Professional Documents
Culture Documents
California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Fresno Branch, University of California, Davis,
2789 South Orange Avenue, Fresno, California 93725, United States of America
The terms describing serovars of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica are presented as follows: Salmonella
Enteritidis, S. Gallinarum, S. Pullorum.
Summary
Fowl typhoid (FT) and pullorum disease (PD) are septicaemic diseases, primarily
of chickens and turkeys, caused by Gram negative bacteria, Salmonella
Gallinarum and S. Pullorum, respectively. Clinical signs in chicks and poults
include anorexia, diarrhoea, dehydration, w e a k n e s s and high mortality. In mature
f o w l , FT and PD are manifested by d e c r e a s e d egg p r o d u c t i o n , fertility, hatchability
and anorexia, and increased mortality. Gross and m i c r o s c o p i c lesions due t o FT
and PD in chicks and poults include hepatitis, splenitis, typhlitis, omphalitis,
myocarditis, ventriculitis, pneumonia, synovitis, peritonitis and ophthalmitis. In
mature f o w l , lesions include oophoritis, salpingitis, orchitis, peritonitis and
perihepatitis. Transovarian infection resulting in infection of t h e egg and
subsequently t h e chick or poult is one of t h e most important modes of
transmission of these t w o diseases. Salmonella Gallinarum and S. Pullorum c a n
be isolated by use of selective and non-selective media. Salmonella Pullorum
produces rapid decarboxylation of ornithine w h e r e a s 5. Gallinarum does not, an
important biochemical difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o bacteria. Both FT and PD c a n
be detected serologically by use of a m a c r o s c o p i c tube agglutination test, rapid
serum test, stained antigen w h o l e blood test or microagglutination test. Both
diseases c a n be controlled and eradicated by use of serological testing and
elimination of positive birds. Vaccines m a y be used to control t h e disease and
antibiotics f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of FT and PD. A l t h o u g h FT and PD are w i d e l y
distributed t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , t h e diseases have been eradicated f r o m
c o m m e r c i a l poultry in developed countries such as t h e United States of A m e r i c a ,
Canada and most countries of W e s t e r n Europe. Both 5. Gallinarum and
S. Pullorum are highly adapted t o t h e host species, and therefore are of little
public health significance.
Keywords
Avian diseases - Clinical signs - Control - Diagnosis - Fowl typhoid - Pathology -
Pullorum disease - Salmonella Gallinarum - Salmonella Pullorum.
are still common in many countries throughout the world. exhibit lower morbidity and mortality than birds that are
Details of various aspects of FT and PD can be found in stressed by shipping. Economic losses due to PD and F T can
reviews (29, 9 8 , 1 0 7 , 1 2 2 , 1 3 1 ) . be very high. This is manifested in the loss of birds, feed costs,
veterinary costs, disposal of dead birds, etc. Although the
exact figures are not available, the following is an example to
Fig.3
Liver with numerous foci of necrosis and inflammation
from a chick affected by puliorum disease
Photo: courtesy Dr L Hanson, University of Illinois
Fig.4
Spleen with white mottling from a chick affected by puliorum disease
Photo: courtesy Dr R.P. Chin, University of California, Davis
Enlarged and congested spleen and liver with pale yellow cast Fig.5
m the lumen of caecum in a chick affected by puliorum disease Heart with small nodules in the myocardium of a twenty-one-day-old
With permission from the American Association of Avian Pathologists chick affected by puliorum disease
408 Hev. sci. teck Off. int. Epiz.. 19(2)
cm 1
Fig.6 Fig.8
Heart with prominent white nodules resembling tumours in the Gizzard with yellow nodules of various sizes in the muscular wall
myocardium of a five-week-old chick affected by pullorum disease extending from serosa of a six-week-old chick affected by pullorum
With permission from the American Association of Avian Pathologists disease
With permission from the American Association of Avian Pathologists
Fig.9
Caecum with multiple yellow casts in the lumen of a chick affected by
pullorum disease
Photo: courtesy Dr HP. Chin, University of California, Davis
Fig.7
Misshapen heart due to multiple yeliow nodules in the myocardium
and chronic passive congestion of the liver in a six-week-old chick Fig. 10
affected by pullorum disease Severeiy enlarged tibiotarsal joints in the legs of a chicken affected
Note the thickened pericardium by pullorum disease
With permission from the American Association of Avian Pathologists Photo: courtesy Dr M. Peckham, Corneil University
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2) 409
In adult chickens, lésions may be minimal although the birds In guinea-fowl, lésions due to FT involving the respiratory
may be serologically positive or active reactors. Minimal tract are common. Lésions due to FT in ducklings and adult
lésions, such as small nodular or regressing ovarian follicles ducks are similar to those in chickens. In bobwhite quail
can be found in the ovaries of chickens. However, the lésions {Colinus virginianus), enlarged spleens, grey necrotic foci in
most frequently found in chronic carrier hens include a few lungs and pale or discoloured livers were observed in PD (28).
