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art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The deficiency in the availability of petroleum products has given rise to the incorporation of electric vehicles
Received 26 July 2014 (EVs) globally as a substitute for the conventional transportation system. Significant research has been pursued
Received in revised form over last two decades in the development of efficient EV charging methods. A preliminary review of few
12 January 2015
methods developed for wireless charging revealed that ICPT is a promising and convenient method for the
Accepted 8 March 2015
wireless charging of EVs. This paper includes the equivalent circuit analysis and characteristics of the ICPT
system and focuses on the research progress in respect of the designs for the charging coil, leakage inductance
Keywords: compensation topologies, power level enhancement and misalignment toleration. The improvement in these
Electric vehicle (EV) factors has been essential for the implementation of EV charging. A brief discussion over design process and
Wireless charging of electric vehicle
control of ICPT system has been added. Conclusions have been made on the basis of the information extracted
Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT)
from the literature and some future recommendations are provided.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
2. EV's impact on energy and environment and their advantages and drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
3. EV battery charging technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
3.1. Microwave power transfer (MPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
3.2. Inductive power transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
3.3. Inductively coupled power transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
4. Operating principle for ICPT system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
5. Equivalent circuit analysis of ICPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
6. Characteristics of ICPT system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
6.1. Impact of coupling coefficient and frequency on the efficiency of the ICPT system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
6.2. Impact of quality factor (Q) of coils on the efficiency of ICPT system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7. Development of ICPT system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7.1. Compensation technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7.2. Charging distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.3. Power level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
7.4. Misalignment toleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
8. Design criteria of ICPT system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
9. Control algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
10. Future recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
11. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 379677611.
E-mail address: saad@um.edu.my (S. Mekhilef).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.040
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475 463
capabilities in terms of power level, air gap and efficiency. These 3.2. Inductive power transfer
methods are discussed in this section.
The charging of plugin electric vehicles has always a safety risk
of the direct contact of metal-to-metal. To avoid this concern, the
3.1. Microwave power transfer (MPT) designs of electric vehicle charging systems were developed based
on inductive power transfer (IPT) [28]. The IPT works on electro-
This technology enables the transmission of power and infor- magnetic induction phenomena to transfer power through an air
mation by using radio waves whose wavelength range falls into cored transformer with closely spaced primary and secondary coils
the category of microwaves. The operation of MPT involves [2,14,29]. The coils seem to be connected physically to each other
components including a microwave generator, transmitting but are isolated electrically, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The extended
antenna and receiving antenna (also termed as rectenna). The picture in Fig. 1(b) shows a sealed charging pad. The charger is
block diagram shows the mechanism of MPT. Initially, the power inserted into the vehicle like fueling a conventional vehicle. The
supplied from the 50 Hz grid is converted into DC, which is fed schematic diagram of IPT is shown in Fig. 2.
into a microwave generator. There are resonating cavities in the Inductive power transfer has been successfully implemented
microwave generator through which the current passes and for EV battery charging. This method showed promising high
produces microwave electromagnetic radiation. The rectenna power transfer with a smaller air gap, however, when the air
receives the microwave energy and converts it back to DC. The gap between the primary and secondary coils is increased the
received DC is utilized as per the requirements of the application. performance decreases drastically due to leakage inductance [29].
Kyoto University has been working on the implementation of the
MPT for the charging of EV for some years. In 2000, Kyoto University 3.3. Inductively coupled power transfer
developed a MPT system for EV charging and achieved an efficiency of
76% [25]. A 10 kW rectenna array capable of receiving 3.2 kW/m2 at a The inductive power transfer offers low efficiency when the air
circa distance of 4 m with efficiency of 84% has been developed by the gap is increased between charging coils and also involves wired
Volvo Technologies Japan and the Nihon Dengyo Kosaku companies chargers, while the designs for full wireless charging systems have
[26]. Although the MPT has the advantage of transferring power over been developed to overcome the deficiencies of IPT and make the
longer distances, it has the disadvantage of increased cost and antenna charging system convenient for the users. The inductively coupled
size. In addition, high power transmission using microwaves is not power transfer (ICPT) employs capacitors connected to both the
considered safe for humans as it does not comply with the radio wave primary and secondary coils to compensate the leakage flux due to
regulation for high power. To overcome the disadvantage of the cost the increased air gap, as shown in Fig. 3. Both the LC circuits work on
and antenna size, a new technique “Microwave Building” was intro- resonance phenomena to enable effective energy transfer at resonant
duced in [27]. In this technique, a waveguide is used, which provides a frequency [31].
