Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A comprehensive overview on signal processing and artificial

intelligence techniques applications in classification of power
quality disturbances
Suhail Khokhar a,b,n, Abdullah Asuhaimi B. Mohd Zin a, Ahmad Safawi B. Mokhtar a,
Mahmoud Pesaran a
a
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysis (UTM), Malaysia
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Quaid e Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology (QUEST) Nawabshah Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The increasing trend towards renewable energy sources requires higher power quality (PQ) at the
Received 11 February 2015 generation, transmission and distribution systems. The PQ disturbances are produced due to the
Received in revised form nonlinear loads, power electronic converters, system faults and switching events. The utilities and
14 May 2015
consumers of electric power are expected to acquire ideal voltage and current waveforms at rated power
Accepted 15 July 2015
frequency. The development of new techniques for the automatic classification of PQ events is at present
a major concern. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review on the applications of digital
Keywords: signal processing, artificial intelligence and optimization techniques in the classification of PQ
Power quality disturbances disturbances. Various signal processing techniques used for the feature extraction such as Fourier
Signal processing
transform, wavelet transform, S-transform, Hilbert transform, Gabor transform and their hybrids have
Artificial intelligence
been reviewed. The artificial intelligent techniques used for the pattern recognition such as artificial
Optimization techniques
Feature extraction neural network, fuzzy logic, support vector machine are reviewed in detail. The optimization techniques
used for the optimal feature selection such as genetic algorithm, particle swarm optimization and ant
colony optimization are also reviewed. A comparison of various classification systems is presented in
tabular form which highlights the important techniques used in the field of PQ disturbance monitoring.
The comparison of research works carried out on the classification of PQ disturbances points out that
many researchers have focussed on the feature extraction and classification techniques. Only few
authors have used the feature selection techniques for selecting the best suitable features. This review
may be considered a valuable source for researchers as a reference point to explore the opportunities for
further improvement in the field of PQ classification.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1651
2. Power quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652
3. Power quality standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652
4. Feature extraction techniques in power quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652
4.1. Fourier transform based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
4.2. Kalman filter based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
4.3. Wavelet transform based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
4.3.1. Wavelet transform for disturbances detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
4.3.2. Continuous and discrete wavelet transforms for feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
4.3.3. Wavelet packet transform for feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
4.3.4. Miscellaneous wavelet transforms for feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654

n
Corresponding author at: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysis, Malaysia.
E-mail address: suhail@quest.edu.pk (S. Khokhar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.068
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663 1651

4.3.5. Wavelet transforms for data compression and de-noising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655

4.4. Stockwell-transform based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
4.5. Hilbert–Huang transform based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
4.6. Gabor transform based feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
4.7. Miscellaneous feature extraction techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
5. Artificial intelligence classification techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
5.1. Artificial neural network based classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
5.2. Support Vector Machine based classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
5.3. Fuzzy expert system based classifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
5.4. Neuro-fuzzy system based classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
5.5. Miscellaneous classification systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
6. Feature selection and parameter optimization techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
7. Comparative analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
8. Future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660

1. Introduction disturbances. The major steps usually involved in the automatic

Nowadays, the power quality monitoring has become an
important issue for modern power industry to protect the elec-
trical and electronic equipment and to identify the cause of the
disturbance [1]. The integration of renewable energy sources and
distributed generation in a conventional power system is one of
the major sources of PQ disturbances [2]. The increasing applica-
tion of solid-state switching devices, non-linear loads, rectifiers
and inverters, lighting controls, computer and data processing
equipment, protection and relaying equipments are also the
causes of the PQ disturbances. The PQ disturbances, if not
mitigated properly, may cause the overall interruption of the
power transmission and distribution networks. In literature, sev-
eral methodologies consisting of signal processing based feature
extraction, artificial intelligence based classifiers and heuristic
optimization techniques based optimal feature selection have been
proposed for the identification and classification of PQ
Fig. 1. Block diagram of PQ disturbances classification system.
classification of PQ disturbances are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The PQ disturbances are broadly classified into three categories
namely, the magnitude variations, sudden transients and steady-
state harmonics. The voltage/current magnitude variations such as
sag, swell and interruption have been observed in power system
networks due to inception of line faults and penetration of heavy
or light loads. The sudden changes in the operating conditions
such as switching of capacitor banks and lightning may cause
spikes or impulsive and oscillatory transients. The steady-state PQ
disturbances such as harmonics, flickers, notches are created due
to the applications of nonlinear loads and power electronic
converters [3]. These PQ disturbances may cause huge cost due
to equipment malfunction. Therefore, PQ disturbances need to be
monitored and mitigated continuously to restore the normal
power supply without any interruption. In complex and large
power systems, a huge amount of PQ disturbances data gathered is
difficult for analysis and monitoring. Thus, the intelligent and
automatic methodologies are required for the detection and
classification of these PQ disturbances in order to take preventive
actions by utilities and their customers about the load require-
ments under sudden changes of operating conditions.
Usually, many researchers in this area have applied one of the
renowned signal processing techniques for feature extraction and
complete the classification process by using an artificial intelli-
gence technique as a classifier. The signal processing techniques
provide some redundant features which affect the efficiency of the
classifiers. Besides, there is no discussion on how to set the best
parameters for the classifiers. Only few researchers have
attempted on optimization techniques for selecting the suitable
feature subset and parameter selection. In this regard, signal
processing techniques for feature extraction and artificial intelli-
gent techniques for the classification are the most important parts
of the pattern recognition of PQ disturbances. The feature extrac-
tion stage provides a set of statistical data to make analysis more
effective. The set of feature extraction is then used as inputs for the
classification systems. In spite of technical advancement in signal
processing techniques, the proper selection of feature extraction is
still a challenge. Thus the optimal feature selection techniques
have been proposed to retain the useful features and discard the
redundant features. The existing reviews [4–8] of the PQ distur-
bances classification methods in technical literature have not
much focused on the most recent signal processing and artificial
intelligence techniques as well as new optimal feature selection
1652 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663

