surface area allow a faster dispersion of
excess heat.
The Male Reproductive System
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive
System
The male reproductive system includes
external (penis, scrotum, epididymus, and
testes) and internal (accessory) organs
Key Points
 The functions of the male reproductive
system include producing and
transporting sperm, ejaculating sperm
into the female reproductive tract, and
producing and secreting male hormones.
 Most of the male reproductive system is
located outside of the body. These
external structures are the penis,
scrotum, epididymis, and testes.
 The internal organs of the male
reproductive system are called accessory
organs. They include the vas deferens,
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands.
Key Terms
 semen: Contains spermatozoa,
proteolytic and other enzymes, and
fructose that promotes spermatozoa
survival. It also provides a medium for
sperm
motility.
 spermatogenesis: The process of sperm
production within the seminiferous
tubules in the testes.
 testosterone: Steroid hormone produced
primarily in the male testes and
responsible for the development of male
secondary sex characteristics.
Key Points
 Moving the testes away from the
abdomen and increasing the exposed
 If testes were in the abdomen, constant
pressure from abdominal muscles would
possibly empty the testes and epididymis
before sperm were sufficiently mature for
fertillization.
 The function of the scrotum appears to
be to keep the temperature of the testes
slightly lower than that of the rest of the
body.
Key Terms
 scrotum: The bag of skin and muscle
that contains the testes in mammals.
 testosterone: A steroid hormone that
plays a key role in male reproductive
development including the promotion of
secondary sexual characteristics.
 epididymis: A narrow, tightly-coiled tube
where sperm are stored during
maturation. It connects the efferent ducts
from the rear of each testicle to its vas
deferens.
Key Points
 The testes produce the hormones
testosterone and other androgens.
 Sperm are produced within seminiferous
tubules.
 Leydig cells produce and secrete male
hormones.
 Sertoli cells help in the process of
spermatogenesis.
Key Terms
 Leydig cells: Also known as interstitial
cells of Leydig, these are found adjacent
to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle
and produce testosterone in the presence
of luteinizing hormone.
 follicle-stimulating hormone:
Stimulates the growth and recruitment of
immature ovarian follicles in females. In
males, it is critical for spermatogenesis
 as it stimulates primary spermatocytes to
form secondary spermatocytes.
 sertoli cells: Part of the seminiferous
tubule that helps in the process of
spermatogenesis.
 Luteinizing hormone: A hormone
produced by gonadotropic cells of the
anterior pituitary gland. It triggers
ovulation and development of the corpus
luteum in females and stimulates Leydig
cell production of testosterone in males.
 testes: Also referred to as testicles, the
male gonads in animals.
Key Points
 The major structure of the penis is
formed by columns of corpus
cavernosum and spongiosum tissue.
 The head of the penis, called the glans,
contains the opening for the urethral duct,
the passage for urine and seminal fluid.
 The penis and clitoris (found in women)
are homologous organs.
 Blood engorgement of penile tissue
causes the penis to become erect,
facilitating sexual intercourse.
 Ejaculation is the release of sperm, which
propels the sperm into the vaginal canal
when it occurs during intercourse.
Key Terms
 glans: The vascular body which forms
the apex of the penis.
 penis: The male sexual organ for
copulation and urination; the tubular
portion of the male genitalia (excluding
the scrotum).
 intromittent organ: A term for a male
external organ that delivers sperm during
copulation.
 clitoral glans: Highly innervated part of
the clitoris that exists at the tip of the
clitoral body as a fibrovascular cap.
 ejaculation: The forcible ejection of
semen from the mammalian urethra, a
reflex in response to sexual stimulation.
Key Points
 Creation of sperm occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes.
 The efferent ducts maintain proper fluid
concentration in the testes and propel
sperm to the epididymus.
 The vas deferens carry the sperm from
the epididymus to the urethra.
 A vasectomy cuts the vas deferens to
prevent sperm from entering the urethra
and being ejaculated.
Key Terms
 vasectomy: The surgical removal of all
or part of the vas deferens, usually as a
means of male sterilization.
 peristalsis: A radially symmetrical
contraction and relaxation of muscles that
propagates in a anterograde
(forward) wave down a tube.
 vas deferens: The duct in the testes that
carries semen from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct.
 rete testis: An anastomosing network of
tubules located in the hilum of the testicle
(mediastinum testis) that carries sperm
from the seminiferous tubules to the
efferent ducts.
