Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Mitigation of wind power intermittency: Storage technology approach

T.R. Ayodele n, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe
Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent time, the concern for grid integration of wind power has been a subject of discussion in the academic
Received 19 September 2014 community. At present, the penetration level is still moderate for most grids to accommodate. As the
Received in revised form penetration level increases, wind power may cause additional problems to the grid due to its intermittent
22 November 2014
nature. One of the intending solutions to this problem is the adoption of energy storage. This paper examines
Accepted 25 December 2014
Available online 17 January 2015
the state of the art energy storage technology options that are capable of mitigating wind power intermittency
on the grid and their challenges. It also highlighted the existing policies that aided the development of wind
Keywords: power and discusses the limitations of its integration into the grid. It was found that, the ability of storage
Policies technology to be effectively utilised in mitigating the wind power intermittency depends on the ramp rate of
Renewable energy
the technology, response delay time, duration of storage, maturity of technology, installation cost, efficiency of
Storage technology
the technology, its environmental impact and the suitability of the site topology. Therefore, no single storage
Wind generator
Wind power intermittency technology is capable of providing total solution at mitigating the effect of wind power intermittency on the
grid. The effectiveness of the storage technology lies in the hybridization of the storage technologies
depending on the level of cost and technical requirements.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
2. Limitations of grid integration of intermittent wind power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
2.1. Economic factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
2.2. Technical factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
2.3. Institutional factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
3. Balancing of load demand with wind generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
4. Storage technology approach for smoothening wind power intermittency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
4.1. Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
4.2. Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
4.3. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
4.4. Battery storage technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.4.1. Sodium–sulfur (NAS) batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.4.2. Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.4.3. Lithium-ion batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.4.4. Zinc bromide batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.5. Superconducting magnetic energy storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.6. Super capacitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.7. Vehicles to grid (V2G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
4.8. Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
5. Hybridization of storage technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 234 8064339270.
E-mail addresses: tr.ayodele@ui.edu.ng, tayodele2001@yahoo.com (T.R. Ayodele), a.ogunjuyigbe@ui.edu.ng (A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.034
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
448 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456
1. Introduction
With the deregulation of electricity markets, the structure of
power systems has changed from the vertical to horizontally-
operated power systems. This new structure allows distributed
generators to be part of the modern power systems. Most of these
embedded generators come from Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
such as wind, solar, small hydro, wave, tide, geothermal, and
biomass. The advantages of utilizing renewable energy generators
in mitigating climate change have been severally discussed [1–3].
It is estimated that 1 GW of renewable capacity can power about
290,000 households and 959,000 electric vehicles in a year
thereby saving 349 million Gallon of gasoline [4] which could
avoid emission of millions of tons of CO2 per year. Of the various
RES, wind is the most utilized for electricity generation. This is
because the technologies for harvesting the resources are better
developed and well understood compared to the others. Moreover,
most regions in the world are endowed with this resource. In
addition, expansion and the developments of other RES such as
hydro, tidal, geothermal and wave are limited, and most suitable
sites have been developed which provides no room for further
expansion. Wind generators have high modular characteristics and
are fuel independent. They are environmentally advantageous and
economically viable.
In recent years, the growth of wind power has been tremen-
dous. In 2014, a joint venture between Mitsubishi and Vestas
announced a single wind turbine generator of 8 MW [5] and it is
envisaged that a single wind farm in the capacity of over 1000 MW
will be possible in the future [6]. A total wind power capacity of
106 GW was installed in Europe alone at the end of 2012 as
depicted in Fig. 1, this represent a growth of 12.6% per annum in
the region [7]. It has also been reported that the total world
installed capacity reached 318 GW at the end of 2013 as shown in
Fig. 2 [7]. This could respond to 3.5% of the world total electricity
demand. It is anticipated that at the end of 2030 and 2050, the
wind energy will provide 4.9% and 18% respectively of the total
electricity production in the world [8].
The tremendous growth experienced by the wind industry
around the world is not without the policy support for wind
energy development that continually improve the reliability, cost-
effectiveness and overall understanding of wind energy [9–11].
Table 1 presents the overall review of some of the policy that
enhances the exponential growth of wind energy industry.
However, with these laudable programs and the level of
development in the wind power industry, there are concerns that
wind power integration will increase technical complexity and
ancillaries service cost of electricity production due to the inter-
mittent nature of wind speed which is the prime mover of every
wind turbines. Electricity from wind turbine is variable from time
120
100
85
Wind Power (GW)
75.2
80
65
56.7
60 48
40.8
34.4
40 28.5
23.1
17.3
20 12.9
0 chosen to minimize the total cost of operating the entire system
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
Fig. 1. Cumulative installed wind power in the European Union between 2000
and 2012.