methods. In this paper, a comprehensive and critical literature The increasing research interest in the field of power quality
review is presented for the detection and classification of power can be observed immediately from Fig. 2 which shows the
quality disturbances. The classification of PQ disturbances is based statistics of articles published per year indexed by the Scopus
on the applications of signal processing, artificial intelligence and database [11] by using the exact search phrase power quality in
optimization techniques. The state-of-art techniques used for the the title of each article. The interest in the field of PQ has been
analysis of the PQ disturbances are discussed. An extensive review increased since the year 2001. The integration of renewable energy
on these techniques provides a clear perspective to the researchers sources and distributed generation into the power grids utilize
and engineers working on the classification methods of PQ power electronic technology which may cause numerous PQ
disturbances. disturbances in the electric power systems. Therefore, further
The paper is organized as follows. The introduction is presented research trend in the area of PQ analysis will be increased in
in Section 1. The power quality and its standards are briefly future due to the more applications of the power electronic
discussed in Sections 2 and 3 respectively. The reviews of feature converters used in distributed generation and renewable energy
extraction techniques, artificial intelligence technique and optimi- sources [12].
zation tools are presented in Sections 4–6. In Section 7, a table of
comparison of the classification techniques is described. Finally,
the future scope and conclusion are covered in Sections 8 and 9 3. Power quality standards
respectively.
The PQ standards have established the consistent description
and electromagnetic phenomena of the PQ disturbances used in
2. Power quality the monitoring data. The nominal operating conditions of the
voltage/current supply and their parameters variation within the
The attempt of PQ definition might be absolutely different in power supply and the load equipment are described. Moreover,
the views of utilities, consumers and equipment suppliers. It is the selection of the appropriate monitoring instruments, their
actually a consumer-driven problem, therefore, it can be defined limitations, application techniques and the interpretation of
as, “any sudden change in the normal operation of voltage, current results have also been illustrated. The IEEE 1159 standard [13]
or frequency which causes malfunction or failure of the consumer and the European EN 50160 standard [14] classify the PQ dis-
equipment” [9]. Any sudden change or deviation manifested in the turbances according to thresholds of the root mean square (rms)
voltage, current or frequency from the normal rating is known as a values of voltage and current deviations with respect to nominal
PQ disturbance which results in failure or malfunctioning of the operating conditions during the time of disturbance. The IEC
power equipment. The main aspects of the PQ research involve 61000-4-30 standard [15] has established the reliable methods
basic concepts and definitions, simulations and analysis, instru- for measurement and interpretation of electrical parameters in 50/
mentation and measurement, causes, effects and solutions of PQ 60 Hz power systems.
disturbances [10]. The ultimate consequences of the PQ distur-
bances and the resulting issues are the huge economic loss of
equipment failure. 4. Feature extraction techniques in power quality

600 554 The feature extraction process is the most important part of the
499 pattern recognition system applied to find the distinctive features
484
500 475
from the obtained transform coefficients of the original signals.
Number of Papers published

The PQ disturbances can be detected and classified by using a

400 355 362
326 feature extraction technique. The extracted features subsequently
315
300 can be used for the classification of PQ disturbances. Features can
245 255
222 either be extracted from the original signals or form some time–
200 frequency transformation techniques. Various signal processing
136 129
115 techniques have been used for the feature extraction such as
100 54 61 63 61 60 56
33
Fourier transform, Wavelet transforms, Stockwell transform, Hil-
10 14 11 17
bert transform, Kalman filter, Gabor transform, and their hybrids.
0
A state-of-art taxonomy of the signal processing techniques used
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

for the feature extraction of the PQ disturbances is shown in Fig. 3.

Year of Publication These transformations are used to obtain information in time and
Fig. 2. Number of published papers each year in the field of Power Quality (indexed frequency domains. The selection of the most suitable features of
in Scopus). the PQ events is of extreme importance in order to achieve the

Signal Processing
Techniques

Fourier Wavelet Hilbert- Miscellaneous

Kalman Gabor
transform transform S-transform Huang transforms
Filter transforms Transforms

DFT CWT DST TFR CT SP

EKF
FFT DWT DOST HHT GT MM SLT TEO
UKF PC SK AFD
STFT DWPT FDST

Fig. 3. Taxonomy of feature extraction techniques.

 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
highest accuracy of the classification [16]. However, the perfor-
mance of a classifier depends upon the extracted feature vector
[17]. Therefore, instead of designing a complicated classifier, the
distinctive features of the patterns are the main focus of the
pattern recognition systems. The statistical parameters of the
transformed coefficients of the PQ disturbances can be calculated
in order to reduce the data size and to obtain distinctive features
of the PQ disturbances. The most widely used statistical para-
meters for the classification of PQ disturbances are energy,
entropy, minimum, maximum, standard deviation, mean, rms
value, etc. and their combination.
4.1. Fourier transform based feature extraction
The Fourier Transform (FT) is the most widely used computa-
tion algorithm for the steady-state analysis of the stationary
signals by extracting spectrum at specific frequencies. The signal
to be analysed can be represented as a sum of constituent
sinusoids of different frequencies [18]. The FT only detects the
existence of certain frequency component in a signal without any
information of time at which this frequency component appears.
Thus the time information is ignored in transformation of the
signal to the frequency domain. The FT of a continuous-time signal
xðt Þ is defined as [19]
Z 1
X ðf Þ ¼ xðt Þe  jωt dt ð1Þ
1
The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) that is used for computer
analysis can be expressed as
X
N 1
X½k ¼ x½ne  j2π kn=N
n¼0
The PQ disturbances signals are usually non-stationary and
transitory in nature. Therefore, the DFT is inappropriate to detect
the abrupt changes in PQ events such as their starting and end
points. The DFT can only be suitable for the stationary PQ
disturbances. The DFT represents the discrete signals that repeat
themselves periodically with infinite length. The Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) algorithm gives exactly the same result as the
DFT in much less time. The FFT is widely used for harmonic
analysis of a PQ events [20]. In [21], authors used windowed FFT
for power quality assessment. The windowed FFT [22] is a time
version of the discrete time FT. However, the signal parameters
(frequencies, amplitudes, phases) cannot be obtained accurately
due to leakage, picket fence, and aliasing effects produced by FFT
[23]. The Short-Time Fourier-Transform (STFT), an alternative of
FFT, analyses the time–frequency decomposition of non-stationary
signals by splitting the signals into small sections where each
section is assumed stationary. Unlike DFT, the discrete STFT [19] is
multiplied by a window function w½n  m whose position is
translated in time by m:
X
STFT½k; m ¼ x½nw½n  me  j2π kn=N ð3Þ
n
where w½n  m in its simplest form is the rectangular window
function
 using Multi-resolution Analysis (MRA) techniques [32]. The signal
1 if 0 r n m r N  1
w½n ¼ ð4Þ
0 otherwise
Thus the STFT determines the sinusoidal frequency and phase
contents of local sections of signals as they change over time. Also,
it extracts several stationary and rotating frames of signals with a
window moving with time. The discrete STFT has been applied in
[24] for time–frequency analysis of non-stationary PQ distur-
bances by decomposing the time-varying signals into time–fre-
quency domain components. The STFT can detect transient
1653
positions in disturbance data by choosing a small window size.
Although the STFT has a fixed resolution for all frequencies, once
the size of the window is chosen, it enables an easier analysis for
harmonics signals. Hence, it is difficult to analyse non-stationary
signals with STFT operating in a fixed window size. The selection
of the size of the window is the deficiency of the STFT. Applying
large window size results in a good frequency resolution and a bad
time resolution and as the window size reduces, the frequency
resolution decreases and the time resolution increases. Therefore,
the STFT cannot provide accurate time–frequency information
simultaneously to classify the PQ disturbances according to IEEE
standard 1159. In [25], authors presented unique features that
characterize PQ events and methodologies to extract them from
recorded voltage and/or current waveforms using Fourier and
Wavelet Transforms (WT).
4.2. Kalman filter based feature extraction
The Kalman Filter (KF) is a well-known signal processing tool
used as a state-space model to estimate accurate amplitude,
phase-angle and frequency of the noise riding harmonic signal
by breaking it into constant elements and fluctuating elements in
its envelope [26]. Mathematically, for a given observation data, KF
is described by a set of state equations and a set of observation
equations as follows [27]:
State equations : xðnÞ ¼ Aðn  1Þxðn  1Þ þ wðnÞ
Observation equations : zðnÞ ¼ C ðnÞxðn  1Þ þ vðnÞ ð5Þ
where xðnÞ, zðnÞ are state vector and observation vector respec-
tively. Aðn  1Þ is the state transition matrix, wðnÞ is a white noise.
ð2Þ
C ðnÞ connects the measurement zðnÞ with the state vector xðnÞ, vðnÞ
is a vector of observation noise. In [28] authors proposed a
combination of Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and KF with
Fuzzy Expert System (FES) for the identification and classification
of the PQ disturbances. The DWT was used to identify the noise in
the captured PQ signal and KF was used to speed up its rate of
convergence. The outputs of the KF were applied to FES for the
classification. A hybrid approach of ST and Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF) was proposed in [29] for the classification of the short
duration PQ disturbances. The Stockwell Transform (ST) was
proposed to detect and localize the signals whereas the EKF
technique was used to estimate the changes in amplitude, fre-
quency, phase and harmonic contents of the distorted signal. In
[30] a hybrid methodology using Unscented Kalman filter (UKF)
and modified Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithms was
proposed for tracking the amplitude, phase, frequency and har-
monic contents of PQ disturbances corrupted with a low signal-to-
noise ratio value.
4.3. Wavelet transform based feature extraction
The wavelet transform is an advanced signal processing tool
which performs a significant role of feature extraction for the
pattern recognition of PQ disturbances [31]. It has been proven as a
powerful feature extraction technique for PQ disturbances data by
to be analysed is decomposed into various scales of a short term
waveform called the “mother wavelet”. Unlike FT, the WT simul-
taneously provides time–frequency information of a signal which
makes it suitable for analysing time–frequency resolution of
signals. The WT coefficients hold the characteristics of the PQ
signals in the different frequency bands. The statistical parameters
such as the amplitude, the mean value, the standard deviation, the
energy distribution pattern and the entropy can be extracted from
the detail and approximation coefficients (cD and cA) of the WT
1654 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
[33]. Thus the application of WT is more suitable for the classifica-
tion of PQ disturbances. In literature, the WT has been used for
feature extraction, data compression and de-noising of the PQ
disturbances. The wavelet transform approaches offer continuous
WT (CWT), discrete WT (DWT) and wavelet packet transform
(WPT) methods for the feature extraction of signals. The CWT of a
time-continuous signal xðt Þ is defined as [34]
Z 1  
1 t b
CWT ða; bÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi xðt Þ ψ dt ð6Þ
jaj  1 a
where ψ ðtÞis "mother wavelet", a and b are the scale and transla-
tion parameters, respectively. In realistic applications, the CWT can
be transferred to discrete form via a sampling way. The DWT of the
discrete signal x(k) is employed to replace the CWT in (6)
 
