Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Techno-economic evaluation of various hybrid power systems for

rural telecom
W. Margaret Amutha n, V. Rajini
SSN College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nowadays, utility has started to consider the green power technology for having a healthier environ-
Received 22 August 2014 ment. The green power technologies reduce combustion of fossil fuels and the consequent CO2 emission
Received in revised form which is the principle cause of global warming. By maximising the use of the renewable energy, the
16 October 2014
usage of diesel generator for powering the base transceiver stations could be reduced or removed. This
Accepted 31 October 2014
paper aims to investigate the economic, technical and environmental performance of various hybrid
power systems for powering remote telecom. Simulations using Hybrid Optimisation Model for Electric
Keywords: Renewable (HOMER) software are performed to determine the Initial Capital, the Total Net Present Cost
Hybrid power system (TNPC), the Cost of Energy (COE) as well as the system Capacity Shortage of the different supply options.
Optimisation
The simulation results suggest a suitable hybrid system which would be the feasible solution for
Hybrid Optimisation Model for Electric
generation of electric power for remote telecom. A detailed analysis, description and modelling of the
Renewable (HOMER)
Modelling system are also presented in this paper.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
2. Various hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
3. Modelling of the hybrid system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
3.1. Telecom load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
3.2. Solar system model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
3.2.1. Solar photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
3.3. Wind turbine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
3.3.1. Wind generator system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
3.4. Hydrogen storage fuel cell model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
3.5. Diesel generator model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
3.6. Battery model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
3.6.1. Battery bank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
3.7. Converter model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
3.8. Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
4. HOMER solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
5. Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
5.1. Emissions (kg/year) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
5.2. Production (kWh/year) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
5.3. Cost ($). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
5.4. Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jaff28@yahoo.co.in (W. Margaret Amutha), rajiniv@ssn.edu.in (V. Rajini).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.103
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
554 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561
5.5. Sensitivity analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6. Optimisation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7. Recommendations and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
In the recent years, India's energy consumption has been increas-
ing at a fast rate in the world due to population growth and
economic development [1]. In India, Industrial consumers are the
largest group of electricity consumers, followed by the domestic,
agricultural and commercial consumers, in that order. The Indian
telecommunications industry is one of the fastest growing industries
in the world. India is currently adding 8–10 million mobile sub-
scribers every month [2–5]. The power woes of India's telecom sector
especially in the rural areas are quite apparent. It is a big challenge
for the industry to meet its regular power requirements through
traditional fuel, which is expensive [6]. Power deficits coupled with
the rising cost of diesel pose a significant challenge to the mid-term
growth and profitability of the telecommunication sector. Continued
reliance on diesel will also substantially increase the environmental
costs in the form of carbon emissions. The telecommunication sector
is well placed to transit to a business model which relies on energy
efficiency measures in combination with harnessing clean energy
sources for its operations. This has compelled the industry to look for
alternative green energy solutions.
India has one of the highest potentials for harnessing the
renewable energy. Renewable energies are also inexhaustible
and clean. Renewable Energy Systems, particularly hybrid systems,
have the additional advantage of being complimentary [7–9]. A
hybrid system consists of two or more renewable energy sources
used together to provide green energy, increased system efficiency
