Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza

Facultatea de Litere

Specializarea limba si literatura Engleză-Germană

Female Depression in Sylvia Plath’s

Novel: The Bell Jar

COORDONATOR ŞTIINŢIFIC ABSOLVENT

Lect. Dr. Lorelei Caraman Obreja Lavinia

IAŞI
2019

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 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER I - THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK................................................................ 5

I.1. A short introduction to depression .................................................................................. 5

I.1.1. Definition ...................................................................................................................... 5
I.1.2. Symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 6
I.1.3. Possible causes .............................................................................................................. 8

I.2. The beginning of madness ................................................................................................ 9

I.2.1. Hysteria ......................................................................................................................... 9
I.2.2. Madness and unreason ................................................................................................ 11

I.3. Gender and madness- a feminist perspective................................................................ 13

I.3.1.Understanding patriarchy and oppression .................................................................... 13
I.3.2. Women, men and madness ......................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER II : FEMALE DEPRESSION ILLUSTRATED IN THE BELL JAR ........... 19

II.1 Esther Greenwood’s depression .................................................................................... 19

II.1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 19
II.1.2. The beginning of Esther’s descent: her symptoms .................................................... 20
II.1.3. Causes of her depression ........................................................................................... 22

II.2. Women in patriarchal societies .................................................................................... 23

II.2.1. Oppression: The male doctor vs the female patient .................................................. 23
II.2.2. The fragmented female body ..................................................................................... 26

II.3. The Bell Jar .................................................................................................................... 29

II.3.1. The metaphorical title explained ............................................................................... 29

CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................... 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 32

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 Abstract

Depression is one of the most wide-spread affective disorders affecting people

worldwide. This paper looks into the female depression in The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath from a
feminist, psychological, historical perspective, using an interdisciplinary approach. What made
me interested in this novel was the metaphorical title which seemed to be an appropriate image
of the feelings associated with depression. Literally, the bell jar is a cylindrical bell-shaped
glass cover used to enclose samples in laboratories but metaphorically, it symbolizes a feeling
of entrapment, a feeling of suffocation where the individual is unable to move past the
confining element. The metaphor of the title is also associated with patriarchal societies which
limit and oppress a certain group of people and for this reason, I looked at the instances when
the experienced oppression had as immediate consequence a negative impact on Esther
Greenwood’s psyche/well-being, listing it as a clear cause for her depression.
For understanding what depression is and how it manifests, I consulted various sources
including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) which helped
me identify her symptoms. Moreover, I analyzed the causes and symptoms which triggered the
development of the protagonist’s depression. At the core of it, the oppressive nature of
patriarchal societies limits the female character, Esther Greenwood, crippling her in the
process. Because of strict and confining gender roles, Esther has to fight for her authenticity.
The interactions she has with the men presented in the novel further prove that oppression leads
to depression which is the case with Esther. These men abuse her, rape her, mistreat her and
ultimately make her bleed into submission using controlling tactics.
From my research, I also discovered that madness/ mental illness is diagnosed
differently based on the patient’s gender which implies that there is a gender bias when it comes
to mental health diagnoses. Because of this gender bias, I looked into Michel Foucault’s work,
History of madness where he examined the way madness was perceived across centuries. In
the earlier centuries, madness was associated with artistic ability but in the seventeenth and
eighteenth century madness signified unreason. Hysteria was among the most commonly
treated diseases of these centuries, being mostly considered a woman’s disease or the way
Elaine Showalter puts it, ‘the female malady’. Showalter is also one of the feminist critics who
had a great contribution to this topic and women’s issues.

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 The purpose of this research was to show if there is a direct link between oppression
generated by patriarchal societies and depression in women which I tried to prove using various
examples from the novel.

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 Chapter I - Theoretical framework

I.1. A short introduction to depression

I.1.1. Definition

Depression, the most wide-spread condition amongst the affective disorders and the
topic of this thesis, manifests itself in various ways in different individuals, according to Parker,
in his work, Dealing with Depression: A Commonsense Guide to Mood Disorders, he presents
a number of traits that are collectively felt and recognized. He acknowledges two major types:
what is known as “normal depression” and clinical depression. The first is a milder type of
depression usually lasting few hours up to few days where the individual is able to recover
from the depressed state to a normal mood shortly. Moreover, it doesn’t hinder everyday
activity and it can be triggered by common stressors such as unfortunate events or just any
particularly upsetting situation for said individual. He highlights the most common symptoms
of the “normal depression” which are generally known to be as follows: a dejected mood,
hopelessness, futility, low self-worth and self-esteem as well as increased negative perception
of the self and loss of interest in normally pleasurable activities. The second type of depression,
clinical depression (also known as major depressive disorder) is a more severe type of
depression characterized by worsening of the symptoms stated above, leaving the individual
debilitated and on average, lasting over a 2 week period or more. (Parker 1)
When it comes to earlier understandings of depression, it is apparent that the existence
of depressive symptoms has been recorded throughout time under various names. Similarities
may be noticed between how these feelings were viewed and today’s knowledge of depression.
Hippocrates was one among many to immortalize what he calls “melancholia”. In the
preface of Radden’s work The Nature of Melancholy she explains the meaning of the word and
also the way in which it reflects the medical and scientific beliefs of said time. The Greeks
believed in alchemy, the connection between the four elements (water, air, fire, earth) and the
humors found in the human body. They deemed that the human body had four humors or
substances: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, each keeping the body in a healthy state.
Imbalances between these humors indicated disease. Melancholia literally translates to black

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bile (from Greek melas- black, hole-bile) and it is said to be an excess of this humor. (Radden
,ix)
In Hippocrates’ aphorisms, he mentions what seems to be clinical depression as we
would perceive it today: “Fear or depression that is prolonged means melancholia.” (Vol IV,
185). Furthermore, he took notice of few symptoms that can be also found in today’s DSM:
“Coma was present, aversion to food, despondency, sleeplessness, irritability, restlessness, the
mind being affected by melancholy.” (Vol I, 263) which will be discussed in future chapters.

I.1.2. Symptoms

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) there
are 9 major symptoms characteristic to depression out of which the minimum of 5 should be
taken into consideration when it comes to giving a proper diagnosis:

1. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective
report (e.g., feels sad, empty, or hopeless) or observation made by others (e.g., appears
tearful). (Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood.)

2. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the
day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or observation).

3. Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change of more than
5% of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day.
(Note: In children, consider failure to make expected weight gain.)

4. Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.

5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others; not

merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down).

6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day.

7. Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which may be

delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick).

8. Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either

by subjective account or as observed by others).