1 X n  kb0 am
DWT ðm; nÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi xðkÞ ψ 0
ð7Þ
am
0 k
am
0
where a and b in (6) are replaced to be the functions of integers m
and n respectively. In (7), a0 and b0 are the discrete scale and
translation factor, respectively.
4.3.1. Wavelet transform for disturbances detection
The WT has been applied for the first time by Robertson et al.
[19], Santoso et al. [34] and Pillay et al. [35] for the detection of
nonstationary PQ signals. In [34], authors proposed WT approach
for the detection and localization of the PQ disturbances where
Multiresolution Signal Decomposition (MSD) technique was pro-
posed to decompose the signals into various scales and Squared
WT Coefficients (SWTC) were extracted for each type of PQ
disturbances. A proper classification tool was suggested to classify
the signals by using unique features extracted. In [19] the WT was
proposed to analyze the electromagnetic power system transients.
The MRA property was proposed for the detection of transient
disturbances and identification of their sources. In [35] the basic
theory of WT was applied to reconstruct non-stationary PQ
disturbances. It was proposed that various types of faults can be
classified by using the less number of wavelet coefficients.
Recently, a hybrid DWT based voltage sag/swell detection algo-
rithm was proposed in [36] consisting of db2 and db8 mother
wavelets to detect sag and swell with and without phase jumps.
Refs. [19,34–36] proposed the WT only for the detection of PQ
disturbance signals. However, none of them have used WT for the
feature extraction from PQ signals.
4.3.2. Continuous and discrete wavelet transforms for feature
extraction
Gaouda et al. proposed the WT based MSD technique to extract
the standard deviation [37] and root mean square [38] features of
the decomposed signals for the detection and classification of PQ
transient events. A WT based MSD technique was proposed in [39]
for the classification of Short Duration Variation (SDV) in the
power distribution systems. In [40] authors proposed the CWT
with its modulus local maxima properties as well as the DWT
based MSD and reconstruction properties for the detection of the
PQ disturbances and their classification even in noisy environ-
ment. In [41], authors proposed DWT to determine the magnitude
of voltage sag only and span of the sag. In [42] authors proposed
the Wavelet Energy Entropy (WEE) and Wavelet Entropy Weight
(WEW) features for the classification of transients disturbances
created by line faults and switching conditions. In [43] DWT–FFT
based PQ disturbances classification approach was proposed
where DWT based MSD technique with percentage Energy
Entropy of Squared Detailed Coefficient (EESDC) was used for
feature extraction and FFT was used for the classification. Another
hybrid approach of DWT–FFT based feature extraction technique
was proposed in [44] for making a decision based on the fuzzy
expert system to classify the PQ disturbances. The ability of the
WT of analysing nonstationary signals with the classification
capability of ANN were combined to develop a Wavelet Network
(WN) which made it possible for simultaneous and automated
detection and classification of transient. A wavelet network based
classification system of transients signals was proposed in [45].
The neurons of the first layer were substituted by wavelet nodes
and the activation functions by wavelet functions. In [46], a
combination of DWT and WN was proposed for the detection
and classification of a large number of PQ disturbances. In [47]
authors proposed Adaptive Wavelet Network (AWN) model for the
detection of power system disturbances. An AWN consists of two
subnetwork architectures; the wavelet layer network and adaptive
probabilistic network. The application of AWN was found suitable
in a dynamic environment to incorporate features with automatic
target adjustment and parameter tuning. In [48] authors proposed
Multi-Wavelet Transform (MWT) using MSD techniques working
together with multiple neural networks for the classification of the
transient disturbance type. In [49] authors proposed a Modified
Frequency Slice WT (MFSWT) based PNN classifier for the detec-
tion and classification of non-stationary PQ disturbances. The WT
based online methods of PQ disturbances detection were proposed
in [50,51]. The voltage disturbances were experimentally created
by applying various types of line faults as well as by shifting the
load by the static transfer switch to an alternative supply. A
wavelet MRA (WMRA) based Nearest Neighbours (NN) pattern
recognition technique was proposed in [52] for online classifica-
tion of PQ disturbances. The online method was not suitable for
the classification of the dynamically created PQ disturbances.
4.3.3. Wavelet packet transform for feature extraction
A hybrid classification system consisting of a wavelet packet-
based HMM and a rule based classifier was proposed in [53] for
the classification of power distribution line disturbances where
time-characterized-features based disturbances (sag and interrup-
tion) were classified by the rule based method and the frequency-
characterized-features based PQ disturbances (transients and
impulses) were classified by using Wavelet-Packet Transform
based Hidden-Morkov Model (WPT-HMM). In [54], an algorithm
based on the DWT and SVM was proposed to identify the voltage
disturbances. In [55] authors proposed Wavelet Packet Energy
(WPE) features for training the Multiclass Support Vector Machine
(MSVM) to perform the classification. A combination of three
methods wavelet packet, non-extensive entropy and singular
value decomposition known as a Wavelet Packet Tsallis Entropy
(WPTSE) was proposed in [56] for the detection of transient PQ
disturbances.
4.3.4. Miscellaneous wavelet transforms for feature extraction
A Two-Dimensional Discrete WT (2D-DWT) representation of
PQ disturbances was proposed in [57] for the analysis and
classification of transient signals. In [58], image processing tech-
niques like gamma correction, edge detection, and peak and valley
detection were proposed to PQ data represented as a transverse
wave having compressions and rarefactions to identify the PQ
disturbances. In [59], a 2D-DWT based image processing technique
was proposed for classifying multiple PQ events. An efficient
intelligent recognition system of least square SVM (LS-SVM) based
on the k-means Apriori algorithm optimal feature selection
method to identify the three-phase PQ events was presented in
[17]. In [60] authors introduced a decimation-free WT or Un-
decimated WT (UWT) to determine the power quantities in time–
frequency domain using complex wavelet coefficients incorporat-
ing time-variant and time-invariant PQ disturbances. An effective
 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
DWT based feature extraction technique was proposed in [61] for
the training of Self-Organising Learning Array (SOLAR) for the
classification of PQ disturbances. The energy values of the details
and approximation coefficients were calculated at each decom-
position level by using the MRA on the original PQ waveforms to
construct the feature vector for training and testing the SOLAR
system. The combination of the WT and the SOLAR system
accomplished a good PQ classification performance. A variant of
WT known as dual tree complex wavelet transform (DTCWT) was
proposed in [62] for feature extraction with sparse representation
based classification (SRC) system to recognize the power system
transients signals.
4.3.5. Wavelet transforms for data compression and de-noising
The continuously monitoring of PQ disturbances causes an
enormous amount of data gathered in PQ monitoring equipment.
The huge data gathered creates several troubles in the storage and
communication of the data. Hence, the data compression has
become an important issue in the monitoring of PQ disturbances
[63–69]. The Spline WT and Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural
network have been successfully integrated for PQ monitoring data
compression [67]. In practical applications, the classification of PQ
disturbances is complicated due to noise riding on the signals. The
effect of noise has not been considered in many of the WT-based
detection and classification of the PQ disturbances. The presence
of noise in the PQ signals degrades the features extracted which
reduce the recognition rate of the classifiers. In [70–73], authors
proposed denoising schemes for enhancing WT-based PQ classifi-
cation system. In [70], authors presented a denoising scheme
integrated with DWT to suppress the noise riding on the WTCs
of signals. To improve the recognition rate authors in [73]
suggested a spatial-correlation-based noise suppression algorithm
by determining the corresponding correlation coefficients from
the WTCs of the signals at several adjacent scales.
4.4. Stockwell-transform based feature extraction
The Stockwell Transform (ST) is an extension of either phase
correction of WT or a variable window STFT that has some better
characteristics to either of the transforms. Like WT, it can provide a
better time–frequency representation of a signal. The fixed mod-
ulating sinusoids with respect to the time axis as well as the
scalable and movable Gaussian window have been found to have
the superior properties of the ST which provide significant
improvement in the identification of PQ disturbances. Mathema-
tically S-transform can be defined as [74]
The PQ disturbance signal hðtÞ can be expressed in a discrete
form as hðkTÞ, where k ¼ 0; 1; …; N  1 and T is the sampling time
interval. The DFT of the continuous time signal hðtÞ can be defined
as
h n i 1 NX
1
H ¼ hðkTÞei2π nk=N
NT Nk¼0
The standard S-transform of a discrete time signal hðkTÞ is
obtained as
h ni X
N 1 h m þ ni
e  2π m =n :ei2π mj=N
2 2 2
S jT; ¼ H
NT m¼0
NT
where j; m ¼ 0; 1; 2; …; N  1 and n ¼ 1; 2; …; N  1.
The time and frequency features of the signals can be extracted
using ST to be applied as inputs to the intelligent classifiers for the
automatic pattern recognition. These characteristics of ST attract the
researchers for the detection and classification PQ disturbance wave-
forms [74]. The first time application of ST in the area of PQ analysis
was proposed in [74,75] using Gaussian window with only one scaling
1655
factor. In [76,77], authors proposed S-transform as a simple and
effective method for classification and quantification of PQ distur-
bances and proved that ST has a high tolerance of noise and
guaranteed satisfactory pattern recognition. In [78] authors proposed
a hybrid methodology of ST and dynamics for real-time PQDs
classification where ST extracted five distinctive features and dynamics
applied to reduce the run time of ST significantly. The Decision Tree
(DT) was integrated with the ST as a classifier for better compatibility.
The PQ disturbances classification using Discrete Orthogonal ST (DOST)
was proposed in [79]. The ST based MRA technique integrated with
fuzzy recognition system [80] and rule based approach [81] were
proposed for the classification of PQ events. The MRA was based on a
variable window changing with frequency according to user defined
function. A Fast variant of the Discrete ST (FDST) algorithm was
proposed in [82] to accurately extract the time localized spectral
characteristics of the non-stationary PQ disturbances. In [83] Hyper-
bolic S-Transform (HST) and GA based Fuzzy C-means (FCM) algorithm
was proposed for automatic pattern recognition of non-stationary PQ
signals. In [84], windowed DFT and ST techniques were proposed to
extract the distinctive features of the PQ signals, and then binary
feature matrix was used for decision making regarding the disturbance
type. In [85] S-transform with Module Time–Frequency Matrix
(MTFM) based on maximum similarity principle was proposed to
extract short duration disturbances characteristics. In [86] authors
proposed S-transform and hybrid PSO-FES for PQ time series data
mining. In [87] authors proposed ST and logistic model tree (LMT) for
the classification of PQ disturbances. A fast S-transform with modified
Gaussian window was proposed in [88] to generate time–frequency
contours for extracting relevant feature vectors for automatic PQ
disturbances classification. A hybrid optimization algorithm Chemo-
tactic differential evolution algorithm (CDEA) composed of DEA and
bacterial foraging optimization algorithm (BFOA) integrated with fuzzy
decision tree was applied to improve the classification accuracy. In [89]
a combination of ST and HMM was proposed for PQ disturbances
classification. In [90,91] authors proposed a Fast Dyadic ST (FDST)
algorithm based Fuzzy Decision Tree (FDT) based classifier for the
classification of PQ disturbances. In the classification process, the FDST
was used for accurate time–frequency localization, DT for optimal
feature selection and Fuzzy rules were used for pattern classification.
In [12] authors proposed ST to extract the statistical features of the PQ
disturbances created by wind energy system and PV system. The
Modular PNN, SVM and LS-SVM techniques were used as classifiers. In
[92] S-Transform with Extreme Learning Machine (ST-ELM) based
pattern recognition approach was proposed for the automatic classi-
fication of PQ disturbances. In [93] S-transform with rule-based
decision tree and ANN classifiers was proposed for the recognition
of single and multiple PQ disturbances.
4.5. Hilbert–Huang transform based feature extraction
The recent advances in signal processing have developed
ð8Þ Hilbert–Huang Transform (HHT) technique for the analysis of
non-stationary signals. The HHT is the combination of empirical
mode decomposition (EMD) and Hilbert Transform (HT) [94]. EMD
is a time–frequency analysis method [95] based on the local
characteristic time scale of signal and decomposes the power
signal into number of intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) which are
ð9Þ then analysed by the HT for estimating instantaneous frequency,
amplitude, and phase. The HT of a real valued time domain signal
xðt Þ provides another real valued time domain signal x^ ðtÞ, such that
zðt Þ ¼ xðt Þ þjx^ ðt Þ is an analytical signal.
Z 1
xðτ Þ
x^ ðt Þ ¼ H ½xðt Þ ¼ ð10Þ
 1 π ðt  τ Þ
The HT of a signal effectively produces an orthogonal signal that is
phase shifted by 901 from the original signal. The instantaneous
1656 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663