path for microwaves and does not allow the diffusion of microwaves. The inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) method is
Therefore, the size of antenna and cost are reduced to a great extent known worldwide for its high power transfer in many applica-
and the technique is considered safe. However, to date, low power has tions, mainly in electric vehicles [5,31]. It provides a rapid charging
been transferred using this technique. process, and optimized power transmission by frequency variation
Fig. 1. (a) EV charging through inductive power transfer [30], (b) charging pad [30].
High Frequency
Inductive Link
From Utility
Source
Battery
and control over the loss due to low magnetic coupling. The ICPT Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) to avoid the exposure by humans to
has been used for both stationary and moving electric vehicles the electromagnetic field (EMF).
[21]. If the vehicle being charged is stationary, it is said to be Many authors have termed this technology as the inductively
“charging of the battery electric vehicle (BEV)” or “static charging”, coupled power transfer (ICPT), while Kurs et al. [32], and Karalis
while, if the vehicle is moving, some names given to it are dynamic et al. [33] termed this method as the strong magnetic coupled power
charging and online electric vehicle (OLEV). In the OLEV set-up, transfer. Nevertheless, both of these indicate same characteristics
the primary coil is placed in the pavement at spaced locations, [13,34]. Takanashi et al. [35] split IPT based on the use of the magnetic
thereby establishing a charging roadbed that allows power trans- core and operating frequency into the inductively coupled power
fer at several spaced locations throughout the roadbed. Although it transfer (ICPT ) method [31] and the magnetic resonant power transfer
involves high capital cost for infrastructure installation, its feature method [32,33]. According to [35], the ICPT works on a frequency of
of frequent charging can elude the need for high capacity batteries. less than 200 kHz and employs a ferrite core, while the magnetic
The online electric vehicle (OLEV) uses relatively low resonant resonance power transfer works on a frequency higher than 1 MHz
frequency as the system is installed for the charging of moving and does not utilize a ferrite core.
electric vehicles in an open public area. Therefore, it is necessary to The literature suggests that the ICPT is a comparatively efficient,
maintain safety regulations prescribed by safety regulation orga- optimum and light charging system through which power can be
nizations, such as the International Committee on Electromagnetic transferred from one part to another part of the system with no
Safety (ICES), and the International Commission on Non-ionizing physical contacts, particularly in the electric vehicle application, even
in extreme weather conditions [13]. Inductive power transfer (ICPT)
C1 C2 has been attracting the interest of manufacturers in the last few years
M [36]. Cellular phone charging through ICPT is an application that has
already been commercialized. The common commercialization of this
V1 L1 L2 V2 technology is likely to be unveiled soon and may modernize the
automotive industry.
Fig. 3. ICPT circuit.
The achievements in research of ICPT technology are tabulated
in Table 1:
A comparison of charging methods with respect to the para-
Table 1
ICPT applied projects.
meters including efficiency, frequency, cost, power level and
distance is shown in Table 2.
Manufacturer/institute Power rating Efficiency (%) Air gap (cm) From developed methods of electric vehicle charging, the ICPT
method has enabled the high power transfer.
2007 [32] 60 W 40 200
2011 [37] 1 kW 88 30
2011 [38] 3.3 kW 84–90 10
2011 [39] 60 kW 92 40 4. Operating principle for ICPT system
2012 [40] 3.3 kW 90 18
2012 [26] 30 kW 92 14
In the ICPT system, unlike the transformers in which the primary
2013 [41] 180 kW 85 10
2014 [42] 300–600 kW 83 3 and secondary windings are wound on a magnetic core to avoid the
leakage of inductance, and to produce a good coupling, the windings
Table 2
Comparison of various EV battery charging methods.