as well as greater balance in energy supply.
Thus, India's growing telecommunication tower industry can
achieve substantial cost savings, while reducing their fossil-fuel
dependence and carbon footprint, by switching to hybrid renewable
power generated electricity supply. The various Renewable Energy
Sources (RES) such as solar energy, wind energy, fuel cells and so on
are used for telecommunications applications in the developing
countries. Many literature references have discussed the economic
cost analysis of combinations of hybrid power system [10–13]. Also,
there is a lot of literature about design and analysis in the context of
renewable energy power generations [14–19].
The main objective of this paper is to compare various hybrid
renewable energy systems in all aspects like optimal cost alloca-
tion of each individual components present in the system, sensi-
tivity variable solar radiation, wind speed, emissions, electricity
production and to examine the best effective renewable based
hybrid system configuration. For all the combinations of hybrid
power system combinations, the meteorological data of solar
radiation and wind speed is taken for Chennai [20–26], India with
the Latitude 131 North and Longitude 80.181 East and the pattern
of load consumption of typical telecom load profiles are suitably
modelled. Here, Hybrid Optimisation Model for Electric Renewable
(HOMER) software is used to analyse hybrid power system.
2. Various hybrid systems
The intermittent nature of the solar and wind energy under
varying climatic conditions requires a feasibility assessment and
optimal sizing of hybrid solar and wind energy system. Without
proper technical and financial feasibility study, the hybrid
560
560
560
561
alternative energy systems may end up in a poor efficient system.
The intent behind this paper is to design, optimise and analyse an
effective hybrid power system for a remote telecom station and to
compare then with the existing Diesel power scheme. HOMER
determines the operational strategy for a hybrid renewable energy
system based on three tasks which are simulation, optimisation
analysis and sensitivity analysis. It simulates the operation of the
system based on the components chosen by the user. So, here the
hybrid combinations chosen are (i) Diesel generator (ii) Grid-
Diesel generator (iii) Solar PV-Diesel Generator (iv) Solar PV-Wind
system-Diesel generator-Battery (v) Solar PV-Wind system-Diesel
generator-Battery-Fuel cell (vi) Solar PV-Wind system-Battery-
Fuel cell (vii) Solar PV-Wind system-Battery. The architecture of
various hybrid system is shown in Fig. 1(i)–(vi). HOMER simulates
the system based on the estimation of installing cost, replacement
cost, operation cost, fuel and interest. The list of various config-
urations of hybrid renewable energy will be tabulated from the
lowest to the highest total net present cost (TNPC). It then
determines the best feasible system configuration which can
adequately serve the electric demand. The optimal solution is
referring to the lowest total net present cost (TNPC).
HOMER compares a wide range of equipment with different
constraints and sensitivities to optimise the system design. The
analysis is based on the technical properties of the system and the
life-cycle cost (LCC) of the system. The LCC comprises the initial
capital cost, cost of installation and operation costs over the
system's life span. HOMER performs simulations to satisfy the
given demand using alternative technology options and resource
availability.
3. Modelling of the hybrid system
Hybrid Optimisation Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER)
software helps us to determine how different renewable, and
hybrid systems interact with end-use demand. Based on the
availability and potential of renewable energies in the particular
area a hybrid energy system is modelled.
3.1. Telecom load
The Telecom load (Base Transceiver Station-BTS) is considered
as primary load. The BTS is a telecom infrastructure used to
facilitate wireless communication between subscriber device and
telecoms operator network. The global development of BTS is
increasingly taking place in regions in which the power distribu-
tion grid often breaks down for long periods of time or where
there is no access to the power distribution grid.
So the BTS in such regions, diesel generators with batteries are
used to back-up the grid for electricity supply and ensure network
availability. But these require a high level of maintenance work
and consume relatively high amounts of diesel fuel for low level
outputs. As a result diesel generators incur high operating
expenses. The growing cost of energy (COE) due to increasing
diesel prices and concerns over rising greenhouse emissions have
caused the telecom companies to focus on better power manage-
ment methods. The price of diesel since 2004 is shown in Fig. 2.
 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561 555