misshapened and discoloured cystic ova among a few ovules In young pheasants, yolk sac infection, pneumonia, hepatitis
of normal appearance (Figs 11, 12 and 13). Thèse misshapen and typhlocolitis were the most common lésions; the gizzard
ova may be deformed, nodular, and may be attached to the was occasionally involved (104).
ovary with a long pedunculated stalk which sometimes may
become detached from the ovarian mass. The oviduct often Histopathology or microscopic lésions
contains caseous exudate in the lumen (Fig. 13). Ovary and In peracute cases, the only significant lésions may be vascular
oviduct dysfunction may lead to abdominal ovulation or congestion in various organs, including the liver, spleen and
oviduct impaction resulting in extensive peritonitis and kidney. In acute to subacute cases, typical lésions are acute
adhésions of the abdominal viscera. Fibrinous peritonitis and necrosis of hepatocytes with fibrinous exudation and
perihepatitis, with or without the involvement of the infiltration of a mixed population of inflammatory cells
reproductive tract, may be seen (Fig. 14). Ascites may also composed of heterophils, macrophages, lymphocytes and a
develop, especially in turkeys. Occasionally, the culture of few plasma cells (42, 136; H.L. Shivaprasad, unpublished
salmonella from such lésions is difficult. findings). Occasionally, granuloma formations may be found
within the liver, characterised by necrosis and accumulation
Other lésions may include increased pericardial fluid or of necrotic débris surrounded by multinucleated giant cells.
fibrinous pericarditis, a mottled pancréas, and caseous Fibrinous exudate may be présent on the capsule of the liver
granulomas in the lungs and air sacs (45). In the maie, the mixed with heterophils and mononuclear inflammatory cells.
testes may hâve white foci or nodules (54, 83). Lésions in In chronic protracted cases, where white nodules appear in
turkeys are similar to chickens (67, 68), but ulcération may be the heart, chronic passive congestion may occur in the liver,
observed in the small intestine as well as in the caecum. characterised by the degeneration of hepatocytes around the
Although uncommon in chickens, this is a common finding in central veins and interstitial fibrosis. In acute stages, the
turkeys. spleen may hâve fibrinous exudation in the vascular sinuses
Fig. 11
Ovary with multiple misshapen grey nodular follicles from an adult chicken affected by pullorum disease
410 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2)
Pathogenesis
Little is known regarding the pathogenesis of FT and PD,
probably due to the highly successful eradication
programmes. Various salmonellae, including S. Gallinarum
and S. Pullorum, were thought to survive and multiply in
various organs due to an unknown control mechanism
involving the reticuloendothelial system ( 1 5 ) . This
observation was confirmed when S. Gallinarum was found to
be taken up by murine phagocytic cells in an in vitro
experiment (103). Furthermore, S. Pullorum was shown to
preferentially target the bursa of Fabricius prior to eliciting
inflammation in the intestine of chicks (65). Infection with
Fig. 16
S. Gallinarum may also cause anaemia (39). The molecular Histopathology of gizzard with necrosis of muscle fibres and
factors of pathogenicity include plasmids responsible for infiltration of heterophils, lymphocytes and macrophages
virulence and virulence factors such as the virulence plasmid (bar = 5 µm)
gene, invasion gene and fimbrial gene ( 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 3 6 , 4 1 , 1 0 1 , With permission from the American Association of Avian Pathologists
114).