Rectifier
M Inverter Cs
Secondary Coil
Battery
Primary Coil
Cp
High Frequency
Inverter
are not linked through a common magnetic core but separated over a jωM 2 I 1 2
large air gap. The inductively coupled power transfer for the EV P ¼ Su Q ¼ Q2 ð4Þ
L2
charging system is depicted in Fig. 4, which consists of a utility supply,
high-frequency inverter, primary and secondary resonant circuits and jωM 2 I 1 2 ωL2 ωL2
EV load [22]. The primary coil in Fig. 4 is a charging pad that is fixed in P¼ ; Since Q 2 ¼ ð5Þ
L2 RL RL
the ground. The EV is parked above the charging pad and a high-
frequency AC voltage is applied to the charging pad. The rate of current Therefore, the power transferred at the secondary coil can be
flow creates a time variant magnetic field around the primary coil. calculated using the following equation:
Subsequently, by Ampere's Law and Faraday's law, being in the vicinity
of a variant magnetic field, a voltage is induced at the terminals of the ω2 M 2 I 1 2
P¼ ð6Þ
secondary coil, as shown in Fig. 5 [43]. The electrical load of EV is RL
connected to the secondary coil, which completes the circuit and
where ω is the angular frequency of the transmitting coil, I 1 is the
enables the power transfer.
current through transmitting coil, M is the mutual inductance
As the primary and secondary coils are separated by a large air
between two coils and RL is the load resistance.
gap that results in low mutual inductance and the voltage across
the mutual inductance becomes less [31], which creates a delay
between the current and voltage and thus the reactive power is
produced. To overcome the low power factor due to the reactive 5. Equivalent circuit analysis of ICPT
power [44], capacitance is added to both the primary and
secondary coils to achieve the resonance phenomenon. This Although the inductively coupled power system has many
strengthens the coupling between the loosely coupled coils. The configurations to compensate for the effect of leakage flux, a
schematic diagram of the series–series compensated circuit topol- series–series resonant structure of the ICPT system is selected for
ogy is as shown in Fig. 6. This ensures the high power transfer analysis because of its simplicity and moreover it reduces the
when both the primary and secondary circuits are operated at the parameters that are involved in the optimization of efficiency of
same resonant frequency [20,31]. the ICPT system. An ICPT system with a series resonant capacitor is
The power output of an ICPT system ðP out Þ can be analyzed by shown in Fig. 7. Lp , Ls are the self-inductances of the primary and
using two observations in the ICPT system [46]: secondary side and M is mutual inductance. C p , C s are the cap-
Open-circuit test acitances of the primary and secondary side capacitors. R1 , R2 are
the resistances of the primary and secondary side and RL is the
V OC ¼ jωMI 1 ð1Þ load resistance. Fig. 8 shows the T-type of equivalent circuit of the
ICPT system circuit shown in Fig. 7.
Short-circuit test The coupling coefficient (k), that defines the extent of coupling
of the primary and secondary coil, is given by:
MI 1
I SC ¼ ð2Þ
L2 M
k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð7Þ
Lp Ls
Then power can be calculated as the product of open circuit test
voltage and short circuit test current:
Cp Cs
MI 1 jωM 2 I 1 2 I1 R1 R2
Su ¼ jωMI 1 ¼ ð3Þ
L2 L2 I2
Vs Lp M Ls VL RL
I Ampere’s Law
Fig. 7. Series–series (SS) resonant ICPT system.
Faraday’s
H Law
Cp R1 Lp-M Ls - M R2
V I1 Cs
I2
M RL
Vs
Fig. 5. Basic concept of inductive power transfer [45]. Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit of ICPT system.
AC L 1 Lm L2
The total impedance of the equivalent circuit for given para- And, thus, the maximum efficiency can be obtained as:
meters may be calculated as: 2
0 1 2π f r M 2
ηmax ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ð18Þ
1 ω 2 2
M 2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2
Z SS ¼ R1 þ j Lp ω þ @ A ð8Þ R1 R2 þ 2π f r M 2 þ ðR1 R2 Þ
Cpω R þ j Ls ω 1 þ R 2 Cs ω L
70 k=0.6
And the efficiency of the system can be represented by the
Efficiency (η)
following equation: 60
P OUT 50
η¼ ð15Þ
P IN 40
Or 30
RL
η¼
20
2 ð16Þ
RL þR1 ðR2 þ RL Þ= 2π f r M þ R2 10
0.2
Power Transferred (Watts)
3000 RL=3 Ω
Mutual Inductance 5.00E-05
RL=3.5 Ω
2500
0.15
4.00E-05 RL=4 Ω
2000
3.00E-05 RL=4.5 Ω
0.1
1500
RL=4.5 Ω
2.00E-05
0.05 1000
1.00E-05
500
0 0.00E+00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0
Airgap / Distance (Metres) 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000 21000 22000 23000 24000 25000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 9. The effect of distance upon coupling coefficient (k) and mutual inductance
(M). Fig. 11. Maximum power transferred at resonant frequencies.