amplitude signal Aðt Þ and instantaneous phase angle θðtÞ and (SSD) on over-complete hybrid dictionary (OHD) as a novel
instantaneous frequency f 0 of a signal xðt Þ in terms of xðt Þ and technique for detection of single and multiple PQ events. The
x^ ðt Þ are given as sparse signal decomposition is a new signal processing tool for the
2 analysis of PQ disturbance signals. In literature, numerous other
Aðt Þ ¼ ½x2 ðt Þ þ x^ ðt Þ1=2 ð11Þ
signal processing techniques recently used for the feature extrac-
  tion of the PQ disturbances are Chirp-Transform (CT) [110], Space-
x^ ðt Þ
θðt Þ ¼ tan  1 ð12Þ Phasors (SP) applied to 3-phase voltage signals [111], Morphology
xðt Þ
Method (MM) [112], Slant-Transform (SLT) [113], Time–Time
  Transform (TTT) [114],Teager Energy Operator (TEO) [115],
1 x^ ðt Þ
f0 ¼ tan  1 ð13Þ Principle Curves (PC) [116], Spectral Kurtosis (SK) [117], Amplitude
2π t xðt Þ
and Frequency Demodulation (AFD) with FPARR classifier [118].
The IMFs are mono-component signals to give well behaved HT
and thus help in obtaining instantaneous frequencies of non-
stationary signals. The characteristic which differentiate EMD from 5. Artificial intelligence classification techniques
other techniques namely FFT or wavelet lies in deriving its basis
functions from the signal itself thereby making it adaptive in Artificial intelligence can be described as the automation of the
nature. In [96] an approach of PQ assessment based on expanding activities associated with human thinking such as learning from
a distorted signal into its intrinsic mode oscillations was proposed. examples, perceptions, reasoning, decision making and problem
In [97] a frequency-shifting wavelet decomposition via HT algo- solving. Recently intelligent tools are required for pattern recogni-
rithm was introduced to overcome the spectral leakage problem in tion and decision making. The AI tools used for the classification of
the DWPT and to estimate the power quantities accurately and PQ disturbances are artificial neural network, support vector
detect flickers. In [98] HHT based PNN algorithm was proposed for machines, Fuzzy logic, expert systems and k-nearest neighbour.
the classification of single-stage and multiple PQ disturbances. In Fig. 4 shows the taxonomy of the AI tools used as classifiers for the
[99] EMD combined with HT was employed for the detection of pattern recognition of the PQ disturbances.
voltage sag cause. The PNN classier was constructed based on EMD
which classified the extracted features to identify the type of
5.1. Artificial neural network based classifiers
voltage sag cause. In [100] authors presented a hybrid algorithm of
ensemble EMD (EEMD) for the feature extraction and selection
Artificial neural networks have been broadly used in power
and SVM for the classification of PQ disturbances. In [101] HT and
system applications including classification of different PQ dis-
Fuzzy Product Aggregation Reasoning Rule (FPARR) based intelli-
turbances. The ANN can perform tasks such as pattern recognition,
gent classifier were applied with EMD based soft threshold and
classification, function approximation, optimization and data clus-
signal-chopped de-noising techniques. The Hilbert Huang trans-
tering [119]. The ANN based methodologies have been proved
form (HHT) with PNN and SVM classifiers to efficiently classify
effective for solving real-time problems. The patterns for the
composite PQ events was proposed in [102].
classification are frequently employed based on learning from
examples. The learning rules for each type of ANN are different
4.6. Gabor transform based feature extraction yet they can identify pattern features from a set of training data
and then classify new data on the basis of features. The salient
The Gabor transform [103] is an advanced signal processing features of ANN based classifiers which attract the researchers are
tool used for accurate phasor estimation. Unlike the FT, the GT its self-learning capability, no need to know data relationship, self-
provides time–frequency information of a signal to be analysed. tuning capability and applicability to model various systems. The
The GT of the signal xðt Þ can be defined as follows [104]: classification and function approximation capabilities of ANN have
Z 1
been utilized in PQ studies, fault analysis, and harmonics sources
Gðτ; ωÞ ¼ xðt Þgðt  τÞe  j2ωt dt ð14Þ
1 classification. A hybrid approach of FFT and DWT based Multilayer
Perceptron (MLP) neural network was proposed in [120] for the
where τ is the amount of time shifting; and g(t) is a window
automatic classification of the PQ disturbances. The application of
function.
two paradigms of ANN, Feedforward Neural Network (FFNN) and
The GT has been applied in power system applications as a
Time-Delay Neural Network (TDNN), was proposed in [121] for the
measurement tool for the analysis of short duration transient
disturbances. In [104] GT was applied for monitoring power
system transient harmonics. In [105] a hybrid approach of GT
and ANN was used for the identification of the arcing faults. The
Artificial Intelligence
GT was utilized as an advanced signal processing technique for
Techniques
optimal features extraction. In [106] combination of GT with the
Winger Distribution Function (WDF) known as Gabor–Winger
Transform (GWT) was proposed for the time–frequency analysis
of the PQ disturbances.
Miscellaneous
ANN SVM FES
4.7. Miscellaneous feature extraction techniques Classifiers