5
x 10
3.5
318000
3 282275 296255
Installed Capacity (MW)
254041
237717
2.5 218144
199,739
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2010 end 2011 mid 2011 end 2012 mid 2012 end 2013 mid 2013 end
Period of the Year
Fig. 2. Total installed wind capacity in the world between 2010 and 2013.
to time and therefore cannot be scheduled or controlled as that of
thermal, nuclear, fossil or hydroelectric generators [9]. Due to the
stochastic nature of wind speed, wind generators cannot ensure
continuous supply of electricity [6].
Presently, efforts are being made at ensuring smooth integra-
tion of wind power into the grid with different technological
methods. This paper therefore examines various available storage
technologies options that are applicable to wind power applica-
tion. These technologies are capable of improving the power
system grid integrity i.e. the power system security, power system
stability and power quality during the integration of intermittent
wind power into the power system. This work is relevant under
the theme of renewable energy and green technology.
2. Limitations of grid integration of intermittent wind power
Integration of wind power into the power system is often faced
with reluctance by the utility operators due to intermittent nature
of wind power. There is always a fear that a sudden change of
wind speed as a result of its unpredictable nature could lead to
shutting down of the wind generators. This could trigger security
issues as a result of cascading tripping of other conventional
generator for loss of generation. This paper identifies economic,
technical and institutional factors as crucial factors facing wind
power development.
2.1. Economic factor
In power system, there must be an instantaneous balance at all
times between the aggregate demand for electric power and the
total power generated by all contributing power plants [25]. Wind
power generation is a variable and unpredictable source of power
106 which may have consequences on the regulation reserve. Other
94.4 conventional generators must offset the change in wind power
output in order to balance load and generation in real time. This
has, and continues to generate concerns among the utility opera-
tors that wind generators with variable output may increase the
operating costs (ancillary-services costs) of the power system as a
whole. It is believed that these stochastic nature will force the
conventional power plants to provide the ancillary services in
order to maintain system balance, thus causing the conventional
power plants to deviate from operating points that have been
[9]. Moreover, wind farms are located where the wind resources
are found which most often are very far from the cities. This
increases the transmission cost of delivering power to the load
centres and may not be attractive to the Transmission System
 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456 449

Table 1
Existing policies for the development of wind power.

Policy Meaning Examples of countries Advantages Disadvantages

Investment Subsidies for investment are given on the Sweden Encourages large wind farms to does not take into consideration
Subsidies [9] basis of rated power be built the actual plant productivity [9]
Fixed Feed-in Operators are paid a fixed price for every Germany, Spain, Denmark, Offset the high generation cost Subjected to legislative decision
Tariffs kW h of electricity fed into the grid [10] Norway, Finland, France, of wind power and enhances which may change from time to
Ireland, Hungary, Slovakia, advance planning. Allows fair time, may increase the cost of
Austria. [12,13] price contract with the utility electricity, [14]
[14]
Fixed Premium Premiums are added to electricity price in a Finland, Netherland, Denmark, Offset high cost of renewable The cost does not reflect the actual
Systems manner to offset the estimated wind Germany, Spain, [12], China, generation, it also encourages environmental benefit, the cost is
electricity production costs relative to France [16] competitive bidding [15] passed to the electricity consumers
conventional generation [15]
Surcharge- Consumers are surcharge on all electricity Germany Incentives for demand-oriented Increasing price risks for producers
Funded purchases, and the revenue from the production, Increase
Production surcharge is distributed to renewable participation in direct marketing
Subsidy generators on a per-kilowatt-hour basis for [17]
each unit of electricity produced
Renewable Minimum percentage of the electricity USA [19], Sweden, Poland, Encourages participation in Consumers have to pay under
Portfolio produced or sold in the region must come Britain, Italy, Belgium [20] renewable energy industry compulsion as electricity produced
Standards [18] from renewable sources from renewable energy has to be
sold
Tradable Green Sweden, UK, Norway [21],
There is an obligation to supply a certain Encourages group of agents in The operators must compliance
Certificates percentage of electricity from renewable Australia, Austria Demark, the energy supply chain to have with their obligation or else they
energy sources [15] France, India, Ireland Italy, a certain quota of renewable are subject to a penalty for any
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, electricity in their portfolio shortfall
Romania [16]
Tendering System There is a power purchase agreements for a Nordic Countries Political risk for the investors is
certain period of years and the price is removed
agreed upon for the period [17]
Emissions The scheme set limit for emission of CO2 it USA [20], India Wind power could benefit from Have little impact on the
Trading requires firms to either pay a fine or buy a higher emissions allowance profitability of investing in wind
Schemes permits from firms that undershoot their price and higher alternative energy in the short term and it has
targets [22] abatement costs no impact on technologies
competitiveness [23]
Taxation Lower VAT rates for renewable electricity, USA [20] Have good impact on the Are subjected to legislative rules
Incentives [24] favourable depreciation possibilities and profitability of wind energy in which may change from with time
exemption from energy or environmental both short and long run
taxes [17]

Operators (TSOs) judging from economic analysis and planning
criteria [26].