468 K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475
Table 3 100
Loaded quality factors of ICPT coils.
95
Quality Secondary series Secondary parallel
80
90
80 75
70
60 70
5 25 45 65 85 105
Efficiency (η)
50
kQ
40
30
Fig. 13. The maximum efficiency of ICPT system against kQ [35].
20
Cp Cs Cp
I1 I2 I1 I2
V1 Lp Ls RL V1 Lp Ls RL
Cs
M M
Series-Series Compensated
Series-Parallel Compensated
ICPT
ICPT
Cs
I1 I2 I1 I2
V1 Lp Ls RL V1 Cp Lp Ls Cs
RL
Cp
M M
Parallel-Series Compensated Parallel-Parallel Compensated
ICPT ICPT
Fig. 14. Compensation topologies (a) SS, (b) SP, (c) PS, (d) PP.
Table 4
Characteristics of compensation topologies.
Topology Acts as Independent of changes Power factor at small Power factor at small Total impedance at resonant Efficiency
in distance distance state
4 1
Series-Parallel
Parallel-Parallel
Series-Series 0.8 Parallel-Series
3
0.6
I2 /I 2r
I2/I 2r
2
0.4
1
0.2
0 0
-100 -75 -50 0 50 75 100
-100 -90 -50 0 50 90 100
X% Misalignment X% Misalignment
Fig. 16. The behavior of PS, PP topologies in absence of secondary [50].
Fig. 15. The behavior of SS, SP topologies in absence of secondary [50].
the topologies depends upon their suitability for specific applica- They require additional series inductor to control the inverter
tions satisfying the respective requirements, as SS and SP topol- output current flowing through primary parallel resonant circuit,
ogies can transfer higher power than the rated, but these offer an however, the size and cost of converter is increased. In [51], a
uncertain behavior to the supply [50], and the PS and the PP series-parallel LCL pick-up design was presented that offered
compensated ICPT systems are safe for the supply in the absence of uninterrupted controlled power and smooth power transitions
secondary winding but these are unable to transfer the rated during switching states but it reflected reactive power back onto
power if the coils are somewhat misaligned. The behavior of the source [52]. Moreover, the SP topology depends upon the
SS and SP topologies when the secondary is absent is shown coupling coefficient and requires a high-value of capacitance for
in Fig. 15; the current rises due decrease in impedance with stronger magnetic coupling [53]. According to [31,54], the SS
increase in misalignment. The I 2 is load current and I 2r is rated topology is considered as the most suitable for EV charging
load current. However in PS, PP the current decreases as the total because the primary and secondary capacitances are unimpeded
impedance increases due to misalignment as shown in Fig. 16. from both the magnetic coupling coefficient and the load. It may
470 K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475
also act as a constant current and voltage source that is desirable In the quest to achieve efficient, optimum and high power
for battery charging. transfer, research has been carried out on various transformers
Besides these four conventional compensation topologies, with a core and without a core (air core). Many designs have been
other meritorious designs are proposed [21,31,48,55]. In [31] a proposed using an air core [20] and ferrite core [43]. Ferrite cores
design based on a primary compensated circuit was presented that have been preferred because of their improved coupling coeffi-
minimized the effects of frequency shifts to avoid a low coupling cient and lower cost compared to others [14]. Table 5 shows a
coefficient. In [54], parallel–parallel–series (PPS) topology has comparison between ICPT EV charging systems employing a ferrite
been implemented that offered higher efficiency than PP topology core and an air core. This comparison reveals that the coupling
for same distance of 50 mm and load of 1 Ω. The power factor of coefficient in the ICPT systems using a core is higher than in the air
inverter in PPS topology has higher power factor than PP, however core systems.
