CHAPTER 6: ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION

Anatomy – study of an organism’s parts.

Physiology – refers to the functions of an organism’s parts perform and its contribution to how an organism
live.
LESSON 1: ADAPTATIONS IN ANIMALS
What is an animal?
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that feed on plants and or animal to live.
What are the levels of organization in organismal complexity?
1. Protoplasmic Level – unicellular organisms represent the simplest eukaryotic group called protozoans
that function at basic level of organization (protoplasmic level)
 multicellular animals, also known metazoans , obtain greater complexity by joining cells
together to form a larger unit.
2. Cell-tissue level – when similar cells aggregate and perform their common functions as one unit called
tissue, the cells exist in a level of organization called cell-tissue level.
3. Tissue-organ level – where various tissues aggregate into functional units called organs.
4. Organ system level – when different organs functions together, metazoans are said to exhibit the
highest level of complexity within the organism.
How are animal body plans defined?
1. Body symmetry – the balance of proportions with respect to the size and shape of the body parts
dividing plane.
3 Basic types of symmetry
1 Spherical symmetry – have their bodies divided into equivalent or mirrored parts through any
plane passing through the center.
2 Radial symmetry – body plans that can be divided into similar halves by two or more
longitudinal planes and capable of minimal mobility and move through their external
environment in all directions.
3 Bilateral symmetry – when the body of an animal can be divided into mirrored right and left
halves by a sagittal plane.
2. Body cavities – internal fluid-filled spaces that support and allow transport of materials and fluids along
the length of the body. It is essentially a tube within a tube that encases the internal organs. It facilitates
growth in size of the animal because of the increased efficiency in physiological processes.
 Acoelomates – animals developing from the three embryonic layers but lacking a body cavity.
 Pseudocoelomate – an animal that has fluid-filled body cavity between the endoderm and the
mesoderm. It allows movement of the animal serving as rigid anchor to the muscles attached to
the mesoderm.
 Coelomates – have a fluid-filled body cavity completely lined by mesoderm, a tube within a
body wall.
3. Embryonic development
 Protostome – if the opening of the gastrula or the blastophore develops into a mouth first.
 Deuterostome – refers to the development of the mouth elsewhere, with the blastophore
becoming the animal’s anus instead.
4. Metamerism – or segmentation, refers to the serial repetition of body segments that are similar in
structure along the longitudinal axis of the body.
 Metamere or somite – a segement. It consists of muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.
LESSON 2: ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
What are the four types of tissues in the body?
Tissues are aggregates of similar cells that have a dedicated function.
1 Epithelial tissue – to provide a cover for the body and line the organs and cavities within.
 Epithelial cells, collectively known as the epithelium, are tightly joined together forming a
barrier that can protect against mechanical injury, prevent entry of microorganisms, and
minimize loss in bodily fluids.
Types of epithelial tissue
A Simple epithelium – tissues composed of one layer of cells.
B Stratified epithelium – tissues with two or more layers of cells.
C Pseudostratified epithelium – simple epithelium might also appear as stratified when the cells
vary in length.
2 Connective tissue – to provide support for other tissues. Characterized by its massive extracellular
matrix sporadically interspersed with cells.
  Cell of connective tissue that produce the ground substance or extracellular matrix are denoted
with the suffix – blast while cells that deplete and destroy the extracellular matrix are suffixed
with – clast.
6 major types of connective tissue
1. Loose connective tissue – made up of loosely packed fibers that functions to affix the
basement membrane of the epithelium to tissues underneath it. It also vital for cushioning
and positioning organs in their proper places. It is made up of fibers that may be
collagenous, elastic, or reticular in nature.
TYPE OF FIBER PROTEIN COMPONENT FUNCTION