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 9. Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation
without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide.
(American Psychiatric Association 125)

Briefly put, Parker lists and explains the following symptoms of depression:
A lack of self-confidence: individual has a negative view of themselves accompanied
by feelings of self-distrust, hopelessness, shame, guilt alongside with a tendency to expect the
worst.
Sleep disturbance or insomnia: individual may experience a change in their sleep
pattern, either they will sleep too much, too little or wake up often.
Mood instability and poor emotional regulation: individual is susceptible to mood
swings, depressive moods, irritability, anger, anxiety and has trouble regulating or controlling
high intensity emotion.
Daily mood-swings: individual may experience a worsening of depressed mood at a
particular time during the day, “people feel most depressed in the morning and improve as the
day goes on.” (2) or they can experience an increase in depression at night. In some cases, no
observable change has been recorded.
Weight fluctuations and loss/increase of appetite: some individuals may experience an
increase of appetite and weight due to the use of food as a comforting coping mechanism while
“in some people, especially if older, appetite may be reduced and weight lost.” (2)
Decreased levels of enjoyment: individual may no longer experience pleasure from
activities that were previously enjoyable and has no motivation to engage with their interests,
hobbies and relationships.
Pain intolerability: individual may experience physical depression-related pains such
as headaches, angina and others as well as pain level sensitivity; they may feel an increase of
general pain “physical pains that are normally bearable may seem to get worse, or pains that
cannot be readily explained by a physical problem may be experienced” (3)
Low libido: individual may experience a disinterest in sexual activities or there may be
a need for sexual activity as a means to connect with a partner “because depression impairs the
capacity to feel close to a partner.” (3)
Suicidal tendency- individual has suicidal thoughts and feels like giving up to the point
where they can attempt suicide and eventually commit it.

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 Lack of concentration and loss of memory: individual may experience reduced capacity
to focus and foggy memory as well as lack of motivation.
General feeling of tiredness: individual experiences fatigue, loss of energy, exhaustion
and has a tendency to feel weak.
Increased agitation or weariness: individual can excessively worry and become agitated
as a result or on the contrary become lethargic and slow. (Parker 2)

I.1.3. Possible causes

The causes of depression, as with most mental illnesses have been difficult to identify
with precision by researchers. There are multiple possible causes but we do not have an exact
answer and of course, given the nature of humans, that of being different, it is difficult to know
on a general scale but certain patterns definitely occur and can give valuable insight.
Two of the most commonly known causes of depression are said to be chemical
imbalances in the brain as well as hormonal imbalances. In Pierre’s work Depression: The
Fool-Proof Method to Overcome Depression and Stress she suggests the following:
When it comes to chemical imbalances, researchers believe that neurotransmitters play
a crucial part in the development and progression of depression. More specifically, if
neurotransmitters malfunction with “neural circuits”, brain chemicals such as serotonin drop
and symptoms of low mood appear.
Another common cause are hormonal imbalances which “can trigger or cause
depression”. These imbalances can co-occur with other health issues such as thyroid problems,
pregnancy, menopause and other related hormonal issues. Medication which contains
hormones like in the case of corticosteroids can additionally heighten one’s risk of depression
as well as “antiviral drug interferon-alpha” and some medication for acne: Accutane.
Moreover, chronic illnesses “can directly cause depression or can increase depression through
associated stress, worry and anxiety”.
Other known causes of depression are : genetics, when there is a history of depression
in the family it is likely future family members will develop it as well; abuse of all kinds be it
sexual, psychological, verbal and different forms of oppressions can contribute to depression;
the death of a loved one and associated grief; conflicts; a major life event such as starting a
new job, divorce, break-up; use of alcohol and drugs can be linked to depression as well and
lastly, personality can also play a role when it comes to depression, some individuals being

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more susceptible to developing it if they have a cynical world view, low self-esteem and overall
are pessimistic. (Pierre 8)

I.2. The beginning of madness

I.2.1. Hysteria

In Hysteria Beyond Freud, numerous critics discuss the topic of hysteria and its
influence across time, a condition which had plagued many centuries and had been a subject of
interest for many feminist scholars. Amongst them, Elaine Showalter is one of the most
remarkable contributors to this topic. She mentions that discourse theory as well as semiotics
had a particular influence in understanding hysteria and it was seen as “a specifically female
protolanguage, communicating through the body messages that cannot be verbalized.”(286)
Interestingly, she highlights that for some writers “hysteria has been claimed as the first step
on the road to feminism, specifically female pathology that speaks to and against patriarchy.”
Showalter also states that hysteria was reclaimed by feminists and this fact added an
idiosyncratic perspective to the history of the disorder. Moreover she mentions that “hysteria
has always been constructed as a ‘woman's disease,’ and a female disorder, or a disturbance of
femininity, but this construction has been usually hostile.” As I mentioned in another chapter,
femininity was linked to a number of mental illnesses. (Gilman, King and Porter 286) In the
same chapter, Showalter makes a comparison to men with hysteria and takes notice of the
gender bias. When hysteria was associated with men, it was considered that those men were
homosexual and took on ‘feminine aspects’ which were devalued considerably. Despite this,
she observed that “hysteria is the disease of the weak, passive, overly emotional people,
whether female or male.”(289)
In Foucault’s work, History of Madness, he defines its physical manifestations as “the
effect of an internal heat that spread throughout the body, an effervescence or ebullition
constantly manifested in convulsions and spasms. (280)
In another instance, Showalter explains that in the recent decades women historians and
male doctors as well as psychoanalysts have talked about hysteria and have come to the
conclusion that “that hysteria is caused by women's oppressive social roles rather than by their

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bodies or psyches, and they have sought its sources in cultural myths of femininity and male
domination.” (Gilman, King and Porter 287)
Another scholar, Scull, in his chapter titled Mysteria says that “hysteria is a pathological
condition with a fascinating and tortuous medical and cultural history.” A disorder that is
chameleon-like, disguising as other diseases. (11) He also mentions that for people who prefer
Freud’s work, “hysteria is the quintessential psychodynamic disorder, and its history a tale of
fallacious medical materialism alternating with superstitious attributions of spirit possession
and demonology, occasionally interrupted by brave pioneers who reject both forms of prejudice
and perceive its true, psychological origins.” (Scull 12)
Throughout history hysteria has been a controversial disease, some believing it was a
“woman’s disease”. Auguste Fabre even went so far as to say that “all women are hysterical
and . . . every woman carries with her the seeds of hysteria. Hysteria . . . is a temperament, and
what constitutes the temperament of a woman is rudimentary hysteria.”(qtd. in Ussher 9)
On the other hand, from a feminist perspective, Ussher correlates the oppression of
women with this illness and suggests that because the nineteenth century was so oppressive
and limiting towards women, they “have experienced distress or debilitating fatigue in response
to an oppressive and restrictive social or relational context, or more specifically, to violence
and sexual abuse(…) This does not mean these women are mad. (11)
Because of the bias on madness based on gender, madness becomes a woman’s problem
but in fact it is not. Both men and women experience “all of the emotions and behavior that
serve as signifiers of madness, including distress, anger and misery.” Madness becomes a
“gendered experience, with `symptoms' judged differently in women and men, and certain
diagnostic categories more likely to be applied to women.” As it was argued by Chesler as well,
femininity is still associated with madness “whether it occurs in women or men, which is one
of the reasons why distressed men often eschew psychological diagnosis or treatment, as they
do not want to be seen to be `like a woman'” (Ussher 12)
Hippocrates was one of the physicians who created the belief that women were
biologically prone to developing hysteria because “women in western cultures have been
construed as mentally fragile and prone to invalidity.” (Clisby and Holdsworth 68)

According to Ussher, in the seventeenth century, hysteria bloomed and it was one of
the most treated diseases at that time but later, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
hysteria was considered a `female malady’(8) as Elaine Showalter puts it.