2.2. Technical factors
The detailed models and the adequate data required for evalu-
ating the intermittent behaviour of wind power are still under
developed. The analytical tools needed to evaluate the cost and the
impacts of intermittency of these technologies are lacking. The few
existing tools which have been developed to take into account the
non-dispatchable generators are still unable to effectively handle
the stochastic nature of wind power. The long term wind speed
needed for effective and detail analysis is often difficult and
expensive to get. This has retarded the effort of the utilities in
incorporating intermittent wind energy technologies in to their
resource planning. Another technical issue facing intermittent
renewable energy technology is the plug and play technology to
interface the wind power into the utility grid. Despite giant progress
in the past decades regarding the understanding and development
of these technologies, the performance of hardware, standard
designs and study procedures are still under developed. The
interfacing costs are still too high, especially for interfacing small
scale wind power projects with the utility systems.
2.3. Institutional factor
Information and experience gained by few utilities over the last
few years in dealing with the intermittent nature of wind power
are not widely available to other utilities and regulatory bodies
[26]. Therefore, many utilities lack the knowledge of recent
technologies and performance improvements on intermittent
wind power generation. In addition, some have poor/slow attitude
towards embracing new technology. This has slow down the
development and integration of wind power into the grid as a
result of little or no experience and information.
3. Balancing of load demand with wind generators
The variability in the output power of wind generators as a result
of intermittent nature of wind speed has introduced new sets of
uncertainty factor on the grid which the utility operators have to
deal with. It is believed in some quarters that reserve capacity is
needed to ensure that adequate generation is available to meet
electricity demand. Reserves that are on-line and available to respond
within 10 min are known as spinning reserves. Reserves with longer
response times are referred to as non-spinning reserves.
There are basically three methods for balancing varying
demand and supply [27]. They are the regulation, load following
and unit commitment techniques. The regulation technique is
used in balancing power system in the situation of fast and
unpredictable load that occurs in very short time (second to
minute) [27]. In this case, the control system that is monitoring
both the load and the generation automatically generates signal
that is sent to the attendants at the power station to increase or
decrease their power output. The variation in wind speed is not
instant and therefore is not always subjected to this technique.
450 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456
Therefore, the cost of regulation related to wind energy variability
is fairly low (less than 0.1 cent per kW h of wind energy) [28].
In the case where energy demand and wind energy output
varies over an extended time that spans 10 min to several hours,
load following balancing technique is adopted. This allows load
and generation to be scheduled according to the variation based
on experience over time. In this way, system operators deploy
various types of generation to meet energy demand at the lowest
cost. With good knowledge of wind behavior of a location (which
is studied over time) and accurate wind forecasting tools [27,29],
load following may be possible with wind power generators.
In the case of unit commitment, the generators that will be
needed for each day’s operation will be selected by the utility
operator. This is to ensure that adequate generation is available
that will meet up the load demand at the lowest possible cost.
Various researchers [30–33] have argued that consistent power
generation can be achieved with wind generators if the wind
turbines are spread over a wide geographical location (aggregation
approach) [34]. In this way, unit commitment of wind power may
be possible at a significantly reduced cost of integration.
4. Storage technology approach for smoothening wind power
intermittency
Although, wind power has been proved to be environmentally
and economically advantageous at supplying electrical energy into
the grid, however, it cannot ensure continuously power supply on
its own. In view of this, many storage devices have been investi-
gated and developed which can enhance smooth and continuous
supply of wind power into the power system. This has helped
improve power system grid integrity such as power quality,
system stability and system security. These technologies have also
influence the participation of wind power in the energy and
ancillary services market.