Collagenous Fibers Type I Collagen Provides greater tensile strength for

resisting stretching forces
Elastic fibers Elastin Provides elasticity and resilience
Reticular fibers Type III Colagen Provides scaffolding for cells
2. Fibrous connective tissue – characterized by the tight packing of its collagenous fibers.
o Tendons – fibrous connective tissue that connect muscles to bones.
o Ligaments – functions to attach bones to other bones.
3. Adipose tissue – or adipocytes refers to storage of fat droplets in adipose cells suspended
in loose connective tissue.
4. Cartilage – chondrocytes are the functional cells of the connective tissue cartilage.
5. Bone - invested with the hardened ground substance composed of the mineral
hydroxyapatite. It is significantly stronger than cartilage but sacrifices flexibility for
rigidity. Have a soft and spongy core called red marrow that houses the hematopoietic
cells.
6. Blood – also has cells suspended in an extracellular matrix.
o Plasma – the extracellular matrix for blood cells is a mix of water, proteins, ions,
and salts.
3 major classes of blood
1. Erythrocytes – (red blood cells) mainly function for transport of oxygen
within the body.
2. Leukocytes – (white blood cells) responsible for defending the body’s
immunity.
3. Platelets – primarily involved in preventing bleeding by blood
coagulation and clotting.
3 Muscle tissue – composed of myocytes, long, tubular cells that resemble to form units capable of
contraction and electrical conductivity. Motor proteins called myosin interact with cytoskeletal elements
actin filaments to generate movement in the issue.
3 types of muscle tissues
1. Skeletal muscle – linked to bones by the tendons and is controlled by the somatic nervous
system thereby generating voluntary movements. It is the most abundant muscle type in the
body.
2. Cardiac muscle – found only in the myocardium (wall of the heart). Appear similarly to skeletal
muscles due to the presence of branching points called intercalated discs.
3. Smooth muscles – responsible for the involuntary movements in the body. Appear as spindle-
shaped mononucleated cells.
4 Nervous tissue – found in the brain, spinal cord, and the nerves. Main functions are to sense and react to
stimuli as well as transmit impulses from one part of the body to another.
 Neuron – the functional unit of nervous tissue.
 Neurons consist of a cell body and the nerve processes called axons and dendrites.
 Dendrites – receive impulses from sensory organs and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
 Axons – transmit impulses from the cell body to the central nervous system.
LESSON 3: PROTECTION, SUPPORT, AND MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS
Which structures are responsible for protection, support, and movement in animals?
Integumentary system – in charge of protecting the body from the ambient surroundings, keeping it safe from
various kinds of damage. It includes the largest organ in the body, the skin, and all the structures associated
with it like hair, scales, and feathers.
 1. Invertebrate integument
 For most unicellular organisms, their integument consists only of the plasma membrane that
separates them from their aqueous environment.
 For some protozoans, they have developed a thin envelope on their plasma membrane called
pellicle that augments the integument function.
 Higher invertebrates demonstrate a layered type of integument with the appearance of the
epidermis.
 Certain animals have an additional layer of cuticle secreted by the epidermal cells that adds
protection to the body.
 Procuticle – two layers of cuticle.
 Epicuticle – makes the integument water-proof.
 In crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters, the deposition of calcium carbonate or calcification in
the cuticle layers strengthens the integument.
 Insect integument undergoes cross-linking of the cuticle layers forming the sclerotin, as aresult
of the process of sclerotization.
2. Vertebrate integument
Vertebrates have two distinct layers in their integuments: the thin outer epidermis, and the thicker, inner
dermis.
1) Epidermis – composed of multiple layers or strata that have different functions to perform.
 In animals with tough integuments, the cells in the outermost layers are deposited with
keratin through the process of keratinisation. This tough layer comprised of dead,
keratinized cells is said to be cornified.
 Structures derived from the epidermis include the claws, beaks, nails, and horns.
2) Dermis – a thick layer comprised mostly of fibrous connective tissue embedded with other
structures such as blood vessels, lymph vesicles, hair follicles, and various glands. It cushions,
supports, and nourishes the epidermis and gives rise to the tough skin of crocodiles and lizards.
 The integument is also used as means to display recognition marks or warning signs through its
coloration.
 Colors produced due to the structure of the integument are called structural colors.
 Integument colors can also come from pigments contained in chromatophores that can change its color
intensity depending on the stimulus.
 Most common animal pigment is the black or brown colored melanins while the yellow and reddish
colors are due to the carotenoid pigments, contained in melanophores and xanthophores respectively.
 The melanins occur naturally in the body but the carotenoid pigments must be acquired through the
feeding diet.
Skeletal system – provides support to the body. It makes the body rigid, serve as attachment for muscles, and
protects the delicate internal organs. Can either be rigid or hydrostatic.
I. Hydrostatic skeletons
 rely entirely on muscle and tissue fluid interaction.
 For many soft-bodied animals, their body fluids in the coelem together with the muscles
surrounding it act as a hydrostatic skeleton.
 Other examples are tentacles of squids and octopuses and trunks of elephants.
II. Rigid skeletons – have hard elements that serve as points of attachment for muscles.
2 main types of rigid skeletons
A Exoskeleton – usually seen in invertebrates.