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 Even in the case of hysteria, just as it is with depression, it was a type of disorder that
was regarded as a sort of rejection of one’s role in society, many critics affirming the same
belief including Showalter, “Hysteria was still popularly and medically conjoined with female
deviance.” (Gilman, King and Porter 320)

I.2.2. Madness and unreason

“In the past madness had a significant role in our culture’s understanding of human
possibilities.” (Gutting 72)

In his work, Madness and civilization, Michel Foucault looks into the history of
madness and the treatment of the mad throughout the centuries. Initially, people with artistic
inclinations were associated with madness because in this situation art was an escape reality/
rationality but during different centuries, the meaning of madness changed. Because of the
different understandings of madness, the mad person was also perceived differently in relation
to the self. This specificity become a binary opposition where madness acquired the “other”
label. (Foucault 18)
In the seventeenth century “the practice of confinement took on a central significance."
(Gutting 39) The editor of the book, Khalfa writes in the preface that during the seventeenth
and eighteenth century “institutions were not perceived as medical establishments and what
happened inside them was unrelated to the medical knowledge and practices of the time.” He
explains that mad people were put in the same category as other types of people considered to
be deviant such as prostitutes, or the unemployed and how they chose to become mad “the
perspective was ethical, not medical: they were made to reverse this choice by a meticulously
described system of physical constraints and rewards.” (Foucault 18)
As the understanding of this condition progressed, the mad no longer were seen as
“rejecting nature” but rather as a “natural object”. The scientist took great interest in observing
the mad and thus asylums were the perfect places for them to be observed. Khalfa has identified
that “the lunatic asylum or psychiatric hospital is the result of a synthesis” between the desire
to cure the mad who could not be helped by his family and the “need to protect society.”
Ultimately, “this synthesis of a space of cure and a place of exclusion is soon forgotten in its
historical origin and becomes perceived as natural: the mad are now locked up in order to be
cured.” (Foucault 20) Furthermore, it was believed that madness created a separation within

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one’s psyche or one’s sense of truth and as a result, the mad was “exiled into the immediate
presence of surroundings in which he loses himself.” Speaking of men from the classical age,
when they separated from their intrinsic truth “it meant that they were thrown back to an
immediacy where their animal nature raged, and the primitive decay that accompanied it was
a sure sign of original guilt.” On the other hand, speaking of madman of the nineteenth century
it meant that he “had abandoned the ground of his own immediate truth and had lost himself.”
(Foucault 380)
Additionally, despite all the different interpretations of madness across centuries,
madness had a certain peculiarity, it was a “meaningful challenge to reason.” As Gutting further
explains in his work, madness “could engage in ironic dialogue with reason or claim a domain
of human experience and insight not available to reason.” (72)
From a Classical perspective, “the animality of the mad is expressed in their domination
by passions, a domination that leads them to a delirium in which they mistake the unreal for
the real. Passionate delirium thus results in a fundamental blindness that cuts the mad off from
the light of reason.” The modern way of curing the mad takes a break from the Classical view,
and in consequence, “the mad are returned to the human community, no longer animals beyond
the human pale.” As mentioned above, the mad go against social norms and are now “moral
offenders who should feel guilt at their condition and need reform of their attitudes and
behavior.” Subsequently, the mad becomes isolated through the means of modern therapy
which in turn also “subjects them to a moralizing therapy.” (Gutting 73)
Interestingly, Gutting makes a connection between the mad and the doctors and affirms
that “doctors have authority not because they have the knowledge to cure but because they
represent the moral demands of society.” (74)

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I.3. Gender and madness- a feminist perspective

I.3.1.Understanding patriarchy and oppression

“What is patriarchy? A society is patriarchal to the degree that it promotes male

privilege* by being male dominated, male identified, and male centered. It is also
organized around an obsession with control and involves as one of its key aspects the
oppression of women.” (Johnson 5)

As Johnson states, patriarchy has as its core belief the identification with all that is
“male” or what is culturally constructed around the idea of being male/man while
simultaneously oppressing women and viewing them, in contrast, as the “other”. Moreover,
patriarchy assigns all “positions of authority” to men from any standpoint “political, economic,
legal, religious, educational, military, domestic” giving men a pivotal role in society. When it
comes to women, those who pursue the same aspirations as men are often looked down upon
due to the fact that they threaten the hierarchal order. As can be noted in Johnson’s work, he
highlights that “male dominance creates power differences between men and women” and
these power differences promote “the idea that men are superior to women” (6)
Having an understanding of patriarchal societies is useful because it brings awareness
to the issues that are most harmful in a society which holds a certain group in a power position.
When it comes to the idea of “male identification” as Johnson puts it, society’s idea of what is
considered good, desirable and normal is closely related to qualities and beliefs connected to
what is considered to be masculine or manly and as a result society codifies, “men’s lives as
the standard for defining what is normal”. Furthermore, he points out that “the core values of
society” are often almost identical with what is culturally known to be as masculine. Male
associated traits such as “control, strength, competitiveness, toughness, coolness under
pressure, logic, forcefulness, decisiveness, rationality, autonomy, self-sufficiency, control” are
prioritized and seen as a model for success. In opposition, culturally constructed feminine traits
such as “cooperation, mutuality, equality, sharing, empathy, compassion, caring, vulnerability,
a readiness to negotiate and compromise, emotional expressiveness, intuition” are disregarded
and rejected. (7)
When it comes to women aspiring to be in the higher positions men occupy, while
simultaneously going against their traditional gender role, their identity often gets erased as
they associate more and more with men. The woman, according to Johnson, “must choose

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between two very different cultural images of who she is and who she ought to be” while “with
men the effect is just the opposite: the more powerful they are, the more aware they are of their
manhood” (8) As a result, men acquire a superior title thus making everything they do be
regarded as better compared to women. In this matter, the existence of a wage gap, for example
further highlights the pedestal patriarchy puts men on and as Johnson underlines “patriarchy is
male centered, which means that the focus of attention is primarily on men and boys and what
they do”.(9)
Another very important aspect of patriarchy is “the obsession with control as a core
value” in societies where, “control is an essential element of patriarchy: men maintain their
privilege by controlling both women and other men who might threaten it.”(13) As with any
damaging aspect, control or better said the obsession with control has plenty of consequences
and disadvantages. When control becomes a part of a man’s identity, there is a tendency for
him to want to chase more of it, to the extent of shaping his reality around it. The consequence
of such is that he loses connection with himself and essentially becomes alienated from having
meaningful close relationships to others. As Johnson further explains, “control involves a
relationship between controller and controlled, and disconnection” is at the heart of that kind
of dynamic. In order to be able to take control of a thing or a person, we firstly have to perceive
it as a separate self, an “other”. (14)
Because of the way patriarchy is constructed, it “encourages men to accept male privilege and
perpetuate women’s oppression, if only through silence. And it encourages women to accept
and adapt to their oppressed position even to the extent of undermining movements to bring
about change.” (17)
As it is culturally known, women and femininity are deeply devalued and as Johnson
points out, “for women, gender oppression is linked to a cultural devaluing and subordination
of women as women.” (23)