Fig. 1. Architecture of system with (i) DG and (ii) Grid/DG. Architecture of hybrid renewable energy system with (iii) SPV/DG, (iv) SPV/Wind/DG/Battery, (v) SPV/Wind/DG/
FC/Battery, (vi) SPV/Wind/FC/Battery and (vii) SPV/Wind/Battery.

The conventional power system feeding a telecom load is
shown in Fig. 3. The minimum-size of 1.3 kW is taken for analysis
in this paper. There are two types of BTS load. One is indoor BTS
and the other is outdoor BTS. Most indoor BTS require air
conditioning. For outdoor applications there is no requirement
for air conditioning. Daily telecom load profile considered is
shown in Fig. 4. The data were measured for the total hourly basis
daily load requirement of a rural telecom. General average power
consumption of BTS load is given in Table 1.
The conventional topology for BTS shown in Fig. 5 uses a separate
dc–dc converter (power conditioning circuit) for each of the renew-
able energy power sources. These individual converters are con-
nected to a common DC bus which in turn feeds the telecom load.
This system makes the system more bulky and expensive.
556 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561

Fig. 2. Diesel price since 2004.

Fig. 3. Conventional system feeding a telecom load.

Table 2
Monthly clearness index and solar radiation.

Month Clearness index Radiation

January 0.491 4.930

February 0.568 5.890
March 0.632 6.640
April 0.658 6.720
May 0.633 6.120
June 0.562 5.240
Fig. 4. Daily load profile. July 0.500 4.730
August 0.483 4.800
September 0.485 5.010
Table1
October 0.427 4.420
Typical average power consumption.
November 0.403 4.060
December 0.429 4.240
S.no Type of BTS Typical average consumption (kW)

1 2þ 2þ 2 1.3
2 4þ 4þ 4 2 where Epv is energy (kWh), A is total solar panel area (m2), P is
3 6þ 6þ 6 3.5 solar panel yield (%), H is annual average solar radiation on tilted
panels, PR is performance ratio, coefficient for losses (range is
between 0.5 and 0.9; default value is 0.75).
3.2. Solar system model
3.3. Wind turbine model
The latitude of the site considered Chennai is 131 North and the
longitude is 80.181 East. The time zone is GMTþ 5:30 India. The The monthly wind speed data is considered and measured at
monthly solar irradiation horizontal data are taken for simulation. 16 m height. The projected life time of the wind system is 20 years.
The solar system capacity is 2kW. The projected life time of the PV The wind system capacity is 3 kW. The power curve is shown in
system is 20 years. The plant considered has no tracking system. Fig. 7.
Monthly clearness index and radiation in the region of Chennai, The yearly wind speed of the study region is shown in Table 3.
Tamil Nadu is taken from the website of NASA and is shown below Fig. 8 shows the scaled data monthly averages for wind system.
in Table 2 and Fig. 6.
3.3.1. Wind generator system
3.2.1. Solar photovoltaic system Hourly energy generated (EWES) by wind generator with rated
Based on the solar radiation available on the tilted surface the power output (PWES) is defined by the following expression:
hourly energy output (EPV) of the PV generator can be calculated
P WE ¼ 1=2 n ρ nA n V 3 n C p ðλ; βÞn ηt n ηg ðiiÞ
according to the following equation:
EPV ¼ AnP nH nP R ðiÞ EWES ðt Þ ¼ P WES ðt Þ n t ðiiiÞ
 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561 557

Fig. 5. Conventional topology.

Fig. 6. Solar radiation curve.

Scaled data Monthly Averages where ρ is the density of air in 1.22 kg/m3, CP is performance
1.2
max
coefficient of the turbine, λ is tip speed ratio of the rotor blade tip
1.0
daily high speed to wind speed, β is blade pitch angle as 01, v is wind speed
0.8
mean (m/s), ηt is wind turbine efficiency, ηg is generator efficiency, and A
0.6
daily low is area in m2
0.4 min
0.2
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Ann 3.4. Hydrogen storage fuel cell model
Month

Fuel Cell (FC) is available in different configurations, power

ranges, type of electrodes and operating characteristics. Proton
Exchange Membrane (PEM) FC has a good start up and shut down
characteristics. So, 2 kW fuel cell is considered. The projected life
time is 15,000 h. The basic structure of PEM fuel cell has two
electrodes (anode and cathode) separated by a solid membrane. In
the hydrogen storage system, surplus renewable power goes to an
electrolyser which produces hydrogen. Hydrogen goes into a
storage tank to be consumed by the fuel cell when required.
Fig. 7. Scaled data monthly averages for solar. Hydrogen fuel is fed continuously to the anode and air is fed to the
cathode. The internal chemical reaction is as follows:
Table 3
Wind speed data. H2 þ 1=2O2 - H2 O ðivÞ

Month Wind speed (m/s) The hydrogen consumption at rated power Pfc kW of one hour is
calculated by
January 3.900
February 3.500 HY fc ¼ ½ðP fc n3600Þ=ð2V fc nFÞ ðvÞ
March 3.500
April 3.500 where HYfc is the amount of hydrogen consumed by fuel cell, Pfc is
May 3.800
output power of fuel cell, Vfc is output voltage of fuel cell, F is
June 4.400
July 4.200 Faraday's constant.
August 4.100 Hydrogen can be produced by the decomposition of water into
September 3.000 its elementary components by passing the electric circuits. A water
October 2.800 electrolyser consists of several cells connected in series. Two
November 3.600
December 4.200
electrodes of the electrolyser are separated by electrolyte. Elec-
trical current through the electrolyser enables the decomposition
558 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561

Fig. 8. Scaled data monthly averages for wind.

of water into hydrogen and oxygen by
H2 O þelectricity-H2 þ1=2 O2
According to Faraday's law the amount of Hydrogen produced by
rated power Pfc kW electrolyser in one hour is calculated by
HY ele ¼ ½ðP fc n3600Þ=ð2V ele nFÞ ðviiÞ
where HYele is the amount of hydrogen produced by electrolyser,
Pele is rated power of electrolyser, Vele is working voltage of
electrolyser, and F is Faraday's constant.
Hydrogen energy produced by the electrolyser provides solar
energy storage in excess demand. The method of transferring the
capacity of hydrogen tanks to the unit kWh is given by