for smaller misalignment the PP topology has good performance Extensive research studies have been conducted and published
than PPS. Vila et al. [50] presented the SPS design, which offered over time concerning the optimization of the charging pad by
better performance for 2 kW prototype in terms of misalignment employing different core shapes. Initially, U cores, E cores and pot
toleration and efficiency as compared to the basic compensation cores were examined but these were incompatible with EV
topologies for the load of 1.25 Ω. The selection of PPS and SPS application due to their greater thickness. The single-sided wind-
topologies may done according to application requirement as SPS ing with a circular core shape, as shown in Fig. 17, was considered
would not fit where less misalignment is expected but PPS can be and used in the EV charging applications for long spans of time
useful. The Sakamato et al. [56] presented an inductive coupler [31,61]. Mecke and Rathge [57] used circular coils of 400 mm
design that is capable of providing high self-inductance and less diameter to transfer 1 kW power with an air gap of 300 mm. They
leakage inductance resulting in 8.3 kW of power transferred at an achieved an overall power transfer system efficiency of more than
air gap of 3 mm with more than 97% efficiency. 80% but misalignment was not focused upon. In [62], a 2 kW 700-
mm-diameter circular power pad with a 200 mm air gap was
proposed. The single-sided circular core offered both a low leakage
7.2. Charging distance electric field and electromagnetic radiation, which are desirable in
EV charging. Less leakage of an electric field is preferable due to
The large air gap has been the main consideration in the the surrounding metallic structures in the EV as the pick-up coil is
development of EV charging, as a reasonable ground clearance is embedded in the EV chassis. The circular pads exhibited limited
required between the EV chassis and the charging pad fixed in the coupling and offered poor tolerance to horizontal offset. In [62], it
ground. An air gap of a few hundred millimeters is considered was shown that the pick-up coil should be aligned with the
necessary for EV application [57] and the value of k in the EV transmitting coil for the charging of the EV using circular coils,
charging ICPT systems has been observed to be between 0.3 and however, when the misalignment attained an offset of around
0.6 [31]. 740%, the output power fell to zero. Budhia et al. [19] proposed a
meritorious solution to overcome the limitations revealed by the
Table 5 circular pad. They introduced and optimized a new polarized
ICPT systems using ferrite core. coupler called a Double D Quadrature (DDQ), as shown in Fig. 18.
Fig. 17. Single-sided circular charging pad [13]. Fig. 19. Rectangular H-shaped core [63].
K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475 471
The DDQ produced a flux path height twice that of a circular pad task force for the wireless power transfer (WPT) of light duty
together with having a single-sided flux path completely inter- electric and plug-in electric vehicles [68] has proposed a specific
operable with the traditional circular pads. frequency and power level for the interoperability of EV charging
According to [63] and [64], the double-sided windings with before commercialization. The proposed frequency that may be
rectangular core shape, as shown in Fig. 19, have also have been used for charging light electric vehicles is 85 kHz, which lies
considered for EV charging systems. The double-sided rectangular within an internationally available 81.38–90 kHz frequency band.
H-shaped core type was compact and lightweight but resulted in a The power levels prescribed by this code are presented in Table 7.
low coupling coefficient due to its leakage flux at the back of the
core, however, this leakage flux could be shielded by the
aluminum sheet.
7.4. Misalignment toleration
As there is an escalation in both the static and dynamic charging of
EVs, accordingly, such power pads should be developed that can
Misalignment is the displacement of the pick-up coil with respect
handle both [19]. In the design of power pads, the winding width
to the transmitting coil and leads to a decline in both the efficiency
should be sufficient enough to prevent the decrease in k. To decide
and power transfer of the ICPT system. The ICPT system for EV
upon the optimum winding width, Takanashi et al. [35] determined
charging requires maximum alignment between the coils to avoid
the effect of the winding width (w) and magnetic air gap (g) on the
inefficient power transfer due to driver mistake while parking the
efficiency. It has been analyzed that a larger w/g ratio could observe
vehicle in the desired position [62]. The car weight may slightly
maximum efficiency at a w/g ratio of 1.4. However, the large size of
change the air gap between the EV chassis and the ground and
the secondary coil cannot fit on an EV chassis. Thus, it is required to
thereby coupling, consequently it would affect the power transfer
keep in view the geometry of the secondary coil while designing for
efficiency [64]. The ICPT charging system with perfect alignment will
an EV chassis. According to [62], an increase in coil diameter with
reduce the leakage flux, and, as a result, it reduces the electro-
centered ferrite core can increase the self-inductance in a greater
magnetic interference emission from the system; however, an ICPT
proportion than the mutual inductance that reduced the coupling
system that could offer good tolerance for misalignment to give
coefficient. Generally, the magnetic coupling decays at 1=r 3 , r being
maximum freedom to the driver, is desirable [31].