Because patriarchy is a woman-hating type of society, misogyny is particularly

prevalent, making women hate themselves for the mere fact of being women, “an example of
internalized oppression”. Misogyny takes a central spot in patriarchy, thus validating men’s
“sense of superiority”, “justifying male aggression against women” and ultimately making
women feel as though they are inferior. (60)
Speaking of madness and oppression, McLellan makes a useful observation, “women
in therapy are very often the victims of “double oppression”, that is, oppression first by society
and then by the therapist.” (110)

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 The oppression of women prevailed especially in therapy where male doctors took
advantage of vulnerable women and used control and other means to keep them submissive.
This observation was discussed by Chesler where she indicated the mistreatment carried out
by therapists. Betty McLellan, in her work Beyond Psychoppression: A Feminist Alternative
Therapy, brings awareness to the unjust behavior of male therapists. In one of her chapters she
compiled some of the oppressive behaviors male medical professionals exhibited. Many
women spoke about the cruel treatment they received and what they were put through. Most of
them, if not all, were given “years of hospitalization, shock therapy, excessive use of
tranquillizers and anti-depressants”. The therapists were invalidating their feelings, they were
being emotionally and psychologically abusive using tactics such as “intimidation,
manipulation, lies- all in the name of therapy”. Moreover, they used manipulation tactics such
as gaslighting “until they were so confused that they began to believe they must, in fact, be
mad”. Sexual abuse did not come as a surprise either. Many doctors took sexual advantage of
their vulnerable female patients. They were raped, abused and given drugs to keep them quiet
and submissive. (31) This sort of female patient-male therapist abusive dynamic can also be
observed in Sylvia Plath’s novel The Bell Jar which will be analyzed in the following chapters.
Certain mental illnesses “experienced by most women to varying degrees throughout
their lives “ such as “depression, anxiety, eating disorders, excessive drug and alcohol
consumption, unresolved grief, deep feelings of dissatisfaction, loneliness, disillusionment,
emptiness, meaninglessness, low self-esteem, guilt, self-blaming, self-hatred” are said to have
as root cause oppression. (McLellan 111)
According to statistics, “Three common problem-areas for women suffering the effects
of oppression are: anxiety and panic conditions, depression and eating disorders. “says
McLellan. (136)
Lastly, a very important remark McLellan makes is that, experiencing multiple
oppressions, increases the chances of getting depression. If one person is susceptible to
judgement and marginalization based on “gender, race, class, disability, sexual orientation” or
a combination of such, then said individual is likely to develop a sort of depressive state.
Considering the effects of oppression on a person’s psyche, it can certainly be acknowledged
that there is a connection between depression and oppression, depression most likely being the
result of oppression. (140)

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 I.3.2. Women, men and madness

When it comes to mad women, women patients take up the role of “wives” and
“daughters” when being clinically treated by male professionals, often being mistreated and
seen as less than “treat them as if female misery, by biological definition, exists outside the
realm of what is considered human or adult.” (Chesler 84)
According to Phyllis Chesler, women are more susceptible to behave, according to
societal standards, more inappropriately due to being constrained to the strict set of gender
roles and expectations that society has put on them. Because of these limitations, women have
a higher risk of being labeled mentally ill or hospitalized compared to their male counterparts.
Men on the other hand, can show plenty of deranged behaviors with little to no consequences
where even their toxic behavior can be included within the “normal male behavior range”.
Therefore, society being more permissive of such ill-tempered behaviors of men, demonstrates
that men tend to not be labeled or seen as mad as easily as women are. (140)
Furthermore, help-seeking women who practice self-harming behaviors risk “being punished
for their conditioned and socially approved self-destructive behavior” by the female hating
medical professionals under the confining walls of psychiatric hospitals. (Chesler 140)
It was thought that women’s emotional feedback in regards to traumatic events was
often turned inwards in contrast with men, who are stereotypically known to express their
feelings in an aggressive, direct outward manner. For women, the negative emotional reaction
is turned towards the self and therefore depression can be perceived in contrast with aggression,
as a “female response to disappointment or loss.” (144)
Women who experience mental illness and exhibit their symptoms are not particularly
met with open mindedness but rather a strong form of hostility, predominantly coming from
the male doctors as well as the other men in their life who tend to view the women’s turbulent
inner world as an “inconvenience” or their “behavior as annoying, stubborn, childish, and
tyrannical” and as a result, women are looked down on, mistreated or “treated with disbelief
and pity emotional distance, physical brutality, economic and sexual deprivation, drugs, shock
therapy, and psychiatric diagnoses.” (140)
Even when it comes to suicide, women are still met with hostility and shame instead of
a helping hand. The act itself of taking one’s life is seen as some sort of “gender rejection”.
Chesler very well highlights this idea:
Physical action—even the exquisitely private act of taking one’s own life—is very
difficult for women. Conditioned female behavior is more comfortable with, and is
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 defined by, psychic and emotional self- destruction. Women are conditioned to
experience physicality—be it violent, destructive, or pleasurable—more in the presence
of another, or at male hands, than alone or at (their own) female hands. Female suicide
attempts are not so much realistic “calls for help” or hostile inconveniencing of others
as they are the assigned baring of the powerless throat, signals of ritual readiness for
self-sacrifice. Like female tears, female suicide attempts constitute an essential act of
resignation and helplessness—which alone can command temporary relief or secondary
rewards. As we have noted, however, women who try to kill themselves are not
necessarily treated very kindly. Suicide attempts are the grand rites of “femininity”—
i.e., ideally, women are supposed to “lose” in order to “win.” Women who succeed at
suicide are, tragically, outwitting or rejecting their “feminine” role, and at the only price
possible: their death. (153)
When a person rejects their assigned gender role or acts out “the devalued female role”
society places these individuals in the “mad” category. Based on the amount of acted out
assigned female roles, women can get different diagnoses from the most common feminine
ones such as “depression,” “suicide attempts,” “anxiety neuroses,” “paranoia,” eating
disorders, self-mutilation, or “promiscuity to the less feminine ones such as “schizophrenia,”
“lesbianism,” or “promiscuity”. As Chesler further remarks, “promiscuity,” like “frigidity,” is
both a “female” and a “non-female” trait: it can either mean a flight into or a flight from
“femininity.”(162)
When it comes to men and madness, it is interesting to see how at the core of it all,
femininity, here too, is deeply hated. According to Chesler, feminine men seem to be put in the
same category as women and treated in a similar inequitable manner. As a result, if they happen
to display traditionally female associated roles they are often given labels such as
“schizophrenic” or homosexual.” (163)
On the other side of the spectrum, masculine men who are part of minority groups, “too
young, too poor, or non- white—are usually incarcerated as “criminals” or as “sociopaths,”
rather than as “schizophrenics” or “neurotics.” In order to be “men,” less powerful men in our
society have to “steal” what more powerful men can “buy.” The kinds of behaviors that are
considered “criminal” and “mentally ill” are sex-typed” (163)
Various research shows that the number of women experiencing and labeling
themselves as mentally ill outnumbers men. As Clisby and Holdsworth point out, “ the
construction of mental health as a ‘woman’s problem’ creates a cultural barrier for men who
would benefit from accessing support within the sector.” This aspect not only keeps men
17
secluded from receiving proper care but also traps them into the toxic male gender role. (39)
Ussher as well as other feminist researchers, have noticed the same prevailing status quo “for
centuries, women have occupied a unique place in the annals of insanity” and women dominate
in “diagnoses of madness, from the `hysteria' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, to
`neurotic' and mood disorders in the twentieth and twenty-century.” (1)
On the other hand, “some depression epidemiologists, who look at depression from a
statistical vantage point, have postulated that women do not actually suffer from depression
twice as often as men” but that both women and men have a different way of experiencing it.
(Sheffield 49)
As Chesler already pointed out and I also mentioned above, men tend to have an
outward way of dealing with situations while women tend to internalize more. Taking this
theory into consideration, that men and women are somehow fundamentally different and
experience depression or mental illness differently, it is said that women get depressed over
relationships and men about achievement-related issues but “emerging research may prove that
this is yet an- other stereotypic shibboleth.” (Sheffield 48)
Johnson, Mclellan, Clisby and Holdsworth all recognize the impact constructed gender
roles in patriarchal societies have on a woman’s psyche. Both oppression and gender role
stereotypes can contribute to the risk of developing mental illness in women. Clisby and
Holdsworth state this belief boldly “women’s gendered roles and socio-cultural constructions
of femininity can have a particularly negative impact on their mental wellbeing at points in
their lives.” (51)
Due to societal pressure, men tend to not open up about their feelings, problems or
health issues “unless they were incurred in an acceptably masculine arena such as in the
workplace or on the sports field”. (Clisby and Holdsworth 53) The reason for this is because in
patriarchal societies, feelings are associated with women and weakness and thus admitting to
having problems as a man is “unmanly”. What this does is that it “perpetuates the feminisation
of mental illness, both statistically and perceptually: it becomes a woman’s problem, another
illustration of why women are ‘the weaker sex’.” Of course, this “feminisation of mental
illness” also has a negative effect on men, “perpetuating the myth of the hegemonic male to
which all men should aspire.” (53)

