CHAPTER- 4

PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY IN EXPLORATION OF OIL

AND GAS

1. PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY:

Petroleum geochemistry is the branch of geochemistry that deals with the

composition and distribution of petroleum and related substances in sedimentary
basins, the aim of petroleum geochemistry is to understand the origin, migration,
occurrence and alteration of petroleum in sedimentary basins. The information
obtained from petroleum geochemistry is integrated with the information obtained
from petroleum geology and geophysics to arrive at model of occurrence of
hydrocarbon which helps in exploration and prioritization of hydrocarbon prospects.

2. ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

The seeping oil and asphalt; on the earth's surface have fascinated the ancient
civilizations, and their use as fuel and building material was known since time
unknown. It is certain that the knowledge and utilization of petroleum is of great
antiquity, and are parts of the evidence that mark, if does not define; the dawn of
civilization;The inherent tendency in the human intellectual framework is the urge to <
understand and explain his own origin and that of the world around him. For the last
several centuries till modem days scientists have attempted to compile the
occurrence facts and phenomena associated with petroleum manifestations. Such
observations always directed human mind to investigate the origin of petroleum.

2.1 Inorganic Theory >'

Most of the inorganic origin theories believe that petroleum originated from posmic
organic matter trapped in deeper earth (mantle). This organic matter released gases
that contain; methane, ethylene etc. which while migrating vertically towards earth
prust condensed or polymerised to form large and complex molecules to form
petroleum.

Another recent theory is of Fischer Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons. Fischer

Tropsch reaction is catalytic hydrogenation and reductive polymerization of CO and
CO2. Igneous or metamorphic decarbonation of sedimentary carbonates produces
carbon dioxide. On the other hand, periodotites alter to serpentinites in the presence
of water at temperatures below 500 degree C. During serpentinisation, hydrogen is
generated. This carbon dioxide and hydrogen undergo Fischer Tropsch synthesis to
form mixture of hydrocarbons.

2.2 Organic Theory

The organic theory or the biological theory of origin of oil was based on the premise
that oil is generated from the transformation of sedimentary organic matter and
established because of overall chemical similarity of oil and plant organic matter.
The organic or 'biological theory of origin of hydrocarbons has been accepted
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globally and is directing exploration programmes for prioritization of hydrocarbon
prospects.

3. COMPOSITION OIL AND GAS

3.1 FORMS OF PETROLEUM

Based on the physical state of the mixture of hydrocarbons, petroleum is classified

into three forms:
• Crude oil - liquid form of petroleum
• Condensate-gaseous in subsurface and liquid at surface
• Gas - does not condense at STP

3.2 COMPOSITION OF OIL

Oil is a mixture of dominantly hydrocarbons that can be produced from sub surface
through a drill pipe. Hydrocarbons are the compounds of hydrogen and carbon. Non
hydrocarbon compounds also occur in petroleum. These are formed by the
incorporation of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and some metals in the; hydrocarbon
skeleton. Oil contains hundreds of compounds which vary greatly in their structural
types and molecular sizes. The hydrocarbons and non hydrocarbons have been
classified as follows. Fig.no-3-1 shows various compounds present in the oil .

Molecular Types Variations in Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons can be grouped into six different structural types Fig no.3-1.

Normal Alkanes

Normal alkanes are the hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms join together to form a
straight chain, with single bonds between carbon atoms. These compounds are also
called open chain compounds.

Iso Alkanes

Iso alkanes are the hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are joined to form chain
with some branching, with single bonds between carbon atoms.

Isoprenoids

Isoprenoids are special class of iso alkanes with specific orientation of carbon atoms in
the chain. These consist of straight chains of carbon with one methyl (CH3) group
branch at every fourth carbon atom in the chain.

Cycloalkanes

Cycioalkanes are the hydrocarbons that are formed by joining the carbon atoms in a
ring, with single bonds between carbon atoms.

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Aromatics

Aromatics are the hydrocarbons that are composed of at least one benzene ring. In
benzene ring six carbon atoms join together to form a ring with alternate single and
double bonds between carbon atoms.

Cvclalkano-aromatics

Cyclalkano-aromatics are the hydrocarbons that consist of condensed cycloalkanes

and aromatics. The cycloalkane and aromatic molecules share two carbon atoms
with a single bond in common. The cycloalkane part is characterised by carbon
atoms joined with single bonds while aromatic part is characterized by alternates
single and double bonds.