There are some other signal processing techniques significantly

applied for the feature extraction and classification of the PQ
disturbances. Min et al. [107,108], in the two-paper series, pro- MLP FCM Neuro-fuzzy
OAO FkNN kNN
posed a Time–Frequency Representation (TFR) feature extraction RBF
OAA FPARR HMM
technique using time–frequency ambiguity plane, with kernel PNN FARTMAP
technique, for the application of PQ classification problems.
Currently in [109] authors presented sparse signal decomposition Fig. 4. Taxonomy of AI classifiers.
 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
automatic classification of PQ waveforms. In [122] authors pro-
posed a WT based MLP neural network with three hidden layers
for the real-time classification of PQ disturbances where a great
number of training pattern of the PQ waveforms were configured
by Electrical Pattern Generator (EPG). In [123] authors proposed a
Quantum Neural Network (QNN) classifier with Dempster–Shafer
(DS) evidence theory to recognize the PQ disturbances. Based on
the strong classification capabilities of ANN, a combination of
Spectral Kurtosis and RBF neural network was proposed in [124] to
recognize the transient PQ disturbances only. In [125] authors
proposed a dual neural-network-based methodology consisting of
Adaptive Linear Network (ADALINE) and FFNN to detect and
classify single and multiple PQ disturbances even when they
appear simultaneously. An adaptive linear network was used for
harmonic and interharmonic estimation to determine the rms
values and THD indices and a FFNN used for pattern recognition
using the horizontal and vertical histograms of a specific voltage
waveform to classify spikes, notching, flicker, and oscillatory
transients. In [126] authors proposed DWT based Univariate
Randomly Optimized Neural Network (URONN) with FL as a
simple classifier to identify the types of disturbances with a
significant speed and performance. In literature, various meth-
odologies based on the combination of WT and ANN have been
proposed for the identification of PQ disturbances. In [127] ST and
WT based input feature vectors were applied to Probabilistic
Neural Network (PNN), feedforward neural networks, and RBF
neural networks. A hybrid methodology consisting of WT with
MLP and RBF neural networks was suggested in [128] for the
classification of synthetic PQ data through Matlab Graphical User
Interface (GUI). A theoretical foundation [129] and practical
implementation [130] of DWT and a set of multiple learning vector
quantization (LVQ) neural networks with Dampster–Shafer theory
of evidence were proposed for an actual power disturbance
classification system. In [131] authors employed DWT technique
integrated with the PNN model to classify disturbance types
according to the transient duration and the detailed energy
distribution features. The energy and time duration features were
applied as inputs to PNN classification system to classify the seven
types of PQ disturbances. The S-transform based useful statistical
features were extracted for applying as inputs to different types of
neural network structures, such as back propagation neural net-
work (BPNN) [132], PNN [133] and modular neural network [134],
have been proposed to identify PQ disturbances. A three-module
neural network structure followed by a rule based classifier was
proposed in [135] by combining the specific PQ disturbances least
likely occurring simultaneously. A combination of fully informed
particle swarm (FIPS) and adaptive PNN approach known as PNN
based feature selection (PFS) was proposed in [136] to identify the
PQ disturbances where the statistical features were extracted by
ST and time–time (TT) transform (extension of ST) for training the
PNN classifier. An integrated approach of wavelet layer and
adaptive PNN known as Dynamic Wavelet Network (DWN) was
proposed in [137] particularly suitable for the classification of PQ
signals in a dynamic environment with time varying non-
stationary PQ signals. The DWN is the combination of the two
sub-networks consisting of input DWT layer and adaptive PNN
layers. The DWN has the capability of reducing error by automatic
adjustment of learning cycles for different types of signals.
5.2. Support Vector Machine based classifiers
Support vector machine introduced by Vapnik [138] is a
supervised learning machine tool applied for pattern recognition
and classification. The pattern recognition approach is based on
the statistical learning theory. SVM has been applied in many
pattern recognition and regression problems such as for
1657
dependency estimation, forecasting, and constructing intelligent
machines. The SVM is used efficiently in large classification
problems because the training of SVM can handle very large
feature vector dimensions more effectively as compared to con-
ventional classifiers. Also, SVM has better generalization proper-
ties than the conventional classifiers. In [139], authors proposed
DWT based SVM for the classification of five types of PQ dis-
turbances. The real-time captured PQ disturbances were classified
in [140] by applying the DWT for feature extraction and one versus
one multiclass SVM as a binary classifier. The events were trained
by SVM individually, but multiple PQ events were also classified
successfully. In [111] authors proposed SVM based classifiers for
the classification of PQ disturbances. The standard techniques of
SVM are One-Versus-One (OVO) and One-Versus-Rest (OVR) sui-
table for the recognition of the multiclass problems. The multiclass
SVM (SVM) techniques suffer due to network size, heuristic
solution scheme, complicated data preparation, etc. In [141]
authors proposed Disturbances-Versus-Normal (DVN) approach
for multiclass SVM. An automatic classification algorithm using
wavelet-MRA (WMRA) based SVM was proposed in [142] for the
identification of the three-phase PQ events. An effective single
feature vector was represented for each three-phase signal. In
[143] wavelet packet energy entropy and weighted features based
SVM was proposed where WPT was used to extract the energy
entropy and weight features and SVM for automatic classification
of PQ disturbances.
In [54,144] an effective classification algorithm based on WT
and SVM was proposed for identifying power system disturbances.
In [145], WT and wavelet-SVM approach was proposed for the
recognition and classification of PQ disturbances. A PQ distur-
bances classification system based on wavelet packet energy and
multiclass SVM was proposed in [55] to discriminate seven types
of PQ disturbances. In [146] authors proposed TT-transform (TTT)
with a modified Gaussian window and SVM clustering to the
problem of power signal classification. In [17] authors proposed
WT based feature extraction, k-means based Apriori feature
selection algorithm and Least Square SVM (LS-SVM) classifier
algorithm for classification of the PQ events. In [2] authors
proposed S-transform and SVM for the classification of PQ
disturbances.
5.3. Fuzzy expert system based classifiers
Fuzzy logic system generalizes the classical binary logic for
reasoning under uncertainty. It is inspired by observing human
reasoning to utilize concepts and knowledge. A fuzzy set is a
function that maps objects in the domain of concern (i.e. the
universe of discourse) to their membership values in the set. Such
a function is called the membership function. The two most widely
used membership functions are triangular and trapezoidal func-
tions. The particular application of AI used in the diagnostic
module is called an expert system [147]. An expert system that
uses a collection of two key elements fuzzy sets and fuzzy rule
base, instead of Boolean sets for reasoning about data is called
Fuzzy Expert System (FES). A fuzzy set can be fully defined by its
membership functions and fuzzy rules offer human-like reasoning