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 Chapter II : Female depression illustrated in The Bell Jar

II.1 Esther Greenwood’s depression

II.1.1. Introduction

The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath is recognized to be a bildungsroman or coming of age

novel which revolves around “the social and psychological, portraying American womanhood
in the 1950s” (Bloom 18) where the protagonist, a young woman, Esther Greenwood struggles
with maintaining her authenticity in a society where the role of the woman is limited to
domestic duties and where gender roles and patriarchy prevail. She is pressured by society to
fit the mold of a woman and conform to gender roles but despite that, she still fights to
accomplish her dreams, which is to become a writer and an adventurer. As the story unravels,
we can observe Esther’s mental health slowly deteriorating as she encounters many
disappointments both from the academic world as well as her close relationships.
According to critics, “The Bell Jar is often considered a roman à clef, with Esther
Greenwood’s descent into mental illness paralleling Plath’s own experiences” (Bloom 13).
Feminist critics have recognized the important issues this novel revels,“ a powerful critique of
the repression of women in the 1950s and as a portrayal of one woman’s struggle within such
a society and her attempt to assert control over her life.”(Bloom 14). Another critic, Paula
Bennett considers that “the novel’s principal focus is on the heroine’s interaction with the world
at large and particularly on the pressure put on young women in our culture to conform to a
stereotyped view of femininity if they wish to achieve social, as opposed to professional,
success”. (qtd. In Bloom 19)
Speaking of the major themes, the following can be identified in the novel : “patriarchal
society’s pressures on women to conform to an oppressive role and the fragmentation of
identity”.(19) Furthermore, another minor theme which overshadows the novel is the obsession
with death. Motifs such as blood, medical equipment, cadavers or dead babies also contribute
to the theme of death.

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II.1.2. The beginning of Esther’s descent: her symptoms

When it comes to Esther’s symptoms of depression, they don’t fail to be visible.

Beginning with the first few lines of the novel, Esther seems to be distressed in regards to the
Rosenbergs who got electrocuted that summer. This initial obsession with the electroshock
therapy foreshadows hers but also gives us an invitation into the dark aspects of her mind. She
expresses her feelings in regards to the situation; she feels repulsed but simultaneously has a
particular curiosity to know what it would be like to experience it:
The idea of being electrocuted makes me sick, and that’s all there was to read about in
the papers--goggle-eyed headlines staring up at me on every street corner and at the
fusty, peanut-smelling mouth of every subway. It had nothing to do with me, but I
couldn’t help wondering what it would be like, being bummed alive all along your
nerves. (Plath 1)
The ‘goggle-eyed’ headlines and the ‘peanut-smelling mouth’ could also conjure the
mental representation of the post-electrocution body – bulging eyes staring vacantly, mouth
open, unpleasant smells foreshadowing putrefaction in the hot air of the summer city.
“Chapters 1 and 2 set up the juxtaposition between the ideal life that a talented, lucky
American girl was “supposed” to expect and Esther’s actual experiences.” (Bloom 21) In these
chapters, Esther Greenwood reflects on her feelings and reveals her inner struggles with
emptiness or her depressed mood. As we know, emptiness is a characteristic of depression
found in the DSM. From being a poor country girl to being an editor at a magazine Ladies’
Day in New York, Esther is confronted with an inner conflict. She expects to feel a certain way
but she is met with disappointment and a feeling of doom after comparing herself to the other
girls who were seemingly happy and thriving; “I guess I should have been excited the way
most of the other girls were, but I couldn’t get myself to react.“ (Plath 2) Instead, she felt as
though she did not belong amongst them, as though her new life couldn’t spark any joy for her;
“I felt very still and very empty, the way the eye of a tornado must feel, moving dully along in
the middle of the surrounding hullabaloo.” (2) Her interaction with other characters make her
feel out of place and she experiences a sort of isolation, both external, from other people but
also an inner isolation where her own mind becomes quiet; “The silence depressed me. It wasn’t
the silence of silence. It was my own silence.” (Plath 15)