Etank ðkWhÞ ¼ M tank ðmolÞn2n10  3 kg=mol nLHV kWh=kg ðviiiÞ
where Etank and Mtank is the size of hydrogen tank in kWh and LHV
is the low heat value of hydrogen in kWh/kg.
On the other hand, when the load demand is greater than the
available energy generated, the battery bank is in discharging
ðviÞ
state. Therefore, the available battery bank capacity at hour t can
be expressed as
EBat ðt Þ ¼ EBat ðt  1Þ  Eneeded ðt Þ ðxÞ
Let d be the ratio of minimum allowable SOC voltage limit to
the maximum SOC voltage across the battery terminals when it is
fully charged.
So, the Depth of Discharge (DOD)
DOD ¼ ð1  dÞn100 ðxiÞ
DOD is a measure of how much energy has been withdrawn
from a storage device, expressed as a percentage of full capacity.
The maximum value of SOC is 1, and the minimum SOC is
determined by maximum depth of discharge (DOD)
SOC min ¼ ð1–DODÞ=100 ðxiiÞ

3.5. Diesel generator model 3.7. Converter model

Generating sets are selected based on the electrical load they The rectifier model is given below:
are intended to supply. 2 kW diesel generator power is considered
to supply 1.3 kW BTS load. The capital cost considered is $900 and EREC–OUT ðt Þ ¼ EREC  IN ðt ÞnηREC ðxiiiÞ
the replacement cost taken is $ 850. The projected life time is EREC  OUT(t) is hourly energy output from rectifier, kWh, EREC  IN(t)
15,000 h. is hourly energy input to rectifier, kWh, and ηREC is efficiency of
rectifier.
3.6. Battery model EREC  IN ðt Þ ¼ ESUR  AC ðtÞ ðxivÞ

The variations of solar and wind energy generation do not ESUR  AC ðtÞ ¼ EDG ðtÞ ðxvÞ
match the time distribution of the demand. Therefore, power
ESUR  AC(t) is the amount of surplus energy from AC source, kWh,
generation systems dictate the association of battery storage
EDG (t) is surplus energy from diesel generator to DC power of
facility to smooth the time–distribution mismatch between the
constant voltage, when the energy generated by the hybrid energy
load and solar/wind energy generation and to account for main-
system exceeds the load demand.
tenance of the systems. Batteries are considered as a major cost
factor in small-scale stand-alone power systems. The battery
3.8. Grid
stacks may contain a number of batteries ranging from 0 to 500
units. A battery of 6 V, 1.34 kW h has been chosen. Number of
Grid rating is divided in to three: (i) off peak (ii) shoulder and
batteries per string considered is 8.
(iii) peak. For off peak $ 20,000 k/Wh price is considered. For
shoulder $ 30,000 k/Wh and for peak $ 50,000 k/Wh is considered
3.6.1. Battery bank respectively.
The battery state of charge (SOC) is the cumulative sum of the
daily charge/discharge transfers. At any hour (t) the state of
battery is related to the previous state of charge and to the energy 4. HOMER solutions
production and consumption situation of the system during the
time from t 1 to t. HOMER helps us to determine how different renewable, and
During the charging process, when the total output of all hybrid systems interact with end-user demand. Based on the
systems exceeds the load demand, the available battery bank availability and potential of renewable energies in the particular
capacity at hour (t) can be described by area various combinations of energy systems can be chosen. The
choice of the best combination of hybrid sources can be made after
EBat ðt Þ ¼ Battery Capacity ðAhÞ=Battery Current ðAÞ ðixÞ comparing their performance.
Table 4
Comparative analysis of various configurations of hybrid systems.

SN Description DG Grid/DG SPV/DG SPV/WES/Battery/DG SPV/WES/Battery/DG/FC SPV/WES/Battery/FC SPV/WES/Battery