capabilities and provide transparent interface mechanism. In [80]
authors proposed the design of a simple fuzzy-based classification
scheme using the ST based features with high classification
accuracy even in the presence of random noise. A fuzzy-expert
system was proposed in [44] for decision making based on the
features extracted from FT and WT. A Fourier Linear Combiner
(FLC) to extract the amplitude and the phase of the fundamental
signal, and a FES to recognize the type of the PQ disturbances were
proposed in [147]. In [16], a wavelet-based extended fuzzy reason-
ing approach was proposed to PQ disturbance waveform
1658 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
recognition. A Fuzzy C Means (FCM) expert system is a standard
clustering algorithm that groups the data points in multidimen-
sional space into a specific number of clusters. Feature vectors
(hundreds of each disturbance) can be applied as the input to the
algorithm. In [86] authors proposed an approach for PQ time series
data mining using S-transform based FES. In [148] authors pro-
posed DWT feature extraction based FPARR for the recognition of
PQ disturbances and classified event classes with minimum error.
An efficient PQ event analysis and classification system have been
proposed in [118] using amplitude demodulation, frequency
demodulation and Multiple Signal Classification (MUSIC) harmo-
nic analysis for making knowledge base for FPARR classifier. The
FPARR classifier has the high classification rate due to its learning
and generalization capabilities. In [149] authors proposed a Fuzzy-
ARTMAP Neural Network (FANN) by extracting the real time
voltage waveform characteristics through the combined use of
DWT based MRA and entropy norm (EN) features. An approach
based on the DWT, Kalman filter and fuzzy-expert system was
proposed in [28] for identifying and classifying the power system
disturbances. A decision tree based on fuzzy clustering was
presented in [88] to group the extracted features into clusters
and thereby identifying the class of the PQ disturbance data. A
Bacterial Foraging Optimization Algorithm (BFOA) with Reformu-
lated FCM Algorithm was proposed to refine the cluster centre,
thereby increasing the average classification accuracy of the power
signal disturbance classification [88]. A hybrid time–frequency S-
transform and FES was proposed in [150] for power island
detection in distributed generation. A Fuzzy Rule-Based classifier
was built to distinguish between an islanding and a non-islanding
event. In [90] authors proposed a FDST feature extraction based
fuzzy decision tree to detect and classify various single and
multiple PQ disturbances simultaneously.
5.4. Neuro-fuzzy system based classifiers
In [151] authors developed a neural-fuzzy classifier by exploit-
ing the powerful capability of the learning vector quantization
(LVQ) architecture in pattern recognition and the flexibility of the
Fuzzy Associative Memory (FAM) mapping in handling uncertain-
ties. In [152] authors demonstrated a PQ event recognition system,
which integrated the noise-suppression algorithm, feature extrac-
tion based on the Parseval's Theorem, and the neuro-fuzzy
classification system, was successfully developed and tested using
both simulated noise-riding data of various disturbance events
and actual field data. In [153] authors proposed an automatic
classification of the PQ disturbances based on a four step algo-
rithm combining a 3-D space referential representation, Principal
Component Analysis (PCA), feature extraction and neuro-fuzzy
classifier.
5.5. Miscellaneous classification systems
In [154], an expert system was proposed for the classification
and analysis of a number of power system events in terms of the
underlying causes. The classification scheme was able to distin-
guish the different types of voltage dips as well as interruptions
based on identifying and characterizing the different stages of
voltage during an event. In [84] authors proposed a Fourier and S-
transform based simple and computational efficient Binary Feature
Matrix (BFM) classifier for making a decision regarding the
disturbance type. Chung et al. presented a rule based method
and a wavelet packet-based HMM [53]. A wavelet packet based
Hidden Markov Model was used for identification of disturbances
except voltage sag and interruption. A WT and Fourier based HMM
approach for classification of PQ events was proposed in [155]. A
wavelet based HMM was utilized in [156] for the classification of
fifteen types of PQ disturbances. In [157] an integrated and
effective classification tool Wavelet Multi-class Relevance Vector
Machines (WMRVMs) was proposed for classification of PQ
disturbances.
6. Feature selection and parameter optimization techniques
The performance of the classification tools as well as discover-
ing the distinctive features are equally important in classifying the
PQ disturbances. In recent studies, feature selection algorithms
have been used to obtain the most suitable features and to discard
the redundant features of the PQ disturbances. In the feature
selection based classifier algorithms, a large feature set is extracted
from the feature extraction stage, out of which a best suitable
feature subset with a high recognition rate is selected [17]. The
feature selection process is tackled by optimization tools such as
Genetic Algorithms (GA), particle swarm optimization, Ant Colony
Optimization (ACO) shown in Fig. 5.
Genetic algorithm is an adaptive heuristic search method based
on the evolutionary ideas of natural selection. It is a used for
solving optimization and search problems to find optimum solu-
tions. GA operates on string structures called chromosomes,
typically a concatenated list of binary digits representing the
encoding of the control parameters of a specific problem. It
repeatedly modifies a population of individuals and takes the
decisions based on probabilistic rules. At each step, GA selects
individual at random from the current population to be parent and
use them to produce children for next generation. A competitive
selection is carried out at each iteration, that eliminates poor
solutions using genetic parameters (crossover and mutation). Over
successive generation, the population evolves towards an optimal
solution. Generally obtaining the global optimal solution is the
major advantage of the GA. In [158] a combination of WPT and
Fuzzy k-Nearest Neighbour (FkNN) algorithm along with genetic
algorithms for automatic classification of PQ disturbances. The GA
was proposed for selecting the optimal feature set from the WPT
coefficients to improve the classification accuracy of PQ distur-
bances and selected features were applied to FkNN classifier. The
accuracy was enhanced by selecting 16 better features from all 96
features generated from the WPT coefficients and the remaining
redundant features were removed which may reduce the perfor-
mance of the classification. The GA-SVM was proposed for simul-
taneous feature selection from DWT coefficients [159] and DWPT
coefficients [160] and parameter optimization for two types of
SVM kernels namely the polynomial kernel and RBF kernel to
classify PQ disturbances. The two critical issues namely the
selection of the most suitable features and the estimation of the
best SVM kernel parameters are addressed through a classification
system by using GA and simulated annealing (SA) optimization
techniques. A combination of the extension theory and genetic
algorithm known as Extension GA (EGA) was proposed in [161].
The extension theory provides a means for distance measurement
in the classification process whereas the GA has the ability to
Optimization
techniques
GA PSO ACO
Fig. 5. Feature selection techniques.
 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663 1659