20
 As it can be noted, ever since the beginning we are made aware of Esther’s inner world
and thoughts and the feelings she describes such as emptiness, inability to feel pleasure and a
general depressed mood which fit the two DSM criteria for major depression :
“Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the
day, nearly every day and depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as
indicated by either subjective report (e.g., feels sad, empty, or hopeless) or observation
made by others.” (American Psychiatric Association 125)
Perhaps one of the most triggering aspects that made Esther’s mental health decay even
more was the rejection letter from the summer creative writing school. The rejection was the
pivotal moment which slowly made her get worse to the point where she contemplated death
and suicide.
Since writing was her passion, the letter only intensified her already present depressive
symptoms, in turn, making her feel hopeless and as though she had no future; “I grew gloomier
and gloomier.” (71) and “ I had nothing to look forward to.”(96) As the story unravels, Esther
continues to show other signs of depression, this time more physical; “I hadn’t washed my hair
for three weeks, either. I hadn’t slept for seven nights.” (104) These symptoms further highlight
the severity of her depression, symptoms which are stated in the DSM as “Fatigue or loss of
energy nearly every day. “and “Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.” (125)
Due to societal pressure to conform to her assigned role that of being a mother and a
housewife and her own self-imposed pressure to achieve an academic career, Esther grows
more and more troubled and is unable to cope. Her need to succeed does not meet with what
the 1950s society wants her to become. This inner struggle with her authenticity leads her to
grow mad and develop self-esteem issues, a symptom also present in the criteria for depression:
“Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate “(125)
In addition, because she has multiple aspirations, she tends to feel trapped knowing she
has to choose just one goal, “Plath describes the battle that Esther Greenwood must wage in
order to hear her own muse and create her own language.” (Boyer 200) The inner struggle to
balance both a domestic life and a career seem futile to her. In the novel, this is reflected by
the metaphor of the fig tree:
I saw my life branching out before me like the green fig tree in the story. From the tip
of every branch, like a fat purple fig, a wonderful future beckoned and winked. One fig
was a husband and a happy home and children, and another fig was a famous poet and
another fig was a brilliant professor, and another fig was Ee Gee, the amazing editor,
and another fig was Europe and Africa and South America, and another fig was
21
 Constantin and Socrates and Attila and a pack of other lovers with queer names and
offbeat professions, and another fig was an Olympic lady crew champion, and beyond
and above these figs were many more figs I couldn’t quite make out… (62)

As her symptoms continue to worsen, Esther Greenwood decides to visit a psychiatrist,

at first Dr. Gordon and later the female doctor Nolan. Dr. Gordon tries to restore her mental
health to a healthy state but fails. He represents “the patriarchal power of the medical
establishment” (Bloom 41) Due to the fact that his methods failed to help her, he decides to use
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) which also contributes to the worsening of her symptoms and
debilitating her further; “I wondered what terrible thing it was that I had done.” (118) She loses
her autonomy and becomes powerless in the hands of a man who tries to “fix her” or rather,
make her become senseless and submissive. This procedure is deeply painful to her so much
so that she threatens to kill herself if it is done to her again, “If anyone does that to me again
I’ll kill myself.” (155) this event scars her emotionally and soon she becomes suicidal which
is an important symptom of her depression.

II.1.3. Causes of her depression

When it comes to the causes of Esther’s depression, we can definitely identify a number
of patterns.
To begin with, what seems to be the most apparent when it comes to Esther’s depression
is oppression. Oppression appears to be a central problem in her life as well as the pressures
society puts on Esther at the beginning stages of her adulthood. The relationships she has with
other characters reveals this aspect. All the male characters behave in a misogynistic and
condescending way towards her which in turn led her to become more and more depressed and
disappointed. Furthermore, society pressures and forces her to fit the female gender role which
she is obviously against and struggles with. Her desire to become a writer, an artist is in direct
opposition with what society expects of her, which is to become a housewife with children but
Esther considers this to be an impediment in her career.
Another possible cause of her depression is the death of her father which is not talked
about very much. In chapter 7 of the novel, Esther gets a flashback while trying to court
Constantin, a language interpreter. She reflects on the fact that she had never grieved the death
of her father at the age of 9 because her mother tried to protect her from the pain and acted as

22
though it was not something she should do, “I thought how strange it had never occurred to me
before that I was only purely happy until I was nine years old.” (Plath 60) Her mother’s
controlling behavior makes her repress her feelings and although Esther does not perceive it to
be a direct cause of her depression, it plays an important role. Parker makes a connection
between the type of parenting received and the effects it has on a child:
The type of parenting received can also be a distal stressor. Low levels of care and lack
of affection from a parent increase the chance of depression, as does exposure to a
parent who is controlling and overprotective. Low levels of parental care may make the
child insecure—acting as a direct stressor—which in turn can lead to a child developing
a low sense of self-worth. This creates a vulnerability in the adult to stressful events
that reflect on self-esteem.” (49)
Furthermore, another possible cause of her depression is her drive towards
perfectionism.. Taking into account the fact that she was a straight A student for fifteen years,
receiving a rejection letter perhaps made her overreact, in turn, causing her to not able to cope
with rejection and disappointment.
Among the more common situations that produce disproportionate or inappropriate
reactions in the depression-prone patient are failing to reach a particular goal, being
excluded from a group, being rejected by another person, receiving criticism, and not
receiving expected approval, encouragement, or guidance. (Beck and Alford 309)

II.2. Women in patriarchal societies

II.2.1. Oppression: The male doctor vs the female patient

The dynamic between the male doctor versus the female patient set between the walls
of a hospital represents the perfect setting for oppression to occur. According to patriarchal
beliefs, such institutions are male centered thus permitting abuse and misuse of power to
happen at a greater extent. As I’ve already mentioned in a previous chapter, Chesler argues that
because women are more open with their feelings and more likely to seek help, the number of
female patients in psychiatric wards is higher than the male counterpart. As a result, men are
predominately seen in the medical field due to their position in patriarchal societies and women

23
as patients. Moreover, the confinement of women to strict gender roles allows for “madness”
to thrive amongst them, “since women are allowed fewer total behaviors and are more strictly
confined to their role-sphere than men are, women, more than men, will commit more
behaviors that are seen as ill or unacceptable. (Chesler 140)
There are a few significant scenes in the novel where this kind of doctor- patient
dynamic stands out. Firstly, Esther’s relationship with her boyfriend, Buddy Willard gives the
reader insight into her thoughts and feelings related to male doctors as well as her general
feelings towards men. In one scene, Buddy Willard who is aspiring to become a doctor,
encourages her to visit him at the hospital where he shows her a gruesome scene of a pregnant
woman giving birth. This scene is significant because we find out Esther’s beliefs surrounding
motherhood and also men. According to Bloom, this “scene depicts the power of doctors over
a female patient.” (43) At the hospital, Esther sees gruesome things and jars of aborted babies
but the sight of the woman giving birth is most scarring. She recognizes the pain of being a
mother and the suffering giving birth entails as well as the treatment she receives during the
most important moment of her life. The doctors give the woman drugs to keep her under control
and also make her forget how painful it was. In regards to this situation, Hawthorn Jeremy
mentions that “the labor drug symbolizes the way men force women to deny crucial aspects of
their experience in order to conform with what men want them to be”(qtd. In McCann 42)
Moreover, even childbirth and labor “become other avenues of men’s control over
women.”(McCann 42)
When it comes to the other male characters, all of them behave in a condescending way towards
her and it is very apparent what they think of her.