 Found in the outermost portion of the body, protecting the organism from damage and
providing anchor points for muscles internal to it.
 The periodical shedding off of exoskeleton is called ecdysis.
 Exoskeleton may be calcareous when they are made of calcium carbonate, or
chitinous, if the primary component is chitin.
B Endoskeleton – typical of echinoderms and vertebrates.
2 main divisions
A. Axial skeleton – includes the bones along the axis of the body (skull, vertebral column,
ribs)
B. Appendicular skeleton – composed of the lower limbs braced by the pelvic girdle and
upper limbs braced by the pectoral girdle.
  Vertebral column – known as backbone or spine, is the defining characteristics of vertebrate animals. It
is composed of a series of individual bones called vertebrae bound together by connective tissue.
 Cervical vertebrae – the uppermost ones associated with the neck.
 Thoracic vertebrae – at the chest area.
 Lumbar vertebrae – at the back.
 Sacral vertebrae – at the pelvis.
 Caudal – for the tail region if applicable.
 In humans, the sacral vertebrae are fused into one structure called the sacrum.
 Ribs are long curved bones attached to the vertebral column and extending into the body wall,
effectively putting up a rib cage.
 Rib cage serves to prevent the collapse of the lungs and to protect the heart and other internal oragans in
thoracic basket.
Muscular system
 The most important contractile protein system is the actin-myosin system where actin is the cytoskeletal
support and myosin is the motor protein that binds to actin.
A. Amoeboid movement – crawling-type of movement that can be seen in unicellular organisms such
as amoebas, as well as mobile, individual cells in multicellular animals like phagocytc cells.
Employs the protusion of the cytoplasm into structures called pseudopodia (false feet)
B. Cilia and flagella – processes that extend from the surface of the cell. Both made up of the same
microtubule ultrastructure, they differ in size, moving pattern, and number relative to the cell.
 Cilia – numerous short and hairlike protuberances on the surface of the cell that continuously move in a
beating motion.
 Flagella – long, whiplike structures that are found in poles of cells.
C Muscles
1. Muscular system is responsible for movement of the body of most multicellular animals.
It is an organ system composed of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.
2. Skeletal muscle – organized into thick bundles and is attached to the skeleton. Each
bundle is wrapped in connective tissue called endomysium.
3. Cardiac muscle – found in the walls of the heart is similar in structure to skeletal muscle
except for the presence of intercalated discs.
4. Smooth muscles – smaller than skeletal and cardiac muscles. They are typically spindle-
shaped and with only one nucleus per cell.
LESSON 4: FEEDING AND DIGESTION
What are the feeding adaptations in animals?
1. Particulate feeding
 An abundant source of food for aquatic animals is the microscopic plankton found in the upper
layer of the ocean.
 Suspension feeding – makes use of surfaces bearing the hairlike processes cilia, to produce
currents in water drawing food particles into their mouths.
 Filter feeding – used by animals possessing filtering structures in their mouths.
 Deposit feeding – employed by some animals that feed on disintegrated organic materials called
detritus.
2. Bulk feeding
 The primary need to obtain food by the most effective means has served as a major driving force
in evolution.
 Mastication or chewing is the process of crushing and grinding food with the use of teeth.
4 types of teeth
1) Incisors – the front teeth, with sharp and thin edges adapted for cutting food.
2) Canines – with a pointed edge that are used for grasping and piercing the food.
3) Premolars and molars – have a flat surface and are used for grinding food into smaller pieces.
3. Fluid feeding – used by parasites to procure food.
What are the steps in digestion?
1) Ingestion – involves the structures that specialize in procuring food and swallowing, primarily
the mouth enclosing the buccal cavity and the pharynx or throat.
 The tongue manipulates the food for mastication as well as swallowing.
  In the pharynx, once food is pushed down by the tongue from the mouth, the tube that
leads to the lungs called the trachea is closed down by a thin flap of cartilage, the
epiglottis.
2) Conduction – masticated food, also known as the bolus, is conducted towards the stomach
through the esophagus.
3) Digestion – begins in the mouth with the initial breakdown of carbohydrates by the salivary
enzymes such as amylase then continues in the stomach to produce a soup-like mass called
chime. Chime is then transported to the small intestine by passing through the pyloric sphincter.
 Ruminants – has specialized mechanism for digesting plant-based food.
Stomachs divided into 4 compartments
o Rumen
o Reticulum
o Omasum
o Abomasums
4) Absorption
o The small intestine is coiled structure that functions to complete the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats; and to absorb the nutrients obtained from these molecules
for transport to other tissues.
o Villi – numerous infoldings anf fingerlike processes.
o Microvilli – villi are further expanded by microscopic projections.
3 segments of small intestines
 Duodenum
 Jejunum
 Ileum
Pancreas Liver Gallbladder
 Neutralizes acidity of  Produces bile  Stores bile
chime with bicarbonate that breaks  Delivers bile
 Produces trypsin, globules of fat into the
chromotrypsin, and into tiny duodenum
carboxypeptidase that droplets when
completes digestion of (emulsification) stimulated by
proteins  Stores glycogen fats in chime.
 Produces pancreatic  Detoxifies
amylase that breaks poison
down starch.  Decomposes
 Produces lipase which red blood cells
breaks down fats

5) Elimination
 The large intestine, is also known as colon, is tasked with recovering the water that has
been used as solvent in the digestive juices.
 Feces solid or semisolid consolidation of undigested material.
 Rectal glands – absorb water and ions as needed and thus result in dry fecal matter.