Molecular Size Variations in Hydrocarbons

Normal Alkanes

The smallest molecule is methane in which one carbon atom combines with four
hydrogen atoms. The next molecule will be in which two carbon atoms are joined
with single bond and six hydrogen atoms are there. This is ethane, the difference
between ethane and methane is of one CH2. Thus by adding every time a CH2 in an
alkane next higher alkane is obtained. This is called homologous series in which
alkanes are represented by a general formula CnH2n+2 where, n is any number
between 1 to about 60.

Iso alkanes

The smallest iso alkane in which branching is possible is the hydrocarbon containing
4 carbon atoms. Thus iso-butane is the smallest iso alkane and by adding a CH2 the
next iso alkane (iso-pentane) and similarly the complete homologous series can be
obtained.

Isoprenoids:
The smallest isoprenoid found in oil is C9H20 arid the largest isoprenoid is C25H52.
The most abundant isoprenoids are pristane C19H40 and phytane C20H42. Other
isoprenoids occurring in oil are famesane C15H32, G16H34 and norpristane
C18H38.

Cvcloalkanes

The smallest cycloalkane is cyclopentane in which five carbon atoms join to form a
ring. The next and rriost common cycloalkane is cyclohekane in which,six carbon
atoms form a ring. Higher cycloalkanes are formed by the condensation of mainly
cyclohexane rings. Cycloalkanes are thus classified,./based upon the number of
condensed rings as monocyclic (1 ring), bicyclic (2 rings), tricyclic (3 rings)
tetracyclic (4 rings) and pentacyclic (5 rings).

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 Aromatics

The smallest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene. Higher aromatics are formed by

condensation of benzene rings. Thus aromatics are also classified based on the
number of benzene rings in the molecules as monocyclic (one ring) through
pentacyclic (five rings).

Non Hydrocarbons

The compounds containing atoms of nitrogen, sulphur or oxygen in the molecule

are called non hydrocarbons. Although these elements are present in small
amounts, they disproportionately increase the non hydrocarbon fraction of a
crude oil by being incorporated in the hydrocarbon molecules.

Sulphur Compounds

In the low and medium molecular weight range (upto C25) sulphur, is associated
only with carbon and hydrogen. In the heavier fractions of crude oils, it is
frequently incorporated in large polycyclic molecules comprising NSOs. Sulphur
compounds identified in the light and medium fraction of crude oils belong, to four
main classes of compounds. These are: (i) Thiols or Merceptans, (ii) Sulphides,
(iii) Disulphide and Thiophenes.
:

Nitrogen Compounds

Nitrogen content is usually lower than sulphur content in crude oils. The main
part of nitrogen is found in high molecular weight and high boiling point
fractions.

;
Oxygen Compounds

Saturated fatty acids (C1 to C20) and naphthenic acids accur in immature oils.
The most ubiquitous group of oxygen compounds in crude oils is probably the
group of pentacyclic acids with a hopane skeleton. Several phenois, such as
cresols and ketones, fluorenones and dibenzofurans are found.

Saturates, Aromatics and NSOs

These are the fractions of oil which contain different classes of hydrocarbons
and non-hydrocarbons discussed in detail above. Saturates is that fraction of oil
that comprise of normal alkanes, isoprenoids and cycloalkanes. All these
compounds are saturated hydrocarbons, i.e., in these compounds the carbon
atoms are joined to each other by single bond only. Aromatic is that fraction of
oil that comprise of mono to polycyclic aromatics and various bonds between
carbon atoms, have double bonds in their structures. NSO is that fraction of
oil that comprise of nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen containing non-hydrocarbons
of complex structures.

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3.3 COMPOSITION OF GAS

Gas contains various amounts of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon constituents.

Hydrocarbons are methane, ethane, propane, iso-butane n-butane, iso-pentane
normal-pentane, hexanes, heptanes, octanes and nonanes. Non-hydrocarbons are
generally carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, helium and hydrogen.
Typically, a reservoir gas contains 70-100% methane,-1-10% ethane, lower
percent of higher hydrocarbons through hexanes and traces up through nonanes.
Carbon dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphide may vary from low to high: In
rare cases helium (upto 8%) and hydrogen (upto 15%) may occur. However,
the abnormal chemical compositions of gases sometimes complicate the problem
of their origin.