Key Points
 Seminal glands contain seminal vesicles
that produce 50–70% of the seminal fluid.
 The excretory duct of the seminal gland
opens into the vas deferens as it enters
the prostate gland.
 Sperm are not in contact with the seminal
fluid produced by the seminal vesicles,
possibly to block the progress of sperm
from other males.
 The prostate secretes 20–30% of the
seminal fluid which carries the sperm in
the ejaculate.
 The prostate surrounds the urethra below
the bladder and can be felt in a rectal
exam.
  Bulbourethral glands produce a pre-
ejaculate secretion which lubricates and
flushes out the urethra in preparation for
the sperm.
Key Terms
 bulbourethral gland: An exocrine gland
which secretes a clear fluid upon sexual
arousal as pre-ejaculate (or Cowper’s
fluid).
 Lipofuscin: Yellow-brown pigment
granules composed of lipid-containing
residues of lysosomal digestion.
 prostate: A compound tubuloalveolar
exocrine gland of the male reproductive
system in most mammals.
 seminal gland: A pair of simple tubular
glands located within the pelvis
that secrete fluid that partly composes
semen.
Key Points
 Male sexual response is demonstrated by
vasodilation and blood engorgement of
the penis, leading to an erection.
 The testes rise and grow larger and
warmer as blood pressure rises.
 The muscles of the pelvic floor, the
vesicles, and the prostrate contract,
injecting sperm into the urethra of the
penis and resulting in the onset of
orgasm.
 Ejaculation continues with orgasm.
 Following orgasm, there is a gradual loss
of erection and a feeling of relaxation
known as the refractory period.
 Cognitive factors involving visual stimuli
and high levels of activity in the amygdala
and hypothalamus contribute to sexual
arousal and sexual response in males.
Key Terms
 erection: The physiological process by
which a penis becomes engorged with
blood.
 sexual arousal: Changes that occur
during or in anticipation of sexual activity.
 refractory period: The period after
excitation, during which a membrane
recovers its polarization and is not able to
respond to a second stimulus.
 sex flush: Increased blood flow leading
to reddening of the skin in response to
sexual arousal or orgasm.
 tumescence: The normal engorgement
of the erectile tissue with blood.
 genitalia: Sex organs.
Key Points
 Sperm fertilize the oocyte, donate the
paternal chromatin, and provide the
centrosome that maintains the zygote’s
microtubule system.
 Sperm have three parts: a head, which
holds the chromatin, a midpiece filled
with mitochondria to provide energy, and
a flagellum or tail to move the sperm from
the vagina to the oocyte.
 Sperm with one tail, such as human
sperm, are referred to as spermatozoa.
 Sperm quality and quantity decrease with
age.
Key Terms
 anisogamy: The form of sexual
reproduction that involves the union or
fusion of two gametes that differ in size
and/or form.
 spermatozoa: A motile sperm cell or
moving form of the haploid cell that is the
male gamete.
 acrosome: A caplike structure over the
anterior half of the sperm’s head.
 ATP: An acronym for adenosine
triphosphate, which transports chemical
energy within cells for metabolism.
 oogamy: A form of anisogamy
(heterogamy) in which the female gamete
(oocyte) is significantly larger than the
male gamete (sperm) and is non-motile.
The male gametes are highly motile and
 compete for the fertilization of the
immotile oocyte.
Key Points
 Spermatogenesis begins with a diploid
spermatogonium in the seminiferous
tubules, which divides mitotically to
produce two diploid primary
spermatocytes.
 The primary spermatocyte then
undergoes meiosis I to produce two
haploid secondary spermatocytes.
 The haploid secondary spermatocytes
undergo meiosis II to produce four
haploid spermatids.
 Each spermatid begins to grow a tail and
a mitochondrial-filled midpiece, while the
chromatin is tightly packaged into an
acrosome at the head.
 Maturation removes excess cellular
material, turning spermatids into inactive,
sterile spermatozoa that are transported
via peristalis to the epididymus.