China, South-East Asia and New Zealand is unknown. Fowl not. In addition, S. Pullorum only occasionally ferments
typhoid has not been reported in the USA since 1980 maltose. However, the major difference is that S. Pullorum
(4,105). produces rapid decarboxylation of ornithine, whereas
S. Gallinarum does not. In addition, S. Gallinarum uses
Aetiology citrate, D - sorbitol, L - fucose, D - tartrate and cysteine
Salmonella Gallinarum and S. Pullorum are both members of hydrochloride gelatin (38). Some of these differences may be
the family Enterobacteriaceae and are highly adapted to the helpful in differentiating between the two organisms.
host. The bacteria belong to serogroup D according to the However, variation in the characteristics of some strains can
Kauffmann-White scheme. The majority of strains of occasionally be observed, especially in regard to gas
S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum are very similar at a production.
chromosomal level (99). Furthermore, S. Enteritidis, another
member of serogroup Group D, is thought to be closely Other techniques, including ribotyping and polymerase chain
related to S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum, based on multilocus reaction, have been important tools to identify S. Gallinarum
enzyme electrophoresis (132). According to one study, the
and S. Pullorum (37, 74, 143). These bacteria can be further
most recent common ancestor of S. Gallinarum and
typed for epidemiological studies by various techniques such
S. Pullorum was non-motile (85). Since diverging from this
as random amplification of polymorphic deoxyribonucleic
ancestor, the S. Pullorum lineage appears to have evolved
acid (RAPD), plasmid profiling, phage typing and cloning of
more rapidly than the S. Gallinarum lineage (85).
chromosomal fragments (3, 3 6 , 37, 4 1 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 1 4 1 , 142,
155).
The organisms are Gram negative, non-sporogenic,
non-motile and facultatively anaerobic. The bacteria are Antigenic variation
slender rods measuring approximately 1.0 pm-2.5 µm in Both S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum possess the O antigens 1,
length and 0.3 pm-1.5 µm in width. Both S. Gallinarum and 9 and 12. Variation involving antigen 12 occurs in
S. Pullorum are considered to be non-motile. However, S. Pullorum, but no evidence exists for such variation in
motility and flagellation have recently been induced in S. Gallinarum ( 4 3 , 4 4 , 149). The antigenic composition of
S. Pullorum grown on solid media ( 3 3 , 5 9 , 70). Other S. Pullorum was shown to be 1 , 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 , 1 2 ; the variation
2 3
workers were unable to induce motility in S. Pullorum when involved minor somatic antigens 1 2 and 1 2 . Standard
2 3
grown on Hektoen agar (32). strains of S. Pullorum contain a large amount of 1 2 and a 3
Both S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum grow readily on beef agar the two antigens is reversed. Intermediate strains are usually
or broth or other nutrient media. The bacteria are aerobic or mixtures of 1 2 and 1 2 predominant colonies. However,
2 3
facultatively anaerobic and grow best at 37°C. The organisms DNA fingerprint analysis of these strains has raised some
will grow in selective enrichment media including selenite F questions regarding such variation in the major somatic
and tetrathionate broths, and on differential plating media antigen 12 (155). Strains may also vary in content of the O-l
including MacConkey, bismuth sulphite and brilliant green antigen. Tests to differentiate standard, intermediate and
(BG) agars. Salmonella Pullorum may occasionally fail to grow variant types of S. Pullorum have been described (147, 1 4 8 ,
on certain selective media such as BG or Salmonella shigella 150).
agar, but grow satisfactorily on bismuth sulphite and
MacConkey agars (31). Like most pathogenic microorganisms, S. Gallinarum and
probably S. Pullorum may lose virulence rapidly in artificial
Colonies of S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum appear as small, media; hence, cultures should be passaged serially in the
discrete, smooth, blue-grey or greyish-white, glistening natural host (the chicken) before testing the pathogenicity of
colonies that are homogenous and entire on meat extract or the organisms. Pathogenicity of such cultures is best
meat infusion agar (pH 7.0-pH 7.2). Most of the colonies maintained in the lyophilised or frozen state. This may explain
remain small (1 mm or less), but isolated colonies may have a why various investigators have found variation in virulence
diameter of 3 mm to 4 mm or more. Occasionally, among cultures of S. Gallinarum.
morphologically abnormal strains can be encountered.
Inoculation of gelatin slants yields greyish-white surface
growth with filiform growth in the stab and no liquefaction.
Growth in broth is turbid with a heavy flocculent sediment.