When excess electricity is produced from wind energy, it is
stored in form of electrical energy and some other form different
from electrical energy [35] such as thermal, mechanical and
chemical energy as furnished in Table 2 [36]. In the time of deficit,
the stored energy is re-integrated into the grid thereby ensuring
continuity of power supply into the grid. Storage technology can
provides load shifting thereby protecting against intermittency.
Some of these storage technologies are discusses in this section.
Table 2
Energy storage technology [36].
S/ Forms of Energy stored Technology used
N energy storage
1 Electrical Magnetic/current energy Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
energy storage
Electrostatic energy Capacitors, super capacitors
storage
2 Mechanical Kinetic energy Flywheels
energy storage Potential energy Pump Hydroelectric Storage (PHS)
Elastic potential energy Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
of compressed air
3 Chemical Electrochemical energy
Conventional batteries: lead acid battery (L/A), Sodium sulphur batteries (NaS), nickel cadmium
energy storage batteries (NiCd), sodium nickel chloride batteries, ZEBRA (Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity)
batteries, lithium ion batteries li-ion
Flow batteries: vanadium redox batteries (VRB), zinc bromine batteries (ZnBr), polysulphide bromide
Batteries (PSB),
Chemical energy Fuel cells
Thermochemical energy Solar-fuel
4 Thermal energy Low temperature energy Aquiferous low temperature TES (AL-TES)
storage Cryogenic energy storage (CES)
High temperature HT-TES (high temperature energy storage)
4.1. Flywheels
A flywheel is an energy storage device that is capable of storing
kinetic energy in a spinning mass [37]. It operates by drawing
electrical energy from the primary source and stores it in high
density rotating flywheel and is basically of two types: the low
speed flywheel (up to 6000 r/min) and high speed flywheel (up to
60,000 r/min). Amount of energy stored in the spinning rotor is
directly proportional to the square of the wheel speed and rotor’s
mass moment of inertia [38]. When flywheel storage technology is
combined with wind turbine generators, it could provide a means
for storing the surplus energy in the time of excess wind power
thereby improving wind plant’s inertia [6]. Whenever power is
required, the rotor inertia of the flywheel converts the stored
kinetic energy into electricity [39]. This could result in a smoother
wind turbine power output which could help prevent instanta-
neous power oscillations due to unforeseen wind speed change
[40]. Flywheel is put into use by connecting it with the wind
turbine while the electrical part of the technology is connected to
the grid via back to back electronic converter [41] as depicted in
Fig. 3. The control algorithms that have been utilized in flywheel to
enhance smooth integration of electrical power into the grid are
the direct vector control algorithm with rotor-flux orientation [37]
and the sensorless control using a Model-Reference-Adaptive-
System (MRAS) observer [42].
When there is excess in the generated power as a result of high
wind speed with respect to the demanded power, the difference is
stored in the flywheel that is driven by the electrical machine
operating as a motor. In the time of low wind speed the stored
energy is re-introduced into the grid thereby ensuring a contin-
uous power supply to the grid. Flywheel is particularly useful in
maintaining frequency balance in a power system consisting
intermittent wind power generation by quickly responding in
bringing back the system frequency to its nominal value which
is naturally difficult to achieved with the control system of wind
generators [6]. This technology competes well with other storage
technologies especially in an applications that requires short
duration of storage (1–2 s) in MW capacity. Among the advantages
the flywheel technology offers are: long life of 15–20 year [43],
insensitivity to depth of discharge (DOD) [44], High peak power
capacity without overheating [45], very good energy efficiency
[46], rapid response and ability to provide necessary ancillary
services [44,47]. However, flywheel has a very high capital cost in
Duration of
energy stored
Short
Short
Short
Long
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456
Fig. 3. Wind energy conversion system and fly wheel energy storage system.
Fig. 4. Pumped hydroelectric storage system.
the range of $(1000–5000) per kW h [43,48] and it has high rate of
discharge in the range of 55–100% per day [48].