4. SUCCESSFUL EXPLORATION

Successful exploration for hydrocarbons in a basin depends on satisfying

the following probabilities:

(a)Probability of existence of a trap (structure x reservoir x seal)

(b)Probability that jsthe trap has received and physically retained a
petroleum charge (source x maturation x migration path).
(c)Probability of preservation of entrapped petroleum from the effects of
thermal or bacterial degradation (temperature regime x meteoric water)

These three main probabilities are independent of each other. The overall probability
of discovery at a given location is the product of all the three factors. If any factor is
zero the overall probability of success becomes zero regardless of how favourable
are the other two parameters. Petroleum Geology and Petroleum Geophysics
provide information on probability (a), and Petroleum Geochemistry provides
information on probabilities (b) and (c). Probability (b) relates to the question of
generation and accumulation of hydrocarbon in a basin, and probability (e) relates to
preservation of accumulated hydrocarbon in the trap.

5. GENERATION OF OIL AND GAS

Karl G. Bischoff, Professor or Chemistry at Bonn was first to put forward the theory
of organic origin of petroleum. T. Sterry Hunt the world's first authority on petroleum
geology supported and elaborated on this theory by defining the lower forms of
marine life as the probable sources of petroleum. The oil originates in organic rich
shales deposited in the sedimentary basin which are called the source rocks. The oil
once generated in source rocks migrates and gets accumulated in adjacent
sandstones which are called reservoir rocks.

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5.1 FORMATION OF SOURCE ROCK IN SEDIMENTARY BASIN

The organic theory of petroleum formation suggests that petroleum is formed from
organic matter deposited under favourable conditions in sedimentary rocks. These
organic matter rich sedimentary rocks with passage of time under the influence of
heat and catalytic effect of minerals generate hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons then
migrate to reservoir rocks and get accumulated in suitable traps.

Source rock may be defined as a fine grained sedimentary rock that in its natural
setting has generated and released enough hydrocarbons to form a commercial
accumulation of oil or gas.

Oil and gas are generated from the organic matter, deposited during sedimentation,
by a series of complex chemical reactions. The extent of these reactions is
controlled primarily by geologic time and temperature. The type and amount of oil
and gas generated depend upon the concentration and type of organic matter
preserved in the source rock and its thermal maturity. Production, accumulation &
preservation of organic matter in the sedimentary rocks are the pre-requisites for the
formation of source rocks and generation of oil and gas.

Production of Organic Matter

Production refers to the synthesis of organic matter by the living organisms. The
emergence of photosynthesis as a world wide phenomenon is an important historical
event with respect to formation of source rocks. Photosynthesis became the basis
for mass production of organic matter since around 2 billion years ago. Starting from
the Precambrian time till the; Devonian time, most of the organic matter was
produced by marine phytoplankton. The emergence of vascular land plants resulted
in contribution of organic matter from terrestrial plants.

Composition of Organic Matter

All living organisms basically consist of mainly proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
lignins. Proteins are highly ordered polymers of amino acids. Protein constitutes
such different kind of materials as muscle fibres, silk, sponge and enzymes.
Carbohydrate: is a collective name for individual sugars and their polymers. These
form the supporting tissue of plant and are the sources of energy. Lipids are fat
substances such as animal fats, vegetable oils and waxes. Fats are mixtures of
various triglycerides of fatty acids/Seeds, spores and fruits are especially rich in
lipids. Among algae, diatoms are very rich in lipids. Plant waxes also contain
hydrocarbons, especially long chain n-alkanes having a predominance of molecules
with odd carbon numbers. In addition to these typical lipids, there are a number of
lipid like substances, such as oil soluble pigments, terpenoids, steroids and many
complex fats such as certain phospholipids. Lignins and tannins are characterized
by aromatic (phenolic) range. These are deposited in woody parts of the plants.
Lipids are the major sources of oil.

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Accumulation and Preservation of Organic Matter

Accumulation of organic matter refers to the deposition of organic matter in

sediments. The ultimate organic matter richness of sedimentary rock is principally
controlled by how efficiently the organic matter is preserved after deposition.
Although the primary productivity of organic matter in aquatic and land areas are
same, the preservation of organic matter in sub-aquatic condition is far greater. In
sub-aerial condition the oxygen supports the growth of bacteria that destroys the
organic matter. The preservation of organic matter depends on (i) anoxia, (ii) type
of organic matter and (iii) rate of sedimentation.