search for an optimal solution within a wide space. The EGA is a
kind of supervised learning that finds the best classical domain
and gets better accuracy without adjusting the weight. In [162]
hyperbolic ST was proposed for extracting several features to
classify the PQ disturbances created due to distributed generation
(DG) system. The optimal features were selected from several
features by using GA for training and testing SVM and DT
classifiers. These optimal features were used for PQ disturbances
classification by employing SVM and decision tree classifiers. The
WT and Genetic k-means Algorithm (GKA)-based RBF neural
network classification system was proposed in [163] for noisy PQ
events. The effectiveness of the clusters from the RBF training
patterns was improved by avoiding being trapped in a local
minimum solution.
Particle swarm optimization is an evolutionary computation
algorithm introduced by Kennedy et al. [164] modelled after the
social behaviour of a bird flock. Like GA, PSO is a population based
optimization tool that exploits the concept of social sharing of
information. Each individual (called particle) of a given population
(called swarm) can gain from the previous experiences of all other
individuals in the same population. During the iterative search
process in the multi-dimensional solution space, each particle (i.e.,
candidate solution) will adjust its flying velocity and position
according to its own flying experience as well as those of the other
companion particles in the swarm. The objective of the PSO
algorithm is to obtain the particle position that results in the best
evaluation of an objective function (fitness function). PSO has
proved promising in solving a number of engineering problems
such as automatic control, antenna design, and inverse problems
and so forth. In [165], a hybrid fuzzy C-means with PSO technique
was proposed to cluster the features into distinct groups so as to
classify the nature of the time-series data. In [166], the optimal
parameters of MSVM, the spread parameters of the PNN and K
factor of k-NN classifiers were optimized using PSO for the PQ
events under noisy conditions. In [167], PSO algorithm was applied
for solving the problem of choosing optimal parameters of SVM
classifiers. The penalty parameter and Gaussian kernel parameters
of SVM classifier were selected by PSO algorithm. A fuzzy logic
with PSO algorithm was proposed in [168] for the detection and
classification of single and combined PQ disturbances. The features
of the disturbances extracted from FT and DWT were applied to
Fuzzy classifier. The PSO algorithm was used to accurately deter-
mine the membership function parameters for the fuzzy systems.
In [169] authors proposed PSO-based extreme learning machine
classifier for the classification of PQ disturbances. PSO was used to
obtain the best subset of features extracted by DWT as well as for
optimizing model selection parameters of the ELM algorithm for
better classification accuracy.
Ant colony optimization is a population-based optimization
technique inspired by the ethological studies on the foraging
behaviour of ants. The ants trace the shortest path between their
nest and food source according to pheromone trial. ACO is a multi-
agent algorithm in which the agents find the solution by heuristic
information obtained from the problem structure as well as by the
global information obtained from the pheromone. Each agent finds
a solution path with heuristic information so that shorter paths
accumulation of the pheromone recursively. By utilizing the
heuristic and pheromone information as well as the scheme of