Lenny Shepherd, Buddy Willard, Marco, and Dr. Gordon all offer options of life roles
for Esther. However, each male character has already decided what he thinks Esther
should become. By trying to force Esther into roles that she has not chosen for herself,
the male characters thwart Esther’s ability to make decisions and oppress her. If the
ability to choose is a life-sustaining activity, then the inability to choose results in the
decaying of life. (McCann 39)

The most significant scene that stands at the core of this novel is the encounter with
her male psychiatrist, Dr. Gordon. Ever since the beginning, we find out that he is not
particularly a compassionate man and the way he interacts with Esther is rather rushed, having
as core belief, the idea of “fixing her” rather than offering suitable help. When his plan fails to
work, he uses his last resort which is electroconvulsive therapy. This type of treatment

24
represents the patriarchal power which Dr. Gordon uses to oppress her. The treatment is
supposed to help and be a calming experience but the way Dr. Gordon applies it, causes her
anguish. She is awake through the whole process and feels everything vividly. This episode
connects back to her witnessing the pregnant woman’s labor and ultimately proves that men
use these medical tools to further oppress and keep women submissive. As Chesler pointed out,
women seeking help is a sort of inconvenience to these men and as a result they use tools to
silence them and keep them in a non-reactive state. Bloom identifies that, “the electric shock
is a symbol of power and death; Esther associates this form of therapy with punishment, a kind
of sentencing”. (43) Following her painful treatment, she descends into a deeper depression
and attempts suicide. When she is admitted to another hospital she is dissociative , is not able
to feel connected to herself but also has trouble recognizing herself in the mirror which in turn
worsens her overall state of mind, “But the person in the mirror was paralyzed and too stupid
to do a thing.”(121)
On the other hand, what is noteworthy is her reaction to the same treatment given by a
female psychiatrist, which given the time frame, was uncommon to see, “I was surprised to
have a woman. I didn’t think they had woman psychiatrists.”(153)
In the second part of the novel, a famous editor Philomena Guinea offers to pay for a
private hospital where Esther is admitted. Here, Esther meets Dr. Nolan with whom she feels
comfortable right away. From their conversation, Esther confesses the painful treatment she
underwent with the male doctor which perhaps is also a feeling Dr. Nolan understands, “What
I hate is the thought of being under a man’s thumb,” I had told Doctor Nolan. “A man doesn’t
have a worry in the world, while I’ve got a baby hanging over my head like a big stick, to keep
me in line.”(181) Dr. Nolan is compassionate, caring and validating which makes Esther
confide in her. Despite using the same ECT treatment, the way she does it is different and this
time, with her guidance, Esther receives the benefits of the treatment. She is calm and she feels
liberated and as though she can finally breathe. On top of that, Esther recalls the metaphor of
the bell jar and explains that she feels it finally lifted. This signifies a sense of freedom she
experiences, perhaps a freedom from patriarchy.
As far as electroshock therapy is concerned, Tracy Brain recognizes the negative impact
of it ,“psychic, social and physical: a literal and metaphoric poison that circulates between the
human beings who live in post-industrial capitalist culture, and pay a high price for the privilege
of technology and convenience.” (qtd.in McCann 48)

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II.2.2. The fragmented female body

Esther’s personality is seen through the lens of the relationship she has with other
characters but more specifically male characters. Because the society is built on patriarchy,
Esther is subjected to oppression and mistreatment. This aspect is especially evident because
the male characters treat her in a condescending way to the point where she becomes
fragmented. Her body no longer belongs to her because all these men try to take control of her
and tell her how to live her life, how to behave. She is subjected to a multitude of gender roles
but tries her best to not participate in them. As I have mentioned in the chapter on patriarchy,
Johnson states that patriarchy has at its core, the idea of male domination and control. This
obsession with control is seen throughout the entire novel. Esther is raped both physically by a
young man Marco with whom she goes on a blind date with and psychologically by Dr Gordon.
She is mistreated, her body violated, her mind intoxicated by a society that is limiting, a society
which discriminates and hates women for the mere reason of being women, “the female body
is inebriated, poisoned, broken, assaulted, depressed, shocked, overdosed, and bled." (Boyer
200)
The relationship she has with Buddy Willard allows us to see her psyche and personality
as well as beliefs. Society expects her to become a mother, housewife and be submitted to her
husband. Of course, for Esther this represents a very limiting experience and goes against her
aspirations and need to have a career. Not only does she fear marriage but also dreads it. From
her conversations with Buddy, we find out that if he marries her she will have to give up on
her passion for writing and focus her attention on raising children, “She decides that marriage
would only ruin her ambitions and destroy her desire to write” (McCann 35) Instead, she does
not want to marry him and when he proposes, she rejects him, “I’m never going to get married.”
(76) Because this goes against her identity and her passions she fights these gender roles and
becomes fragmented in the process. Esther is deeply aware of her female condition and does
not want to be submissive to a man, “the trouble was, I hated the idea of serving men in any
way.”(62)

Throughout the story Esther paints Buddy in a negative light, he “is studying to be a
doctor, but instead of associating him with healing, Esther connects him to violence and the
grotesque.”(Bloom 30) She is aware of his condescending behavior and as a result distances
herself from him, ultimately, rejecting his marriage proposal. He does not respect her choices
or beliefs and instead, invalidates these experiences for her. The scene of the pregnant woman