5.2 GENERATION OF OIL AND GAS IN SOURCE ROCK

Transformation of Preserved Organic Matter into Oil and Gas

Essential conditions for generation of oil and gas

There are three essential conditions for source rock to generate commercial oil
and gas. These are:

• Sufficient quantity of organic matter

• Right type of organic matter
• Adequate maturity of organic matter

The more the quantity of organic; matter rode quantity of oil will be generated.
However, there is a threshold value for total organic carbon for generation of oil.
Hydrocarbons are formed of carbon and hydrogen molecules. Carbon molecules are
in plenty in organic matter, but hydrogen molecules are scarce. Right type of
organic matter is that which contains large number of hydrogen molecules.

The organic matter deposited in sediments undergoes various transformations

due to increase in temperature with progressive sedimentation and subsidence to
form petroleum. Thermal generation of petroleum is thus a function, of time and
temperature. This function is called maturity. Organic matter has to acquire certain
threshold level of maturity to generate oil.

Stages of Organic Matter Maturation

The transformation process of organic matter involves three stages. These are:

Diagenesis

Diagenesis.is the process of biological, physical and chemical alteration of organic

matter under the conditions of shallow burial. This involves three processes. These
are biochemical degradation, polycondensation and insolubilization. Biochemical
degradation breaks carbohydrates and proteins into their monomers and oxidizes
them. Polycondensation results in condensation1 of biomonomer units and lipids to
.

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form fulvic acid / humic acid: In solubilisation converts the polycondensed products
of the previous process into insoluble geopolymer called kerogen. Biogenic
methane is the major product of diagenesis.

Catagenesis

Catagenesis is the process of thermal alteration of organic matter. As

sedimentation and subsidence continues, temperature increases. The
temperature range of catagenesis is 50 degree to 200 degree C. The kerogen is
thermally cracked to give hydrocarbons. As the temperature increases, more and
more hydrocarbons are formed. A peak of liquid hydrocarbon generation reaches
at around 150 degree C. During catagenesis, with increasing temperature, i.e., with
advancing maturation of source rock, the larger hydrocarbon molecules
progressively break into smaller molecules. Oil and wet gas are the products of
catagenesis. In the late catagenetic stage the kerogen arid oil thermally crack to
form condensate and gas

Metagenesis is the process of thermal alteration of kerogen and remaining

hydrocarbons at high temperatures (200 degree to 300 degree C). Due to
tremendous heat beyond 200 degree C the existing oil and condensate and
kerogen decompose into gas. Larger hydrocarbons break into smaller molecules
and ultimately dry gas comprising of thermal methane is formed Dry gas is the
major product of metagenesis.

6. MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS

Primary migration

The release of petroleum compounds from kerogen and their transport within and
through the capillaries and narrow pores of fine grained source rocks are defined
as primary migration. The distance traversed by hydrocarbons during primary
migration is short. Fig no.6-1 shows primary and secondary migration.

Secondary migration

The movement of petroleum after expulsion from the source rock through the wider
pores of more permeable and porous carrier beds and accumulation in the reservoir
rock is called secondary migration. Secondary migration is due to buoyancy.
Hydrocarbons are lighter than water and thus displace water downward and move
upward. Secondary migration occurs preferentially in the direction that offers the
maximum buoyant advantage. Secondary migration is a long distance migration.
Barrier to migration is provided by cap rock and thus oil stops and gets accumulated.
There are several processes occurring during migration that alters the chemical
composition and physical properties of original oil.

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7. METHODS IN PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY

7.1 SOURCE ROCK EVALUATION

Source rock analysis is carried out on rock cuttings coming at the surface
during drilling of well for determining the following parameters:

1) Quantity of organic matter

2) Quality or Type of organic matter
3) Maturity level of-organic matter

Quantity of Organic Matter

Quantity of organic matter is determined by an apparatus called TOC

analyzer. It givesTOC values in percent. The data is interpreted as follows:

TOC% Source rock

<0.5 No source rock
0.5- 1.0 Marginal source rock
1.0-2.0 Good source rock;
>2.0 Very Good source rock

Quality and Maturity of Organic Matter

Quality and Maturity of organic matter is determined by an apparatus called Rock-

Eyal. Hydrogen Index is the indicator of type of organic matter and Tmax is the
indicator of maturity.