4.2. Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS)
Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS) technology emerges as a
solution for the issues involving unbalance in power generation
and demand. Power systems equipped with significant pumped-
hydro installed capacity can mitigate wind power intermittency
thereby given room for significant integration of wind power into
the power systems by allowing a time shift of power generation
[49]. It makes use of different elevation levels to store potential
energy [50] as shown in Fig. 4. Water is pumped in the time of
excess wind power into the upper reservoir and then releases
through a generator into the lower reservoir thereby feeding
electrical power into the grid in the time of low wind power
generation. It has the capability to provide both the power
regulation and storage services [44]. Today, PHS is one of the most
successful storage technology with the total installed capacity of
about 127 GW as at 2009 and about 16% of this installed capacity
are located in the US [35]. It has a growth rate of 5 GW/annum
[43]. PHS is known for its moderate efficiency (68–85%), long
storage duration (1  24þh) [51], large capacity (100–1000 MW),
long life (30–60 years) [43] and low cycle cost $(0.1–1.4) per kW h
per cycle) [43]. However, it requires a specific topological site and
significant large area for the construction of both the upper and
the lower reservoirs, it has high capital cost and high construction
time which makes it unattractive to the investors. PHS system are
sometimes constructed by damming a river, this could endangered
the marine life and could sometimes lead to environmental issue
that can require high ecological cost [35].
451
4.3. Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
This technology has been in existence since 1970s and it is
suitable for large scale power and high energy storage application
[52]. It stores mechanical energy by compressing air into some
kind of container typically located underground such as naturally
occurring aquifers [48] and solution-mined salt caverns and
constructed rock caverns [53]. New technology of CAES has
succeeded in using large series of pipes to store the air [35]. When
the air is expanded again, energy is re- integrated into the grid.
Presently, there are only two CAES plants that are in operation in
the world with a total capacity of 400 MW [43]: the 290 MW
capacity for 2 h installed in Huntorf, Germany in 1978 [43,54] and
the 110 MW capacity of 26 h located in Mclntosh, Alabama, USA in
1991 [35]. The third commercial CAES with the capacity of
270 MW plant is planned for construction in Norton, Ohio [36].
It has been established that this technology has the capability to
mitigate wind power intermittency [55–58]. CAES has many
advantages such as high power capacity (50–300 MW), low capital
cost compared to PHS ( $400–800) per kW) [43], large energy
storage capacity(2–50 þh) [53], relatively long storage duration
(typically over a year) [45], quick start up (9 min emergency and
12 min normal operation) [43], and moderate energy efficiency
(60–80%). One main disadvantage of this technology is that the
heat developed during compression is lost when air is stored for
long hours. In order for the air to expand so that the energy stored
can be recouped, fossil fuel is burn to re-introduced the heat lost.
Since great deal of fossil fuel is required to re-integrate the energy
stored back into the grid, the use of CAES as energy storage
became unattractive to the investors [59]. However, efforts are
being made to develop another technology that will operate in an
452 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456
almost isothermal condition. In this way, the heat developed
during compression will be conserved thereby increasing the
efficiency [44].
4.4. Battery storage technology
Batteries store energy through a reversible chemical reaction.
They are energy storage technologies that are fast growing today.
This is because they support distributed stand-alone wind power
technology with relatively small land use unlike the PHS and CAES
that are built on a large scale, and take up massive amount of land
[60]. There are various types of batteries in the market, each with
their own advantages and disadvantages. However, four of the
most commonly used in renewable energy applications [35,61,62]
are discussed in this paper
4.4.1. Sodium–sulfur (NAS) batteries
NAS has been in existing since early 80s and has been used
in various renewable energy project around the world [44,63]
and can generate up to 1.2 MW for up to 7 h. The battery is
attractive because it has good efficiency (up to 90%) [43], high
power density (150–240 W/kg) [64] with low cost materials that
makes it suitable for high volume mass production [44]. It has
2500 plus cycle upon reasonable depth of discharge and has 600%
rated pulse power capability that can last 30 s. It is a good
candidate for power system regulation application because of its
millisecond response with full charge and discharge [63], no self-
discharge with minimum maintenance and long life span (up to 15
years) [44]. The battery has good application in power quality,
emergency power supply and mitigation of intermittent renew-
able energy supply such as wind power. However, It has high
capital cost ($2000/kW) and its temperature must be kept
between 300 and 350 1C [43]. There are also environmental
concerns due to sodium that is hazardous to health.
4.4.2. Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries
Nickel–cadmium battery is another battery that finds applica-
tion in stabilization of intermittent renewable energy. It has higher
energy density (50–75 W h/kg) and longer life (2000–2500 cycles)
compared to the lead-acid batteries. It is more tolerant to tem-
perature and deep discharge [44]. An application of Ni–Cd can
be found in the battery energy storage system of Golden Valley
Association project in Alaska where it provides 27 MW for 15 min.