1 DG 2 kW 0.5 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW

W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561
Inverter 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW
Rectifier 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW
Solar system 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 2 kW 4 kW
Wind system 3 kW 3 kW 3 kW 3 kW
Battery 48 V 48 V 48 V 48 V
Grid 2 kW
Fuel Cell 2 kW 2 kW
2 Emissions (Kg/ Year)
Carbon dioxide 20,967 4100 18,657 4653 1199 0.391 0
Carbon monoxide 51.8 4.09 46.1 11.5 3.4 0.249 0
Unburned hydocarbon 5.73 0.453 5.1 1.27 0.377 0.0275 0
Particulate matter 3.9 0.308 3.47 0.866 0.257 0.0187 0
Sulphur dioxide 42.1 13.9 37.5 9.34 2.41 0 0
Nitrogen oxides 462 41.7 411 102 30.4 2.22 0
3 Production (kWh/ year)
Electricity 7290 3956 þ 3132 3489 þ 6415 ¼9804 3489 þ2982 þ 1690 3489 þ 2982 þ 1811þ 1354 3489 þ 2982 þ 1264 6979 þ2982
Excess electricity 290 7.78E  05 3200 1456 159 97.3 3926
DC load 5950 5950 þ 88 5950 5950 5950 þ3157 5444þ 1777 5554
Unmet load kW h/ year 0.000151 0.0001 0.0000852 2.98E-07 0 0 0
Mean electrical output 832 W 500 W 721 W 1030 þ 1710W 1030 þ 1710W 1030 þ1710 W 1030 þ1710 W
Capacity shortage 0.0669 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 Cost ($)
Total net present cost 12,30,683 16,88,953 12,27,382 2,91,274 75,515 887,317 734,662
Levelized cost of energy 16.182/kW h 22.207/kW h 16.138/kW h 3.830/kW h 0.997/kW h 12,751/kW h 10.347/kW h
Operating cost 95,537/year 13,1386/year 94,966/year 20,118/year 2614/year 65,915/year 54,083/year
5 Fuel
Fuel consumption 7962 L/year 629 L/year 7085 L/year 1767 L/year 456 þ68 kg/year 38.2 kg/year
Specific fuel consumption 1.092 L/kW h 0.201 L/kW h 1.122 L/kW h 1.046 L/kW h 0.252 þ 0.05 Kg/kW h 0.03 kg/kW h
6 Fuel energy input 78,349 kW h/year 6189 kW h/year 69,715 kW h/year 17,388 kW h/year 4484 þ 2267 1275 kW h/year
Efficiency
Mean electrical efficiency 9.30% 50.60% 9.10% 9.70% 40.4 þ 59.7% 99.20%
7 Battery
Energy in kWh/Year 2698 493 2119 2440
Energy out kWh/year 2163 395 1702 1959
Storage depletion 5.19 0.028 7.47 8.94
Losses 530 98.6 410 471
Annual throughput 2418 kW h/year 441 kW h/year 1903 kW h/year 2191 kW h/year
Expected life 4.61 years 8 years 5.86 years 5.09 years