the distance from center loop, thus it seems that the size of magnetic
Misalignment may be classified as lateral or longitudinal, in
charging pad can be increased but there are some limitations due to
which the lateral misalignment can occur when coils are horizon-
cost [65].
tally misaligned and longitudinal misalignment can occur when
the coils are irregular with respect to their length [70]. Both types
7.3. Power level of misalignment may reduce the mutual inductance, and can cause
the ICPT system to operate on a frequency other than what was
The power level for the ICPT system accommodates several designed with a low coupling coefficient k. When the secondary
important aspects including charging time, location, and cost [66]. coil of a single-sided winding transformer with circular core is
The suitability of ICPT in different applications, charging time and displaced 40% from the transmitter coil, the coupling coefficient
the cost significantly depends upon the selection of the power becomes zero, as can be observed from Fig. 20. In [43], a polarized
level. A high power level is desirable when more vehicles are being flux pipe was presented that offered better tolerance to misalign-
charged from a single charging track. The static charging of EV ment than the circular pad and met the tolerance requirements for
prefers power levels of 2–7 kW with an operational air gap of 100– an EV. In [19], a Double D Quadrature (DDQ) coil design was
250 mm. presented, which offered far greater tolerance than a circular coil
Different codes and standards suggest different criteria for the and was also compatible with circular coils. It may be observed
suitability of the power level selected for EV charging. The Society that when the double-sided windings are misaligned to a certain
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1772 code describes the power position, as shown in Fig. 21, they still have good coupling because
level according to three categories that define different amounts of the flux linkage path is extended compared to the circular coils, as
energy transfer requiring different infrastructure. The power level shown in Fig. 20 [64]. The ICPT systems can have a variable
may also be classified according to on-board (the charger located coupling coefficient, thus a perfect frequency control that keeps
inside the EV) and off-board charging [67]. The charging levels the ICPT circuit to remain in the state of resonance or coil
prescribed in SAE J1772 are summarized in Table 6. geometry optimization that can offer high efficiency with a
Different OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) manufac- reasonable misalignment between coils may be employed, how-
ture production with different specifications that do not follow a ever, the system becomes either complex in terms of frequency
single standard worldwide. Recently, the SAE international J2954 control or costly due to the geometry of the coils [62,71].
Table 6
Power levels defined by code J1772 [69].
Power level type Charger location Typical use Energy supply interface Expected power level Charging time Vehicle technology
Level 1 (Opportunity) On-board 1-phase Charging at home or office Convenience outlet 1.4 kW (12 A) 4–11 h PHEVs (5–15 kWh)
120 Vac (US) 1.9 kW(20 A) 11–36 h EVs(16–50 kWh)
230 Vac (EU)
Level 2 (Primary) On-board 1- Charging at private or public outlets Dedicated EVSE 4 kW (17 A) 1–4 h PHEVs(5–15 kWh)
or 3- phase 8 kW (32 A) 2–6 h EVs(16–30 kWh)
240 Vac (US) 19.2 kW(80 A) 2–3 h EVs(3–50 kWh)
400 Vac (EU)
Level 3 (Fast) Off board 3-phase analogous to a filling station Dedicated EVSE 50 kW 0.4–1 h EVs(20–50 kWh)
(280 V-600 Vac 100 kW
or Vdc)
472 K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475
Table 7
The Power levels defined by code J2954 [68].
Classification WPT1 house parking WPT2 private/public parking WPT3 L.D. fast charge
Maximum input WPT power rating 3.7 kW 7.7 kW 22 kW
Magnitude
Detection
operating conditions and to maintain a normal operation of The circuit of inductively coupled power transformer is shown
power transfer, a proper control is essential. It will prevent from in Fig. 6. A high frequency inverter is necessary to operate the
output voltage fluctuation, where a constant supply is important. resonant circuit and produce high frequency supply for primary coil.
The control strategy may be applied to different parts of ICPT; The operating frequency of inverter switches has to match with the
Individually for primary coil power supply control and secondary designed frequency of coils but fixed frequency control cannot
coil power control or synchronised control of primary and manage variation of circuit parameters, and as a result the switches
secondary coils. The control of secondary coil is more common practice high voltage or current stress, and high energy loss in the
in order to get stabilized voltage. form of heat. Thus variable frequency control has been developed to
474 K.A. Kalwar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 47 (2015) 462–475
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