The battery string can be reconfigured to produce a full 40 MW
also in 15 min [65]. The limitations of Ni–Cd battery includes:
environmental concerns due to toxic cadmium, high capital cost
($1000/kW) [45], need for advanced monitoring device during
charging and discharging and the problem of memory effect
[43,45].
4.4.3. Lithium-ion batteries
Lithium-ion battery is found suitable for wind power applica-
tion for example a 60 MW h battery was developed for wind
energy storage in Kansas USA by Eagle Picher Technologies in 2009
[43] and it is presently being considered for frequency stabilization
and grid regulation. This is because of its various attributes that
enhance support for renewable energy integration such as high
efficiency (up to 95%), long life cycle of 3000 cycles at 80% depth of
discharge [43,45] and high energy density200 W h/kg. The battery
is also regarded as the future battery technology as it has
demonstrated its effectiveness in small scale applications such as
laptops and vehicles. However, Lithium-ion battery can be easily
damaged if not subjected to ideal charging condition, hence
additional charging devices is needed to monitor its charging
and discharging. Another major challenge facing the development
of this battery is its high cost per unit energy ( 4$1200/kW h).
4.4.4. Zinc bromide batteries
Zinc Bromide battery is a kind of flow battery that is gradually
gaining popularity in the area of renewable energy application.
Flow batteries are hybrid between electrochemical batteries and
fuel cells [66]. The battery makes use of pumps to circulate a pair
of electrolytes past an ion-exchange membrane in an external
tank. The ions pass across the membrane from one electrolyte to
the other to charge and discharge the battery [66]. Zinc bromide
batteries are suitable for mitigating intermittency in wind power
application and also enhance power quality of a power system
because of their response time which is in milliseconds range
and about 3–4 h recharge time [43]. The cost of energy of these
batteries is cheaper and is not subjected to depth of discharge and
self-discharge problems. Moreover, the energy storage is indepen-
dent of the power capacity [67]. However, they are presently not
used on large scale and the efficiency is relatively low (75%)
compared to lithium-ion batteries.
4.5. Superconducting magnetic energy storage
In superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), energy is
stored in the magnetic field of superconducting coil without
resistive loss. The system operates by injecting a DC current into
the superconducting coil, which stores the energy in magnetic
field. When the energy is needed, the current is generated using
the energy stored in the magnetic field. In this technology, energy
is stored in electrical form rather than chemical or mechanical
forms of energy [35]. As a result of this, it has high efficiency (up to
97%) since it is not subjected to thermodynamic losses associated
with other forms of energy storage. To maintain the superconducting
capability, the coil is kept at a very low temperature [68]. SMES has
short response time in which it can provide high power in very short
time (i.e. it discharges very quickly), hence it is suitable at damping
out the variations in wind power but not for providing long term
energy storage. Other applications of SMES include corrections of
voltage sags and dips at industrial facilities (1-MW units) and
stabilization of ring networks (2-MW units) [37]. The technology is
still immature for usage in large scale energy storage, although about
100 MW are already installed worldwide with 50% of connected to
the US grid [69].
4.6. Super capacitors
Super capacitors store energy by physically accumulating posi-
tive and negative charges [51]. They are forms of storage technol-
ogy in which energy is also stored electrically. They have better
speed of response, faster charging time and good cycled life (over
100,000 times) compared to conventional battery systems [45].
They also have energy density (10,000 W/kg) that is high com-
pared to conventional capacitors with durability of 8–10 years and
efficiency of 60–70%. Single cells of capacitance value 350 to
2700 F are available and operate in the range of 2 V [70]. The cell
can be added up in a series packed module with voltage range
between 200 and 400 V. Super capacitors are presently being used
by combining it with other storage technologies and they are
suited for high power, short-discharge applications [44,71]. This is
because of their high energy discharge rate (5–40%/day). This
technology is still expensive with an estimated cost of $20,000/
kW h. As at today, no application in large storage application in
power utility is known [44]. However, it has prospect in the DC
link of renewable energy generators.
 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456 453

4.7. Vehicles to grid (V2G)
In V2G storage system, the batteries of the cars are used as
energy storage device for grid stabilization and it can be seeing as
energy storage of the future especially in a distributed application
[72]. This technology has the potential to effectively mitigate the
intermittent nature of wind power by plugging into stations that
are fed by wind turbines. The vehicle makes use of large pack of
lithium batteries, the batteries can be charged with excess power
generated and can be fed back into the grid when there is power
shortage. In about 90% of time, cars are not utilised [35], the
technology therefore relies on parked cars to plugin into the grid
so that the batteries can be put to work storing and providing
energy. As this technology begins to be popular, more Plug in
Electric Vehicles (PEV) will be available for grid integration.