 The spermatozoa gain motility in the
epididymus, but do not use that ability
until they are ejaculated into the vagina.
 Spermatogenesis requires optimal
environmental conditions.
Key Terms
 spermatozoa: A motile sperm cell, or
moving form of the haploid cell that is the
male gamete.
 spermatocyte: A male gametocyte, from
which a spermatozoon develops.
 axoneme: Cytoskeletal inner core
structure of eukaryotic flagella.
 spermatid: A haploid cell produced by
meiosis of a spermatocyte that develops
into a spermatozoon.
 spermatogonium: Any of the
undifferentiated cells in the male gonads
that become spermatocytes.
Key Points
 Seminal fluid mixes with fluids produced
by the prostate and bulbourethral glands.
 The seminal fluid provides nutrition and
protection for sperm during its journey
through the female reproductive tract.
 Semen initially coagulates in the vagina,
then liquefies to allow the sperm to move.
Key Terms
 seminal vesicle: One of two simple
tubular glands located behind the male
urinary bladder, responsible for the
production of about sixty percent of the
fluid that ultimately becomes semen.
 seminal fluid: Semen is a fluid that helps
in promoting the survival of spermatozoa
and provides a medium through which
they can move.
 semen: The fluid produced in male
reproductive organs of an animal that
contains the reproductive cells.
Key Points
 GnRH is made in the hypothalamus and
travels to the pituitary where it stimulates
FSH and LH secretion.
 FSH is necessary for sperm maturation.
 LH binds to Leydig cells to stimulate
testosterone secretion and androgen
production.
 Testosterone stimulates sex drive.
 Inhibin acts as negative feedback to slow
the release of FSH and GnRH.
Key Terms
 GnRH: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
is a trophic peptide hormone responsible
for the release of follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH) from the anterior pituitary.
 LH: Luteinizing hormone is produced by
the anterior pituitary gland and in males
causes the synthesis and secretion of
testosterone and androgen.
  FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone
stimulates both the production of
androgen-binding protein by Sertoli cells
and the formation of the blood-testis
barrier.
The Female Reproductive System
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive
System
The human female reproductive system
contains two main parts: the uterus and the
ovaries, which produce a woman’s egg cells.
Key Points
 An female’s internal reproductive organs
are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes,
cervix, and ovary.
 External structures include the mons
pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora and
minora, vulva, Bartholin’s gland, and the
clitoris.
 The female reproductive system contains
two main parts: the uterus, which hosts
the developing fetus, produces vaginal
and uterine secretions, and passes the
anatomically male sperm through to the
fallopian tubes; and the ovaries, which
produce the anatomically female egg
cells.
Key Terms
 ovary: A female reproductive organ,
often paired, that produces ova and in
mammals secretes the hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
 oviduct: A duct through which an ovum
passes from an ovary to the uterus or to
the exterior (called fallopian tubes in
humans).
 vulva: The consists of the female
external genital organs.
 oogenesis: The formation and
development of an ovum.
Key Points
 In addition to producing ova, the ovaries
are endocrine organs and produce
hormones that act during the female
menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
 Ovaries secrete estrogen and
progesterone.
 Each ovary is located in the lateral wall of
the pelvis in a region called the ovarian
fossa.
 The ovaries are attached to the uterus via
the ovarian ligament (which runs in the
broad ligament).
 Usually, the ovaries take turns releasing
eggs every month; however, if one ovary
is absent or dysfunctional then the other
ovary releases eggs every month.
 There are two extremities to the ovary,
the tubal extremity and the uterine
extremity.
Key Terms
 intraperitoneal: Located within the inner
layer of the peritoneum (serous
membrane that forms the lining of the
abdominal cavity).
 corpus luteum: A temporary endocrine
structure in female ovaries that is
essential for establishing and maintaining
pregnancy.
 libido: A person’s overall sexual drive.
 follicle: A spheroid cellular aggregation
found in the ovaries that secretes
hormones that influence the stages of the
menstrual cycle.
 ovary: A female reproductive organ,
often paired, that produces ova and in
 mammals secretes the hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
Key Points
 The body of the uterus is connected to
the ovaries via the fallopian tubes, and
opens into the vagina via the cervix.