The data generated characterizes the quality of organic matter as

Type I Oil generating source rock

Type II Oil and Gas generating source rock
Type III Gas and Oil generating source rock

The data generated characterizes the maturity of organic matter as

Immature source rock No oil

Early mature source rock Heavy oil
Mature source rock Normal oil

The source rock analysis is done on cutting samples at close interval of 5 meters.
The data from TOC and Rock Eval are plotted with the depth which is a source
log of the well. The source rock log shows the rock intervals which are the source
rocks. Such information from a number of wells in a basin identifies the rock
sequence which is the source rock, this is mapped.

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7.2 OIL TO OIL AND OIL TO SOURCE CORRELATION

Oil-is generated in source rock by maturation of organic matter and thus inherits
the properties of its mother source rock. Source rocks differ in characteristics
because of difference in the quantity of organic matter, quality or type of
organic matter and maturity level of organic matter. The oils generated from
different source rocks are thus different. .

Oil to oil correlation is carried out to know how many types of oils are occurring
in the basin, and what is the genetic relationship among oils occurring in different
fault blocks, sediments of different ages, different formations and different
payzones.

Oil to source correlation is carried out. to establish the genetic relationship of oils
to their mother source rocks. The entire exercise helps in understanding and
developing the model of origin, migration, accumulation of hydrocarbon in a basin.

For oil to oil correlation, two or more oils are compared for parameters that
provide
information on
1) organic matter from which oil has been generated,
2) maturity level of the source rock from which oil has been generated and
3) changes in molecular composition of oil during migration and due to
post accumulation alteration.

For oil to oil correlation oil samples from wells are analysed by gross level methods
and molecular level methods.

Gross levels parameters include

• API Gravity
• Sulphur content
• Wax consent
• Relative distribution of saturates, arornatics and NSOs.
• Correlation index

Molecular level parameters include

• Distribution of light hydrocarbons by gas chromatography and their ratios
• Distribution of normal alkanes and isoprenoids by gas chromatography
and their ratios
• Distribution of biomarkers by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry
and their ratios
• Stable carbon isotopic compostion of saturates, aromatics and NSOs
by stable isotope mass spectrometer

For oil to source correlation, oils and extractable organic matter of source rock are
compared for pararneters that provide information on organic matter, and, maturity
level through molecular level parameters include
• Distribution of light hydrocarbons by gas chromatography and their ratios

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 •Distribution of normal alkanes and isoprenoids by gas chromatography
and their ratios ;
•Distribution of biomarkers by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry
and their ratios
•Stable carbon isotopic composition of saturates, aromatics and NSOs
by stable isotope mass spectrometer

Geochemical information /from source rock evaluation, oil to oil and oil to source
correlation are integrated to other geoscientific information to develop the generation
and occurrence model and to define petroleum system in a basin.

7.3 GEOCHEMICAL SURFACE PROSPECTING - ADSORBED GAS SURVEY

Exploration for oil and gas requires a coordinated effort based on useful prospecting
techniques of geology, geophysics, geochemistry and other geosciences. About
seventy percent of the world's known oil reserves can be related to macroseeps of
oil. Macroseeps of oil/gas have been widely used in prospecting and resulted in
discovery of more oil/gas fields than any single method. Surface geochemical
detection of microseeping; hydrocarbons is a logical extension of the use of
macroseeps in the search of oil and gas.

Concept

Reservoired petroleum pool is an active mass of hydrocarbon molecules. No seal

rock is completely impermeable. A network of rriicrofracture system exists in the
sedimentary layers above the petroleum pool. Small size hydrocarbon molecules like
C1 through G5 move vertically through the microfracture system and reach to the
earth's surface. This is microseepage from subsurface oil accumulation. Microseep
is defined as the migration of G1-G5 hydrocarbon from a subsurface accumulation
by. a process of vertical ascent of colloidal size particles through microfracture
system over petroleum deposit. Microseeps generate positive hydrocarbon
anomalies on the surface that tend to overlie all or large part of the petroleum
deposit from which they originate, Microseeping hydrocarbons are present in soil
which are sarnpled. Identification of the; areas with high concentration of
hydrocarbons in surface soil are mapped and related to the subsurface
accumulation.