Recently a test-bed has been instituted at the NASA Ames Research
Center based on a project held jointly between University of
California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) and Denmark. The test-bed uses an
electric vehicle for energy storage and transportation, and a
recharging station for the vehicle [73].
4.8. Hydrogen
Norway where a 600 kW wind turbine was combined with 48 kW
of electrolyzer and 10 kW of Fuel cell. The hydrogen produced is
stored in 12 m3 tank and is enough to power 10 houses for 2–3 day
[43,79]. In another successful wind-hydrogen project in Nakskov,
Denmark, wind power has been used to produce hydrogen using
an 8 kW electrolyzer, 10.5 kW fuel cell and 25 m3 hydrogen tank
[43]. The use of hydrogen for electricity generation is presently not
attractive to the investors because of its high capital cost ($5000–
10,000 per kW) and low storage conversion efficiency. Hydrogen
has also been proved as a viable alternative source of energy for
automotive applications [80]. However, one of the key challenges
in developing this technology is hydrogen storage. It has been
revealed that the current methods for hydrogen storage (high-
pressure gas storage and liquefaction) cannot fulfill the storage
criteria required for on-board storage [81]. In order to use hydro-
gen energy, an effective, safe and stable storage medium is
required, which is still the major obstacle in order for hydrogen
to replace fossil fuels as a major power source [82]. However,
various researches have shown that solid-state materials such as
carbon based materials, metal hydrides, metal organic frame-
works, hollow glass microspheres, capillary arrays, etc. may have
potential advantages for hydrogen storage [80].

Hydrogen is produced through the electrolysis process of water

to produce hydrogen and oxygen in an electrolyzer. It is generated
at low pressure (30–300 psi) (207–2068) kPa and then com-
pressed and stored at high pressure (3000 psi) 20684 kPa in tanks.
Hydrogen-fuel economy is gradually gaining potential due to the
advantages of hydrogen being highly versatile, storable, transpor-
table, efficient, and clean energy carrier to substitute many of the
current available fuel [37,74,75]. Hydrogen can also be converted
directly into electricity in a fuel cell with water being the only
by-product [76]. The use of fuel cell is particularly of interest due
its non-toxic by-product. The integration of intermittent renew-
able energy source into the grid makes hydrogen a viable storage
alternative by utilizing the excess energy generated during excess
power production to produce hydrogen for storage [77,78].
For example, wind energy system could be used to generate
hydrogen in the time of excess wind power and the hydrogen is
then used to generate electricity during low wind speed. In 2004,
Norsk Hydro and Enercon installed wind-hydrogen plant in Utsira,
5. Hybridization of storage technology
The advantages and the challenges of various storage technol-
ogies are presented in Table 3 and they are summarily based on
the following criteria: ramp rate of the technology, response delay
time, duration of storage, maturity of technology, installation cost,
efficiency of the technology, environmental impact, Human health
implication, complexity of the charging devices and the suitability
of the site topology.
It can be observed from the table that the advantage of one is
the limitation of the other and vice-versa. Hence, hybridization of
storage technologies is viewed as a potential solution. In this way,
the disadvantages inherent in one can be complemented for in the
others. An Energy storage system, which has prompt response
time and long term storage capability, could maintain adequate
generation reserve to mitigate load-generation imbalances and
also respond to energy market favorably. However, no single

Table 3
Advantages of storage technologies and their challenges at a glance.