Epidemiology
Both organisms can ferment arabinose, dextrose, galactose, Natural hosts
mannitol, mannose, rhamnose and xylose to produce acid Chickens are the natural hosts for both S. Gallinarum and
with or without gas production (23, 3 6 , 1 4 0 ) . Substances not S. Pullorum. However, natural outbreaks of FT and PD have
fermented include lactose, sucrose and salicin. One important been described in turkeys, guinea-fowl, quail, pheasants,
biochemical difference between the two organisms is that sparrows and parrots (107, 122, 131). In addition, outbreaks
S. Gallinarum ferments dulcitol whereas S. Pullorum does of FT have been described in ring-necked doves, ostriches and
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2) 413
peafowl, and cases of PD in canaries and bullfinches. The survive in the faeces from infected chickens for up to 10.9
susceptibility of ducks, geese and pigeons to S. Gallinarum days when kept in a range house, and for two days less in the
varies, but all of these birds generally appear to be resistant. open (128). Compounds containing phenol were the most
Significant differences also exist in susceptibility to PD among effective disinfectants for control of S. Gallinarum in the field,
breeds of chicken ( 3 0 , 120). White Leghorns appear to be followed by quaternary ammonium compounds and
more resistant than heavy breeds such as Rhode Island Red, iodophores (20).
New Hampshire, or crosses between the two (73). Differences
in resistance of S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum have also been
shown in inbred lines of chickens (30). A greater percentage
of females appear to remain as reactors, probably due to the
sequestered nature of localised infection of the ovarian
follicles.
Diagnosis
A definitive diagnosis of F T and PD requires the isolation and
Pullorum disease has been described as a naturally occurring identification of S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum, respectively.
or experimental infection in mammals such as chimpanzees, However, a tentative diagnosis can be made, based on the
rabbits, guinea-pigs, chinchillas, pigs, kittens, foxes, dogs, flock history, clinical signs, mortality and lesions. Positive
swine, mink, cows and wild rats. Salmonella Gallinarum serological findings can also be of great value in detecting
could be cultured for up to 121 days from the faeces of infection; however, negative results should not be considered
experimentally infected rats (9). adequate for a definitive diagnosis, because of the delay of
three to ten or more days in appearance of agglutinating
Transmission antibodies following infection. In addition, cross-reactions
Fowl typhoid and PD can be transmitted by a variety of means with other salmonellae, such as S. Enteritidis, should be
( 1 6 , 1 7 , 5 5 ) . The infected bird, such as a carrier or a reactor, is considered when interpreting serological results (52, 1 2 3 ,
by far the most important means of perpetuation and spread 145). A brief overview of diagnostic techniques will be given
of the bacteria. Birds may not only infect their own here. More detailed information is provided elsewhere (98).
generation, but also succeeding generations, through egg
transmission. Egg transmission may result from
Isolation of Salmonella Gallinarum and
contamination of the ovum following ovulation or localisation Salmonella Pullorum
of the bacteria in the ova before ovulation (16, 17). Other Since F T and PD are systemic diseases, especially in young
modes of transmission include shell penetration, feed chicks and poults, these bacteria can be isolated from most
contamination, contact transmission either in the hatcher, body tissues. The liver, spleen, yolk sac and caeca are most
brooder, cages or floor, cannibalism of infected birds, egg commonly involved in F T and PD, and are the preferred
eating, and through wounds on the skin ( 6 9 , 146, 151). organs for culture. Lesions may also occur in the heart,
Faeces from infected birds are an important source of gizzard, pancreas and lungs, which are also suitable
contamination of other birds. Contaminated feed, water and specimens for isolation. If lesions are present in the
litter can also be sources of S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum. reproductive organs of mature birds, the ovarian follicles,
Attendants, feed dealers, bird buyers and visitors who move oviduct and testes can be cultured. Other sites, such as
between farms and between bird houses may spread disease peritoneum, synovium and the interior of the eye can also be
unless precautions are taken to disinfect footwear, hands and cultured. Beef extract or infusion broth or tryptose agar in
clothing. Similarly, trucks, crates and feed sacks may also be tubes or Petri dishes are all satisfactory for primary isolation.
contaminated and can be the source of infection of birds. Enrichment broths or selective media may also be used if
Wild birds, mammals, flies and insects may be important in tissues are decomposed.
mechanical spread of the organism.