26
giving birth also” serves as an early example of the medical establishment’s control over a
woman’s body, foreshadowing Esther’s later experience with electroshock therapy.” (Bloom
30) Dr. Gordon is another male character who oppresses her. He is her psychiatrist and it can
be said that he stands symbolically for patriarchy. Within the walls of the hospital, Esther
becomes trapped, mistreated, abused and given a cruel treatment, the electroshock therapy.
Because the treatment was given in an impetuous manner, Esther Greenwood experiences a
sense of disquietude, anguish and even more emotional turmoil. The pain she experiences can
also be associated with the general pain she feels living in an oppressive society as a bright
young woman with career aspirations. After receiving the electroshock therapy, Esther feels
as though her “mind glided off, like a skater, into a large empty space, and pirouetted there,
absently” (Plath 119) This reaction to the ECT emphasizes a sort of fragmentation, the pain left
her incapacitated and in consequence, her “mind separates from her body” (Boyer 215)
Rejecting her female gender role has a negative effect on her life, she becomes mad in
the eyes of society and takes the role of an “other”. Not only is she a young woman but also a
daring writer, trying to find her way, navigating through the challenges she encounters. Every
man she interacts with makes her lose a part of herself. She becomes crippled due to their abuse
and in turn, her mind splits, her body breaks down, living with a scar that is difficult to heal.
Furthermore, another form of abuse she experiences is rape which strips her completely
of her power. At a dance party, Marco a woman-hating man who sees women as less than
human, forces Esther to dance with him, smacks her drink away from her and drags her onto
the dance floor: “Marco bent toward me with a tight smile, and in one scoop my drink took
wing and landed in a potted palm. Then Marco gripped my hand in such a way I had to choose
between following him on to the floor or having my arm torn off.” (Plath 87) As the scene
progresses, he pushes her into a mud pit and tries to take control of her body, he is violent and
uses derogatory words to describe her. The word “slut” echoes as he pushes himself onto her,
“It’s happening,” I thought. “It’s happening. If I just lie here and do nothing it will happen.
Marco set his teeth to the strap at my shoulder and tore my sheath to the waist. I saw the
glimmer of bare skin, like a pale veil separating two bloody-minded adversaries.”(89) Despite
the fact that Marco attempts to rape her, she fights back, biting and hitting him to the point
where blood stains their clothing. This gesture of fighting back represents her will and power
to fight against patriarchy and to stand up for herself.
Karen Warren pointed out that, “Probably no behavior of domination is more
symptomatic and symbolic of patriarchy than rape.” (qtd. in McCann 44) Esther becomes
fragmented the minute she loses her autonomy. A part of her is taken away through the means
27
of violence causing her to feel disconnected both from herself and the world. Because Esther
is deeply aware of what is happening and recognizes male dominance, there are instances when
she takes back her power, when she feels in charge of her own body and life.
Moreover, another scene to highlight the fragmentation that is happening within her is
the moment when she loses her virginity to Irwin, a math professor. She feels empowered by
Dr. Nolan who gave her a contraceptive device, a diaphragm which causes her to feel a sense
of liberation. As a result, the device gives Esther the courage to want to be sexually active and
use her body for her own pleasure. This narrative ends with her getting a hemorrhage which is
not so common. The image of the bleeding body further highlights the pain a woman has to
endure in a society that is stifling, suffocating and unwelcoming of women. Interestingly,
despite this unfortunate event, Esther is able to stand up for herself and demand Irwin he pay
for her hospital bill which he eventually does.
Throughout the novel, Esther experiences situations which create a split within her and
“the major depression she experiences throws her body into a disabled state that affects all
aspects of her being, especially her thought processes. (Boyer 214) From the exposure to the
electroshock therapy done by Dr. Gordon to rape and sexual encounters with these men that
further amplify her inner struggles, Esther becomes fragmented and as Boyer puts it, “the
disabled female body is a phenomenon brought about by a hegemonic, patriarchal system.”
(Boyer 200) A part of her tries to stay authentic and affirm herself in the world as a writer and
another part fights with the patriarchal society which expects her to a fit a specific mold. Even
if the effects of patriarchy are clearly apparent, the oppressive behavior of men, rape,
breakdowns, suicide attempts, disappointments, rejection letters, Esther finds the courage to
stand up for herself.
Diane Bonds expresses that,
“The novel dramatizes a double bind for women in which, on the one hand, an authentic
self is one that is presumed to be autonomous and whole, entire to itself and clearly
bounded, and yet, in which, on the other hand, women have their identity primarily
through relationship to a man. It is the increasing tension of this double bind for Esther
which results in her breakdown. (Bonds)
Finally, just as I mentioned in Foucault, madness is the result of a separation with one’s
authentic truth, an aspect which can certainly be observed in the presented episodes above.
Esther by being a victim of oppresses loses a part of herself and as a result she becomes “mad”.

28
II.3. The Bell Jar

II.3.1. The metaphorical title explained

The title is significant for understanding the novel as a whole; the metaphor of the bell
jar encompasses the array of feelings Esther Greenwood experiences throughout her journey.
Literally, the bell jar represents a cylindrical bell-shaped glass cover used to enclose samples
in laboratories. This symbol foreshadows the electroshock therapy scene with Dr. Gordon
where Esther feels completely powerless in the hands of a compassionless man.
Butscher considers that the bell jar itself is “a sardonic echo of the hospital jar” and also
“a descending, imprisoning, airless, invisible glass jar”. He further explains that “It was the
perfect symbol for the smothering reality of a developing mental breakdown and the growing
detachment first from phenomena and other people and then from self.”(501)
Mason Harris, another critic points out that the “novel is enclosed in many prisons, all
expanded forms of the bell jar” (qtd. In McCann 38) One of the many prisons Harris speaks of
is patriarchy and the pressure society puts on women to conform to strict set of rules. As
McCann states, “Plath uses the imagery of enclosure to show unhealthy patriarchal social
systems that are harmful to Esther”. (38)
The metaphor of the bell jar is used in relation to Dr. Gordon who performs electroshock
therapy on her which has a stultifying effect both on her psyche but also physical body, “the
control of the patriarchy, as expressed through Dr. Gordon and the other male characters,
causes Esther to feel trapped and oppressed. Plath creates many images of enclosure. ( McCann
48)
The only instance where Esther feels relief in regards to the bell jar is when Dr. Nolan,
a woman psychiatrist takes charge of her and offers help. Because the bell jar is associated with
patriarchy, having a female doctor who is compassionate makes Esther feel comfortable and
more at ease, “The bell jar hung, suspended, a few feet above my head. I was open to the
circulating air.” (Plath 176)

As Hawthorn writes on the symbol of the bell jar: “It allows the imprisoned sufferer to
see but not to connect with other people.” (qtd. McCann 53)

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 Conclusion

“By linking Esther’s personal struggles to larger cultural themes and events, Plath
paints an enduring portrait of a young girl coming of age in tumultuous times.” (McCann 72)
On a concluding note, the main idea which I have attempted to convey is that oppression
leads to depression, “oppression is at the root of most emotional and psychological problems
affecting women.”(McLellan 110) Closely observing Esther on her journey, we are shown her
remarkable character and will to fight for what she stands for.
The short introduction to depression that I provided gives us an understanding on the
illness and helps us identify it within her. As observed, Esther experiences low mood, no
pleasure in activities, self-esteem issues, suicidal thoughts and self-harm. Using this
psychological perspective, we familiarize ourselves with the symptoms and causes making it
easier to pin point them. Some of the causes of her depression include, oppression by men,
rejection letters/disappointments, the death of her father where he suppresses her feelings for
many years, mistreatment in the form of sexual assault, emotional abuse, and misogyny.
As Chesler and McLellan demonstrated, women are not seen in a particularly well light
when it comes to madness. Because they are women, they are likely to be treated as less than
human or as a “daughter or wife” especially by male psychiatrists. The nature of a patriarchal
society highlights theses mistreatments. If a woman rejects the assigned female role, in the eyes
of patriarchy she becomes “mad”.
Moreover, women who seek help are considered an inconvenience to the male doctors
and in such case they use different tools to keep them submissive and quiet. This idea is greatly
observed in The Bell Jar when Dr. Gordon uses electroshock therapy on her. His intensions are
to fix her not to improve her mental health in a compassionate way.
Using a feminist perspective, we become aware of the factors that cause Esther anguish
and at the top of the list, patriarchy with its male dominance and penchant for control to prevail.
When it comes to certain mental illnesses “experienced by most women to varying degrees
throughout their lives “ such as “depression, anxiety, eating disorders, excessive drug and
alcohol consumption, unresolved grief, deep feelings of dissatisfaction, loneliness,
disillusionment, emptiness, meaninglessness, low self-esteem, guilt, self-blaming, self-hatred”
are said to have as root cause oppression. (McLellan 111)
The relationship between Esther and all the male characters proves the character of
these men and the ingrained toxic beliefs that they continue to propagate. Esther suffers from

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being oppressed as a young woman writer and struggles to keep her identity intact. Even though
she is crippled by multiple impactful situations, she doesn’t truly stop the fight. She stands up
for herself and takes her power back.
Therefore, taking into consideration everything I’ve mentioned above and in all the
other chapters, I very strongly believe that the main cause of Esther Greenwood’s depression
was the oppressive society she lived in which stopped her from flourishing as an artist, thus
reducing her to a state of collapse.

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