S/ Storage Advantages Disadvantage

N technology

1 Flywheel Few environmental impact, long life, insensitive to depth of discharge, high peak Low energy density, high rate of discharge, high cost
power capacity, high efficiency, rapid response
2 PHS Moderate efficiency, long storage duration, large capacity, long life, low cycle cost Specific topological site, large land use, high capital cost and
adverse effect on environment
3 CAES High energy and power capacity, moderate capital cost, moderate long storage Adverse environmental impact, requires burning of fossil fuels,
duration, quick start up, moderate efficiency, long life difficult to site
4 NaS battery High energy and power capacity, good response time, no self-discharge, high High production cost, concerns for safety, operate with in
efficiency, long life time, minimum maintenance specific temperature
Ni–Cd High energy density, long life, tolerant to temperature and deep discharge Environmental concern, high capital cost, memory effect, need
battery advance charging and discharging monitoring device
Li-ion Short access time, high energy density, high efficiency, long life, possible in small High cost and technical issues, requires ideal charging
battery devices condition
Zn–Br High energy and power capacity, long life Low energy density, low efficiency, limited to small scale
battery efficiency
5 SMES High energy and power capacity, short response time, long life time and very high Requires to be kept at low temperature, Low energy density,
efficiency high capital cost, potential health issue, discharges quickly
6 Super Moderate efficiency, long life Low energy density, limited power system application, high
capacitor discharge rate
7 V2G Possible for distributed generation, user friendly, plug and play technology Stills an immature technology, high cost and complex control
system
8 Hydrogen Storable, few environmental impact, transportable, moderate efficiency Underdeveloped storage technology, risk of explosion
454 T.R. Ayodele, A.S.O. Ogunjuyigbe / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 447–456
storage technology could provide this. For example, flywheel and
SME could quickly respond to variation in wind because of their
high response time, however, could not provide long term storage
capacity. Meanwhile PHS or CAES could offer long term storage
capability that could complement flywheel/SME.
Some authors have studied some hybridized configuration of
energy storage systems, and reported simulation results favors
hybridization. The utilization of PHS and battery storage hybrid
system was the focus in [83], it was revealed that the application
of the hybrid system yielded lower total loses in the system while
the storage capacity is increased compared to a single battery
storage system. The complementary characteristic of battery (large
energy density for long term storage, but low power density, low
charge and discharge efficiency) and super-capacitor (low energy
density, but high power density, fast charge and discharge rate)
has been explored to improve the energy storage system of a
stand-alone wind power system in [84–87]. Their results revealed
that, the hybrid of the duo can optimize the battery charge and
discharge process, thereby extending the life time of the battery.
This in turn improves the return on investment compared to
individual single storage system. A control algorithm based on
artificial neural network was proposed by Li et al. [88] to manage
the run time use of hybrid ultra-capacitor and Lithium-ion battery.
The evaluation using wind farm data reveals that the proposed
algorithm can extend system lifetime by 62% and reduce the cost
of energy storage system by 41%. Similarly, a Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) algorithm proposed for the control of bat-
tery/super-capacitor hybrid energy storage system in [89] is
demonstrated to have the capability of smoothening the fluctua-
tion in wind power and also improve the lifetime of the storage
system compared to a non-hybrid storage system.
The economics of hybrid flywheel and CAES was performed by
Pimm and Garvey [90]. In their work, CAES and flywheel were
connected to the same shaft of a generator and turbo machinery,
where the flywheel with higher efficiency and low storage
capacity was used for high frequency transaction with the grid
and CAES with lower efficiency but with lower cost per unit of
energy storage was used for longer term storage with the aim of
benefiting from a rapidly fluctuating prices. It was concluded that
series connected hybrid plant is more economically attractive
compared to a non-hybrid energy storage plant. Gao et al. [91]
presents an integrated energy storage system based on hydrogen
storage and hydrogen–oxygen combined cycle. The energy storage
was applied to a wind power plant. The result shows that
efficiency in the range of 49–55% was achieved and that the integ-
rated energy storage system stabilized the intermittent
wind power.
Although, hybridization of energy storage may be limited by
the initial cost of construction and installation, but it is economic-
ally attractive on a long run and it will greatly enhance large scale
integration of wind power into the grid thereby limiting the cost of
climate change on the environment.
6. Conclusion
This paper has discussed an up-to-date review of the state of
the art storage technology options for mitigating the intermittency
of wind power on the grid with special focus on the advantages
and disadvantages of each technology. Wind power intermittency
is generally not of concern when the penetration level is less than
10% of the total load. In this situation, the present method of
balancing generation and load is sufficient to compensate for wind
power variability. However, as the penetration level increases to
significant fraction of the total load (4 20%), the regulation
capacity of a control area will reduce, hence, additional frequency
control may be required to maintain grid integrity. It has also been
reported that intermittent wind power has limited response to
market economy which makes it difficult to optimize profit as
wind power is prone to incur imbalance penalties. Storage tech-
nologies have been identified to provide solution to these issues.
A suitable energy storage device combined with wind turbines,
can firm and shape wind power output, transforming the wind
generation into a firm and predictable energy source. Various
criteria for effective mitigation of wind power intermittency by the
storage technologies have been pointed out. However, no single
storage technology can meet up with all the criteria. Thus hybrid
storage technology is being explored as a potential solution.
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