Birds with chronic FT or PD that are detected by serological
Both S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum may survive for several tests may or may not have gross lesions. In such instances,
years in a favourable environment, but are less resistant than thorough culturing of the internal organs is necessary. A
paratyphoid salmonellae to heat, chemicals and adverse detailed outline for examination of such specimens can be
environmental factors ( 1 0 7 , 1 3 1 ) . For example, S. Gallinarum found in the NPIP manual used in the USA (7). This
was killed within 10 min at 60°C, within a few minutes by procedure may be summarised briefly as follows: grossly,
direct exposure to sunlight, within 3 min by 1:1,000 phenol, normal or diseased internal organs including heart, liver, gall
1:20,000 dichloride of mercury or 1% potassium bladder, spleen, kidney, pancreas, testes/ovary and oviduct
permanganate, and in 1 min by 2 % formalin (107). Agar should be cultured directly on veal infusion (VI) and BG agar
cultures may rapidly lose pathogenic character. Salmonella plates and incubated for 4 8 h at 37°C. In addition, portions of
Gallinarum was found to retain viability for up to forty-three internal organs should be pooled, ground, or blended in ten
days, subject to daily freezing and thawing (100). Organisms times their volume of VI broth; 10 ml aliquots of the
survived more than 148 days at - 2 0 ° C , even though they suspension are transferred to 100 ml of both VI and
were accidentally thawed twice. Salmonella Gallinarum can tetrathionate BG (TBG) broth and incubated for 2 4 h at 37°C.
414 Rev. sci tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2)
The broths are then plated on VI and BG agar, incubated and- Table I
examined after 2 4 h and 4 8 h. If contamination with proteus Biochemical reactions used to differentiate between Salmonella
or pseudomonas is a problem, BG sulphapyridine agar plates Gallinarum and Salmonella Pullorum
can be used.
Reactant or
Salmonella Gallinarum Salmonella Pullorum
property
The digestive tract should be cultured using individual cotton
swabs for the upper, middle and lower intestinal tract, Dextrose Fermented with no gas Fermented with gas
including both the caecum and the rectum/cloacal area. The Lactose Not fermented Not fermented
swab should be deposited in 10 ml TBG broth, incubated and Sucrose Not fermented Not fermented
plated as previously described for the internal organs. In Mannitol Fermented with no gas Fermented with gas
addition, portions of the gut should be pooled, ground, or Maltose Fermented with no gas Usually not fermented
blended, in ten times their volume of TBG broth. A quantity of Dulcltol Fermented with no gas Not fermented
the suspension from the digestive tract (10 ml) is transferred Ornithine Not fermented Fermented
to 100 ml of TBG broth and incubated at 42°C or 37°C for Indole Not produced Not produced
Urea Not hydrolysed Not hydrolysed
2 4 h. The higher incubation temperatures for TBG broth
Motility Non-motile Non-motile
reduce populations of competitive contaminants common in
Agglutination Positive with group D Positive with group D
gut tissue.
Colonies of S. Gallinarum may appear smooth, blue-grey, polyvalent rapid W B plate antigens. These antigens will detect
moist, circular and entire after 2 4 h of incubation. Colonies of flocks infected with either S. Gallinarum or S. Pullorum.
S. Pullorum are small, smooth and translucent on nutrient However, these antigens will cross react with the sera from
media. Careful initial culture of tissues on nonselective media birds infected with other salmonellae, most notably
should usually result in pure cultures. If pure cultures are not S. Enteritidis ( 5 1 , 123, 1 4 5 ) . In Japan, the antigen used for
obtained, or if an enriched medium has been used, transfer of the W B test is prepared from cultures grown in a
individual colonies to TSI agar slants for preliminary continuous-flow, broth-culture system in which it is
differentiation is often advantageous. Salmonella Gallinarum necessary to mix sublots to secure desired agglutination (138).
and S. Pullorum produce a red slant with a yellow butt that
shows delayed blackening from H S production. Reactions
2
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for detecting
listed in Table I, which can be determined within 2 4 h, S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum antibodies have been
provide identification of a number of other common developed by using lipopolysaccharides from these
salmonellae as antigens ( 1 4 , 9 3 , 9 4 ) . This technique can be
pathogens and allow differentiation between the two
used for screening large numbers of blood samples. As with
organisms.
other techniques, the ELISA may show positive reactions to
other salmonellae, especially those belonging to group D.
