowledge - and phronesis - its prudent use and wise application.
It is, therefore, proper for a conference on the universality of moral and ethical values
to provide scope for the universality of scientific values. And as President of the
European Federation of National Academies of Sciences and Humanities I feel
honoured to have been invited to address this issue. As mentioned, the distinction
between universalism and culturalism can be traced to Greek philosophy, and was an
important issue in the Athenian philosophical debate. Plato defended the viewpoint
that morals are based on the knowledge of universal ideas, and therefore have a
universal character. Aristotle argued that ethical rules should always be seen in the
light of the traditions and accepted opinions of the community. In the course of
history both points of view have been supported. A few centuries ago, under the
influence of Kant and Locke, the universal view was prevalent. In later thinking,
following the philosophy of, for instance, Hegel and Herder, the cultural view became
more popular. Herder rejected the Enlightenment idea of a universal civilisation all
together, and thought that each culture was in some way unique. This tendency
towards the universal view has become even stronger under the influence of the
current large-scale migration that is occurring both within Europe and into Europe,
mainly from developing countries in Africa and Asia. Consequently, modern societies,
more than ever before, have a multicultural character, which may generate conflicts
and antagonisms, but which can also lead to a demand for cultural tolerance and an
appreciation of diversity. Whatever the case may be, it confronts us with the
controversy of the universality versus the culturalspecificity of norms and values.
There are two distinct aspects with respect to the universality of scientific values. The
first refers to the scientific norms as such, and deals with one of * Pieter J.D. Drenth
is President of ALLEA | All European Academies. 1 Presented at the International
Symposium on Universal Values, organised by the Academy of Athens, May 26-28,
2004. 238 the basic issues in the 'science of science', namely the question whether we
can presuppose the universality of analytical and conceptual laws in science, or
whether the methodological and epistemological framework of science is
culture-bound and therefore not universal. The second aspect concerns the interaction
between science and ethical values. The question may be raised whether science is
autonomous and value-free, or whether it is subject to normative constraints and
limits, and therefore not value-free. If the former is correct, the issue of the
universality or culture-boundness of ethical norms is not relevant. If, however, the
latter view would be adhered to, the question may be raised whether such ethical
norms and constraints are universal and generally valid, or culturally determined and
differing across cultures. Both questions will be addressed briefly in the following
exposé.
Commercial Value

Expected commercial value (ECV) is a term used to describe when a company seeks
to maximize the value of commercial appeal and worth of the portfolio, while
working within certain budget constraints. The report shows the portfolio priority with
its items and their values for the predicted commercial value and the net present value;
this is compared to planned and specific cost(s). The numbers are collected on bucket
levels.
ECV is a very prospected weighted value for a project with unclear conclusions,
similar to likely net existing value (ENPV). As with ENPV, developments are defined
to represent different project outcomes, with each scenario being assigned a
possibility. A project value is computed for each scenario. The expected commercial
value is obtained by multiplying each situation's value by the scenario odds and
adding the results. Estimated commercial value is another term for ECV.
Depending on the procedures used to estimate the value of the project under each
scenario (and on the techniques used to estimate the probabilities of the scenarios),
ECV can be a useful way to address project uncertainties. However, as indicated
below, the technique often involves explanations that may or may not be appropriate.
Typically, ECV represents a simplified version of ENPV often necessary for projects
that produce new products. The project is broken down into stages which are
represented in a decision tree.
In reality, technical and commercial successes are not definite outcomes. There are
changeable degrees of technical success and, assuming the product is launched,
commercial sales could be anywhere within a variety of possibilities. Still, depending
on the assertion, the simple formula may provide a satisfactory calculation. More
generally, because ECV is a simplified version of ENPV, it has the limitations of the
more general approach (including omission of non-financial sources of project value
and potential for insufficient treatment of risk.
Pragmatic Value

Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an

ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a
proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that
unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism originated in the United States during
the latter quarter of the nineteenth century. Although it has significantly influenced
non-philosophers—notably in the fields of law, education, politics, sociology,
psychology, and literary criticism—this article deals with it only as a movement
within philosophy.
The term “pragmatism” was first used in print to designate a philosophical outlook
about a century ago when William James (1842-1910) pressed the word into service
during an 1898 address entitled “Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results,”
delivered at the University of California (Berkeley). James scrupulously swore,
however, that the term had been coined almost three decades earlier by his compatriot
and friend C. S. Peirce (1839-1914). (Peirce, eager to distinguish his doctrines from
the views promulgated by James, later relabeled his own position “pragmaticism”—a
name, he said, “ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers.”) The third major figure in
the classical pragmatist pantheon is John Dewey (1859-1952), whose wide-ranging
writings had considerable impact on American intellectual life for a half-century.
After Dewey, however, pragmatism lost much of its momentum.
Personal Value

Personal values are the general expression of what is most important for you. A value
expresses the worth of something, and in this case what you categorical like and dislike.
So they are like categories for all your preferences in life. Values are formed starting in
early childhood and are later consciously re-evaluated and can therefore be changed.

By comparing two values you can discover which is representing something that is
more important than the other. Therefore you rate the one value over the other.

Personal values are generally operating in the background. They influence everything
what you do but usually it happens on auto-pilot. You just know intuitively what you
like and dislike and decide accordingly.

Religious Value

Religious values center around the expectations that people have about themselves
and others based on the beliefs of their faith. Although each faith has its beliefs, there
are common values that many faiths tend to share. Examples of religious values
include:

 Showing compassion to those in need

 Treating others as one would like to be treated

 Continually learning and growing both spiritually and intellectually

 Being modest in your relations with others

 Being respectful and nonviolent when interacting with others