Table 1
Recognition accuracies of the PQ classification techniques.

References Feature extraction Classifiers Feature selection Classification accuracy

Without noise With noise (30 db)

Liao (2004) [44] FT–WT FES – 99 –

Oleskovicz (2009) [128] DWT MLP-RBF — 91.03-87.07 –
Masoum (2010) [46] DWT WN – 98.18 97.81
Eristi (2010) [142] DWT SVM – 99.71 96.86
Moravej (2010) [145] DWT SVM – 98.89 97.00
Eristi (2012) [144] DWT SVM – 98.51 –
Eristi (2013) [17] DWT LS-SVM–kMA – 98.88 98.14
Wang (2011) [161] DWT – EGA 96 –
Haibo (2006) [61] DWT SOLAR – 94.93 92
Panigrahi (2009) [158] WPT FkNN–GA – 96.33 93.52
Manimala (2012) [160] WPT SVM GA-SA 98.33–97.92 –
Hu (2008) [143] WPT SVM – 98.4 –
Zhang (2012) [55] WPT MSVM – 97.7 92.25
Chung (2002) [53] WPT HMM–RBC – 98.7 –
Moravej (2011) [157] ST LMT – 99.11 97.79
Hasheminejad (2012) [89] ST HMM – 98.14 95.05
Lee (2003) [75] ST FFNN–PNN – 95.33 93.33–94
Bhende (2008) [134] ST FFNN – 95.5 –
Uyar (2009) [132] ST FFNN – 99.67 99.11
Mishra (2008) [77] ST PNN – 97.4 93.2
Chilukuri (2004) [80] ST FL – 98 96.5
Behera (2010) [86] ST FES PSO 99.8 99.2
Moravej (2011) [87] ST LMT – 99.11 97.79
Fengzhan (2007) [76] ST RBDT – 99.7 98.5
Shunfan (2013) [78] ST DT – 99.27 97.91
Biswal (2013) [82] FDST DT – 99.28 97.49
Biswal (2009) [83] HST FCM GA 95.75 –
Biswal (2013) [90] FDST FDT – 98.66 97.948
Eristi (2014) [92] S ELM – 99.50 99.67
Ray (2014) [162] HST SVM–DT GA 99.5 96.1
Biswal (2011) [170] TTT FCM ACO 95.97 –
Lee (2011) [136] ST–TTT PNN PSO 96.3 96.1
Jashfar (2013) [114] ST–TTT FFNN – 92.083 –
Abdelsalam (2012) [28] KF–DWT FES – 98.71 97
Saxena (2014) [102] HHT PNN–SVM – 100 –
1660 S. Khokhar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1650–1663
the pheromone accumulation, ants try to find the optimal
(shortest) path from their nest to food source. ACO was inspired
due to this mechanism. In [170] a hybrid fuzzy C-means and ACO
algorithm was proposed to cluster the features into distinct groups
so as to classify the nature of the time series PQ data.
7. Comparative analysis
A large number of the classification systems have been dis-
cussed in this paper. The literature review shows that the various
signal processing and artificial intelligence techniques have been
combined together to complete the automatic PQ disturbances
classification system. The classification accuracies of some of the
main PQ disturbances detection system to recognize the types of
the PQ disturbance are given in Table 1. A lot of research has been
focused on feature extraction and classification stages for the
automatic classification system. In feature extraction process the
redundant features affect the performance of the classifiers due to
inadequate features. The performance of a classifier depends upon
the feature extraction process. Therefore, the scope of future
research is there for optimal feature selection of PQ disturbances.
Also, most of the researchers have focused on the single PQ
disturbances, only few of them have used multiple PQ distur-
bances for the classification. The analysis of multiple PQ distur-
bances needs much attention.
8. Future scope
There are several challenging issues in the automatic classifica-
tion of PQ disturbances such as detection of the underlying causes
of disturbances, detection of the single and multiple disturbances.
The most suitable feature extraction technique should be applied
because the classification algorithms are highly dependent on the
input feature vectors. A lot of research has been focussed on the
synthetic data for training and testing the classifiers. The real-time
data must be applied. De-noising is still a challenge for the
classification of noise riding PQ signals researchers because the
feature extraction and classification algorithms poorly perform for
the noise riding PQ signals. The most of the PQ disturbances
classification techniques are based on the single-phase data. In
actual practice, power system is a three-phase system. Therefore,
the more research must be focused on real-time three-phase
power system disturbances.
9. Conclusion
A comprehensive and detailed review on the applications of
signal processing and artificial intelligence techniques is presented
in this paper. The feature extraction techniques such as Fourier
transform, wavelet transform, S-transform, Hilbert–Huang trans-
form are discussed in detail. The artificial intelligence techniques
which are applied as classifiers such as artificial neural network,
support vector machines, Fuzzy logic, expert systems have been
reviewed in detail. The meta-heuristic optimization algorithms
such as genetic algorithm, particle swarm optimization, ant colony
optimization techniques used for choosing the most suitable
features have also been discussed. The future scope for research
in the field of power quality disturbances classification is also
presented. It can be concluded from the detailed literature review
that the signal processing techniques can be used for the detection
of the type of the disturbances as well as for the effective feature
extraction. The extracted features can be used as inputs for the
artificial intelligence techniques. The optimization techniques have
been used for the selection of the most suitable features extracted
from the signal processing techniques. There is still a need of
improvement in automatic classification of PQ disturbances in
order to tackle the challenges. The new techniques should be used
for the identification of underlying causes of PQ disturbances such
as line faults, power electronics based nonlinear loads and sudden
switching events. This study shows that many researchers have
used classification methods only for single PQ disturbances, hence
the new algorithms should be developed for multiple PQ distur-
bances created simultaneously. Also, there is a need of much
improvement of noise tolerant techniques for noise-riding PQ
signals. Moreover, the application of real-time data, three-phase
system PQ signals, optimal feature selection are regarded as the
future work in the field of the PQ disturbances classification.
Acknowledgement
This project is supported and financed by the Ministry of
Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia under Research University
Grant (RUG) Program (Vote Number 00M31), Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM), and Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering,
Science & Technology (QUEST), Nawabshah, Pakistan.
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