Additional differentiation tests described in the section Salmonella Pullorum can be detected serologically using
entitled Aetiology' may be necessary to identify isolates that S. Enteritidis flagella as an antigen in an ELISA (53). Recently,
produce atypical reactions (chiefly fermentation of maltose or a dot immunobinding assay (DIA) was compared with a
no gas production). Decarboxylation of ornithine by serum TA test for detecting serological responses in
S. Pullorum is the single most dependable test for vaccinated and unvaccinated chickens following a challenge
differentiating maltose-fermenting S. Pullorum strains from with virulence plasmid-cured S. Gallinarum ( 8 9 ) . The DIA
S. Gallinarum. was found to be very sensitive and detected antibodies to high
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2) 415
titres in birds challenged with S. Gallinarum. This assay also regular basis. Some of the specific practices include the
detected in high titres antibodies to S. Gallinarum in following:
vaccinated and unchallenged birds which failed to react by TA
a) chicks and poults should be obtained from sources free of
(89).
FT and PD
Public health implications c) chicks and poults should be placed in an environment that
can be cleaned and sanitised to eliminate any residual
Since S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum are highly adapted to the salmonellae from previous flocks
host, the diseases are of little public health significance.
Occasional PD in humans has been reported following d) in order to minimise the introduction of S. Gallinarum and
ingestion of contaminated food containing massive numbers S. Pullorum through feed ingredients, chicks and poults
of S. Pullorum ( 9 5 , 108). The symptoms are characterised by should receive pelletised, crumbled feed. Feed ingredients
a rapid onset of acute enteritis followed by prompt recovery must be free of salmonella
without treatment. Experimental reproduction of e) a sound biosecurity programme must be in place so that
salmonellosis using four strains of S. Pullorum in humans and the introduction of salmonellae from outside sources is
large numbers (billions) of bacteria produced only transient minimised.
illness followed by prompt recovery (88). Salmonella
Gallinarum is rarely isolated from humans and is of little Houses should be designed to exclude rodents and free-flying
public health significance. According to a report of the birds. Insect control, the use of clean or chlorinated water,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA, and the use of thoroughly disinfected footwear and clothing
eight S. Gallinarum isolates and eighteen S. Pullorum isolates are essential for biosecurity. Measures must be implemented
have been detected out of a total of 4 5 8 , 0 8 1 salmonella to prevent exposure of birds to contaminated poultry
isolates from humans between 1982 and 1992 (5). The equipment, handling crates and trucks. Dead birds should be
presence or absence of symptoms in the individuals from disposed of properly.
which the salmonellae were isolated was not recorded.
Elimination of carriers
One of the most important methods of controlling FT and PD
is by serological monitoring of flocks (see the section entitled
'Serology'). Tube agglutination, RS, W B and MA tests are all
Prevention and methods of effective in detecting carriers, but the MA test offers an
economic advantage. In the USA, the W B test is not accepted
control for testing turkeys as the test was determined to be unreliable.
Testing of birds by several methods at three to five week
Fowl typhoid and PD are excellent examples of diseases that
intervals is essential to detect reactors which then can be
have decreased in prevalence in some of the advanced
removed. A single test may miss reactors for several reasons,
countries or have been eradicated by application of basic
as follows:
management procedures or eradication programmes. One of
the basic requirements is to establish breeding flocks free of a) serum agglutinin titres in infected birds may be too low to
S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum, and to hatch and rear progeny produce significant agglutination at the usual dilutions of 1:25
under conditions that will preclude direct or indirect contact or 1:50
with infected chickens or turkeys. Since egg transmission
b) a delay of at least several days occurs between infection
plays an important role in the spread of these two diseases,
and the development of agglutinins
only eggs from flocks known to be free of FT and PD should
be introduced into hatcheries. Chickens and turkeys are the c) following the removal of the reactors, environmental
primary hosts of S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum, and free contamination may serve as a source of infection for other
flying birds and other fowl are not principal reservoirs of birds at a later date.
infection. Thus, eradication of these diseases from chicken
and turkey breeding flocks is a fundamental step towards In the USA, testing for NPIP (7) accreditation is allowed after
eradication of FT and PD in commercial poultry flocks. chickens and turkeys reach approximately sixteen weeks of
age.