559
560 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561
The detailed comparative analysis of various hybrid power
systems and the rating of all the components considered for the
analysis are given in Table 4.
5. Results and discussions
The simulation is performed using HOMER for each hour on a
yearly basis. The inputs are the hybrid selected system resources
data (wind speeds, solar irradiance, and load demand, the techni-
cal and economical specifications) described in the previous
sections. The results of the various combinations of hybrid system
are analysed and compared. The comparison criteria are
given below.
5.1. Emissions (kg/year)
Before simulating the power system, the emissions factor is
determined (kg of pollutant emitted per unit of fuel consumed) for
each pollutant. After the simulation, the annual emissions are
calculated of that pollutant by multiplying the emissions factor by
the total annual fuel consumption. The production of carbon
dioxide, carbon monooxide, unburned hydro carbon, particulate
matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and uses the values when
calculating other Q & M cost are done.
As seen from Table 4, (i) the diesel generator is working as a
standalone (ii) grid connected diesel generator and (iii) the hybrid
system connected with diesel generator has high total net present
cost (T NPC). And they also produce maximum CO2 emission of
20967 kg/year, CO of 51.8 kg/year, sulphur dioxide of 42.1 kg/year
and nitrogen oxides of 462 kg/year which causes environmental
pollution. Those emissions can be reduced by relying on renew-
able energy sources.
By using SPV/Wind/Battery or SPV/Wind Battery/FC hybrid
system emissions can be removed or reduced.
5.2. Production (kWh/year)
The electricity production of various systems depends on
different combinations of hybrid system. Homer calculates the
electricity that can be produced by all sources, power required to
supply the load, unmet load, and excess electricity. From the
simulation results, we notice that the capacity shortage in all
cases is 0% except stand-alone DG system. So, these systems can be
well adapted to meet 100% of the electric demand from the base
transceiver station (BTS), plus the required operating reserve. This
is a quality requirement for the mobile telephony sector where any
unmet load situation or power shortage throughout the year is not
admissible. The excess electricity produced by SPV/Wind/Battery
hybrid system is 3926 kW h/year which can be stored in the
battery. So, in case of production wise analysis SPV/Wind/Battery
combination is viable.
5.3. Cost ($)
The total net present cost (TNPC) is Hybrid Optimisation Model
for Electric Renewable (HOMER) software's main economic output.
HOMER ranks all systems according to the total net present cost
(TNPC). The total net present cost (TNPC) of a system is the present
value of all the costs that it incurs over its lifetime, minus the
present value of all the revenue that it earns over its lifetime. Costs
include capital costs, replacement costs, O&M costs, fuel costs,
emissions penalties, and the costs of buying power from the grid.
Revenues include salvage value and grid sales revenue.
HOMER calculates the total net present cost (TNPC) using the
following equation:
C NPC ¼ ðC ann;tot Þ=ðCRFði; Rproj ÞÞ ðxviÞ
where CNPC is total net present cost, Cann,tot is total annualised cost
($/year), CRF is capital recovery factor, i is interest rate, and Rproj is
project life time.
From this simulation result it is evident that the system
connected with diesel generator is quite costly. The hybrid con-
figuration with SPV/ Wind/DG/ FC/Battery has the lowest NPC of $
75515. The hybrid system SPV/Wind/ Battery has the next lowest
NPC of $7, 34,662. So, SPV/Wind/DG/FC/Battery or SPV/Wind/
Battery could be the best choice.
5.4. Fuel
Homer finds the energy released per kg of fuel consumed. The
fuel cost taken is $0.8/L. This is used to calculate the generator fuel
cost. HOMER calculates this value by multiplying the fuel price by
the amount of fuel used by the generator in one year. The system
configurations connected with DG and FC consumes fuel which
again increases the cost of system.
So, from the above table it is clear that the SPV/Wind/Battery
hybrid system has no fuel consumption. So, the SPV/Wind/Battery
system is viable.
5.5. Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity analysis eliminates all infeasible combinations and
ranks the feasible combinations taking into account uncertainty of
parameters. HOMER allows taking into account future develop-
ments, such as increasing or decreasing load demand as well as
changes regarding the resources, for example wind speed varia-
tions or the diesel prices. Here, various sensitive variables are
considered to select the best suited combination for the hybrid
system to serve the load demand.
5.6. Optimisation results
For each sensitivity case that it solves, HOMER simulates every
system in the search space and ranks all the feasible systems
according to increasing net present cost (TNPC).
5.7. Recommendations and conclusions
Due to the steady growth of Telecom market and associated
industries in India, there is a need to develop a new generation DC
Power Supplies. It is true that the share of telecom growth in rural
areas is much higher than metros.
An autonomous energy system combining renewable energy
sources, traditional sources and batteries or hydrogen as a storage
medium was studied. This paper shows where solar, wind
resources are available; deployment of solar, wind can satisfacto-
rily meet energy need of remote Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
The simulation results indicate that a hybrid system comprising
of SPV/Wind/ Battery or SPV/Wind/Battery/FC can be feasible as
this type of has no CO2 and CO emissions. Its environment-friendly
nature makes it an attractive option to supplement the energy
supply from other sources. The excess electricity can be stored in
the battery and used for future use. The cost is also moderately
less. Solar and wind are available freely and thus appears to be a
promising technology to provide reliable power supply in the
remote areas of India.
This analysis exhibits that in order to eliminate diesel gen-
erator, solar and wind hybrid system can be adopted. The use of
solar, wind hybrid system eliminates the emission of carbon
 W. Margaret Amutha, V. Rajini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 553–561
dioxide. As the penetration of solar, wind system increases, the
excess energy is increased. It can be stored and used for future
purpose by using battery bank. So, the present arrangement of
diesel powered telecom system can be replaced by the SPV/Wind/
Battery system. Also, the tower structure can suitably be modified
to integrate wind turbine on the tower itself, saving space and cost
of installations.
Thus, we have the following advantages.
(i) The non-conventional energy SPV/Wind hybrid power system
is found to be technically feasible, emission less and cost
effective in long run.
(ii) Its environment-friendly nature makes it an attractive option
to supplement the energy supply in rural areas.
(iii) The service providers can have the additional benefit of
carbon credit.
(iv) Load is satisfied in an optimal way.
(v) The land use can be reduced by suitably modifying the BTS
tower to accommodate the wind generator.
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