Surface geochemical prospecting provides a tool to map the microseepages of

hydrocarbons or related alterations, which are the surface expression of the
subsurface oil/gas accumulation. The use of seeps in hydrocarbon exploration is
widely practiced in the petroleum industry.

Objective
• To locate hydrocarbon seeps.
• To map the seeps to relate them to subsurface accumulations / prospects.
• To characterize the petroleum type seen in a play's seeps.

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Method

This method analyses the soil for adsorbed hydrocarbons. Soil samples are
collected from 3 to 5 meter depth. Samples are collected in a grid pattern preferably
0.5 km X 0.5 km. The soil samples are analysed for adsorbed hydrocarbon gases
(methane through pentane) bys gas chromatograph. This method analyses the soil
for adsorbed hydrocarbons. Soil samples are collected from 3 to 5 meter depth.
Samples are collected in a grid pattern preferably 0.5 km X 0.5 km. The soil samples
are analysed for adsorbed hydrocarbon gases (methane through pentane) by gas
chromatograph.

Delineation of Surface Hydrocarbon Anomalies

In order to identify the areas of anomalously high concentration of surface adsorbed

(micrposeep) hydrocarbons, the concentration of methane, ethane, propane,
butanes and pentanes are contoured separately. In order to define meaningful
anomalies, background means (m) and standard deviation (a) are computed by
using available methods. Contour maps are the iso-concentration maps of methane
to pentanes, In the iso-concentration maps, the starting contour is generally equal
to the background mean plus one standard i deviation (m+a) of that particular
hydrocarbon and the contour interval is the standard deviation (a). Most
investigators define values as anomalous if they have concentrations greater than m
plus some multiples (usually 2 or 3) of a. This is the anomaly threshold value.
Although m+2a or m+3a are considered good indicator of petroleum, still better
criteria (>m+3a) may be employed to resolve the surface hydrocarbon anomalies
with increasing level of confidence in predicting subsurface accumulation.

Evaluation and Ranking of Surface Hydrocarbon Anomalies

Since the surface manifestations of the hydrocarbons are directly related to the
subsurface accumulations, the magnitude of the anomalies determines the relative
strengths or significance of.anomalies in an area. Based oh this premise, the surface
hydrocarbon anomalies are evaluated and ranked. The evaluation criteria is
hydrocarbon concentration upto m+nά, where n = 2,3,4.... The more the value of n,
the stronger is the anomaly. The evaluation criteria may vary with basin, block, field,
objective of survey and will be guided by the experience of the, skilled interpreter.
Ethane, propane and butane anomaly maps are generally used for evaluation
purpose.

Reconnaissance survey

Reconnaissance survey helps in development of the understanding about the basic

geological concept of the basin /area /concessions. Quick and cost effective wide
grid surface geochemical prospecting can cover large basin area which differentiates
between oil prone and gas prone areas. It carves out interesting areas for
exploration. It also helps in deciding leasing and planning the reconnaissance
seismic survey.

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Detail survey .

The purpose of detail survey is to identify or confirm drillable objectives. The

interesting areas finally carved out in the reconnaissance survey, is put under detail
geological studies followed by detail seismic survey. This generates prospects. These
prospects are further-evaluated for ranking and prioritization by surface geochemical
prospecting. The most favourable prospects are drilled. The spacing between the lines
and the sampling points is much less than that of the reconnaissance survey. This
gives more accurate information about the background and the anomaly threshold,
thereby increasing the confidence in mapping the surface geochemical anomalies.

Advantages of Geochemical Prospecting

Geochemical prospecting has following merits:

• It provides the physical evidence of occurrence of hydrocarbons in an area in

the form of microseepage.
• It can quickly and cost effectively carve out interesting areas in a large basin /
concession / play and rank them in order of priority for costly seismic to
follow.
• It can define a field after a wild cat discovery.
• It provides information whether a discovered trap contains petroleum. It
therefore eliminates a dry prospect.
• It can rank prospects for prioritization for; drilling.
• It can open up new levels for exploration and development in the areas of
limited or no success.
• It can indicate extension of a producing field.
• The main advantage of surface geochemical prospecting over geophysics is
that it is not limited by the type of trap in which the hydrocarbons have
accumulated.
• It is useful for prospecting for stratigraphic and lithologic pools, which are not
associated with easily discernable structural features.
• It is a low cost and easy to apply method.

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Fig.No.4-01

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Fig.No.4-02

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