Management practices
Management practices broadly designed to prevent the An ELISA test which can be economical for screening large
introduction of infectious agents should be applied to prevent numbers of flocks and birds is also available for screening of
introduction of F T or PD. Carriers must be eliminated on a flocks for F T and PD (14, 9 3 , 9 4 ) .
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2)
416
Infection must also be confirmed by careful bacteriological flocks is necessary to rapidly detect any spread of F T and PD
examination of one or more serological reactors. The antigen from non-commercial poultry.
which is used for detecting S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum is
known to cross-react with other bacteria, resulting in false
positives ( 5 1 , 1 2 3 , 145). These bacteria could be other types
of salmonella such as S. Enteritidis or S. enterica subsp.
Treatment
arizonae, or other bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Every effort should be made to eradicate FT and PD, and
Escherichia coli, and others (49, 145). Non-Gallinarum and treatment should be the last option. Various sulphonamides,
non-Pullorum reactors may range from a few birds in a flock followed by nitrofurans and several other antibiotics have
to as many as 3 0 % to 4 0 % . Thorough bacteriological been found to be effective in reducing mortality from F T and
examination of representative reactors is often the only PD. However, no drug or combination of drugs have been
dependable method for determining the infection status of a found to be capable of eliminating infection from treated
flock. This is also probably the only method of distinguishing flocks. Sulphonamides that have been used in treatment of FT
between infections by S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum. and PD include sulphadiazine, sulphamerazine,
sulphathiaole, sulphamethazine and sulphaquinoxaline
If an attempt is made to free a flock of infection, retesting of ( 2 , 2 4 , 9 6 ) . However, most studies have indicated that despite
the infected flock should be performed at two to four week treatment, a significant number of infected birds can remain
intervals until two consecutive negative tests of the entire among the survivors and become carriers (24, 1 0 6 , 112).
flock are secured at an interval of twenty-one days or more. In Various other antibiotics can be used for controlling and
the majority of cases, infection can be eliminated from the treating FT and PD, including furaltodone, furazolidone,
flock through testing at short intervals and removal of infected chloramphenicol, biomycin, apramycin, gentamicin and
birds. Two or three retests are often sufficient to detect all chlorotetracycline (8, 2 2 , 2 7 , 4 8 , 5 6 , 57, 107, 127, 1 3 5 , 137,
infected birds. However, infection occasionally continues to 153, 154). Resistance to some of these antibiotics has been
spread within a flock, and the disease cannot be eliminated by reported (63, 8 0 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 ) .
repeated testing and removal.
Care must be taken to follow the directions given by the
Criteria of eradication manufacturer in regard to the route of administration, dosage,
duration of treatment, and the withdrawal period for each
The essentials of an eradication programme for an area or a antibiotic before use. Some details regarding these aspects
country may include the following: have been described in reviews ( 1 0 7 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 1 ) . Furazolidone
a) fowl typhoid and PD must be reportable diseases treatment may interfere with antibody production and should
be avoided six weeks prior to testing ( 6 6 ) . A choice of
b) infected flocks must be placed under quarantine and antibiotics available for use varies by country.
infected flocks marketed under supervision
Résumé
La typhose et la pullorose aviaires sont des maladies septicémiques t o u c h a n t
essentiellement les poules et les dindes et dues à des bactéries ne prenant pas la
coloration de Gram, Salmonella Gallinarum et S. Pullorum, respectivement. Les
signes cliniques chez les poussins et les dindonneaux sont, entre autres,
l'inappétence, la diarrhée, la déshydratation et l ' a n é m i e ; ils s ' a c c o m p a g n e n t
d'une forte mortalité. Chez les poules adultes, la typhose et la pullorose se
manifestent par une chute de ponte, une baisse de la fertilité et un trouble de
l'éclosion, ainsi que par de l'anorexie et une mortalité a c c r u e . Les lésions
m a c r o s c o p i q u e s et m i c r o s c o p i q u e s observées chez les poussins et les
dindonneaux atteints de typhose et de pullorose comprennent, notamment, une
hépatite, une splenite, une typhlite, une omphalite, une myocardite, une
ventriculite, une pneumonie, une synovite, une péritonite et une ophtalmie. Chez
les volailles adultes, on observe des lésions telles que des ovarites, des
salpingites, des orchites, des péritonites et des péri-hépatites.
L'infectiontransovarienne, qui se t r a d u i t par la contamination de l'œuf et donc du
poussin ou du d i n d o n n e a u , est l'un des principaux modes de transmission de ces
deux maladies. On peut isoler S. Gallinarum et S. Pullorum par des moyens
sélectifs ou non sélectifs. Salmonella Pullorum produit une décarboxylation
rapide de l'ornithine, contrairement à 5. Gallinarum ; c'est une différence
biochimique importante entre les deux bactéries. Des tests sérologiques
permettent de déceler la typhose et la pullorose, n o t a m m e n t la réaction de
macroagglutination en t u b e , l'agglutination rapide, le test de coloration de
l'antigène en sang entier ou la micro-agglutination. Les examens sérologiques et
l'élimination des volailles ayant réagi positivement permettent de prévenir et
d'éradiquer c e s deux maladies. Les v a c c i n s sont indiqués pour lutter contre la
t y p h o s e et la pullorose et les antibiotiques pour traiter c e s deux maladies.
Largement répandues dans le monde, la typhose et la pullorose ont, cependant,
été éradiquées des élevages avicoles c o m m e r c i a u x dans des pays développés
c o m m e les États-Unis d'Amérique, le Canada et la plupart des pays d'Europe
occidentale. Salmonella Gallinarum et S. Pullorum sont étroitement adaptées à
leurs hôtes et n'ont pas d'incidence significative en santé publique.
Mots-clés
Anatomo-pathologie - Diagnostic - Maladies aviaires - Prophylaxie - Pullorose -
Salmonella Gallinarum - Salmonella Pullorum - Signes cliniques - Typhose aviaire.
418 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19 (2)
Resumen
La tifosis y la pulorosis son enfermedades septicémicas causadas por sendas
bacterias gramnegativas (Salmonella Gallinarum y S. Pullorum, respectivamente)
que afectan sobre todo a pollos y pavos. Entre los signos clínicos de esas
infecciones en pollitos y pavipollos cabe citar anorexia, diarrea, deshidratación,
decaimiento y elevada mortalidad. En aves maduras las principales
manifestaciones clínicas son, además de la anorexia y el aumento de la
mortalidad, la pérdida de fertilidad y el descenso de las tasas de producción
huevera y de eclosión. Las lesiones macro y microscópicas que ambas
enfermedades provocan en pollitos y pavipollos son: hepatitis, esplenitis, tiflitis,
onfalitis, miocarditis, ventriculitis, neumonía, sinovitis, peritonitis y oftalmitis. Las
aves maduras, por su parte, pueden presentar ooforitis, salpingitis, orquitis,
peritonitis y perihepatitis. La infección transovárica, que provoca la infección de
los huevos y después de los polluelos, es uno de los principales mecanismos de
transmisión de estas dos enfermedades. Para aislar S. Gallinarum y S. Pullorum
en cultivo pueden utilizarse medios selectivos o no selectivos. Entre S. Pullorum y
S. Gallinarum hay una importante diferencia bioquímica: la primera induce una
rápida descarboxilación de la ornitina y la segunda no. Tanto la tifosis aviar como
la pulorosis pueden detectarse por medios serológicos, utilizando pruebas de
macroaglutinación en tubo, de aglutinación rápida, de tinción antigénica en
muestras de sangre entera o de microaglutinación. Aplicando pruebas
serológicas y sacrificando después a los ejemplares positivos es posible luchar
contra ambas enfermedades hasta llegar a erradicarlas. También pueden
utilizarse vacunas para controlar la propagación de ambas infecciones, y
antibióticos para tratarlas. Pese a la amplia distribución (a escala mundial) de la
tifosis aviar y la pulorosis, países industrializados como los Estados Unidos de
América, Canadá y muchos países de Europa Occidental han conseguido
erradicarlas en las poblaciones de granjas avícolas. Tanto S. Gallinarum como
S. Pullorum están muy adaptadas a sus especies huéspedes, por lo que revisten"
escasa importancia en términos de salud pública.
Palabras clave
Anatomopatología - Control - Diagnóstico - Enfermedades aviares - Pulorosis -
Salmonella Gallinarum - Salmonella Pullorum - Signos clínicos - Tifosis aviar.
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