 Two Müllerian ducts
usually form initially in a female fetus, but
in humans they completely fuse into a
single uterus during gestation.
 The uterus is essential in sexual
response by directing blood flow to the
pelvis and to the external genitalia,
including the ovaries, vagina, labia, and
clitoris.
 The reproductive function of the uterus is
to accept a fertilized ovum which passes
through the utero-tubal junction from the
fallopian tube.
 The lining of the uterine cavity is called
the endometrium.
Key Terms
 linea terminalis: Part of the pelvic brim,
which is the edge of the pelvic inlet.
 adenomyosis: A condition characterized
by the breaking through of the
endometrium into the muscle wall of the
uterus.
 uterus: An organ of the female
reproductive system in which the young
are conceived and develop until birth; the
womb.
 endometrium: The mucous membrane
that lines the uterus in mammals and in
which fertilized eggs are implanted.
 fallopian tubes: The fallopian tubes, also
known as oviducts, uterine tubes, and
salpinges (singular salpinx) are two very
fine tubes lined with ciliated epithelia, and
lead from the ovaries of female mammals
into the uterus via the utero-tubal
junction.
Key Points
 The Fallopian tube allows passage of the
egg from the ovary to the uterus.
 The lining of the Fallopian tubes are
ciliated and have several segments,
including the infundibulum, ampullary,
isthmus, and interstitial regions.
 Interspersed between the ciliated cells
are peg cells, which contain apical
granules and produce the tubular fluid
that contains nutrients for spermatozoa,
oocytes, and zygotes.
 Occasionally, the embryo implants into
the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus,
creating an ectopic pregnancy.
Key Terms
 oviduct: A duct through which an ovum
passes from an ovary to the uterus or to
the exterior.
 fallopian tubes: Also known as oviducts,
uterine tubes, and salpinges (singular
salpinx), two very fine tubes lined with
ciliated epithelia, leading from the ovaries
of female mammals into the uterus via
the uterotubal junction.
 ovarian follicle: The basic units of
female reproductive biology, each
composed of roughly spherical
aggregations of cells found in the ovary.
Key Points
 The vagina is situated between the cervix
of the uterus and the external genitalia,
primarily the vulva.
 Although there is wide anatomical
variation, the length of the unaroused
vagina of a woman of child-bearing age is
approximately 6 to 7.5 cm (2.5 to 3 in)
across the anterior wall (front), and 9 cm
(3.5 in) long across the posterior wall
(rear).
 During sexual arousal the vagina
expands in both length and width.
 A series of ridges produced by the folding
of the wall of the outer third of the vagina
is called the vaginal rugae.
  Vaginal lubrication is provided by the
Bartholin’s glands near the vaginal
opening and the cervix.
 The hymen is a membrane of tissue that
surrounds or partially covers the external
vaginal opening.
Key Terms
 vulva: The vaginal opening to the uterus.
 clitoris: A small, sensitive, and elongated
erectile organ at the anterior part of the
vulva in female mammals, homologous
with the penis.
 Skene’s glands: Glands located on the
anterior wall of the vagina, around the
lower end of the urethra, that drain into
the urethra and near the urethral
opening. These may be near or part of
the G-spot.
 vagina: A fibromuscular tubular tract
which is the female sex organ and has
two main functions, sexual intercourse
and childbirth.
Key Points
 Major structures of the vulva include the
labia major and minora, mons pubis,
clitoris, bulb of vestibule, vulva vestibule,
vestibular glands, and the genital orifice
(or opening of the vagina ).
 The vulva is rich in nerves that are
stimulated during sexual activity and
arousal.
 The vulva also contains the opening of
the female urethra and thus serves the
vital function of passing urine.
Key Terms
 labia minora: The two inner folds of skin
within the cleft of the labia majora.
 vulva: The vaginal opening to the uterus.
 mons pubis: A fleshy protuberance over
the pubic bones that becomes covered
with hair during puberty.
 labia majora: The two outer rounded
folds of adipose tissue that lie on either
side of the opening of the vagina.
Key Points
 The perineum refers to both external and
deep structures.
 Perineal tears and episiotomy often occur in
childbirth with first-time deliveries, but the risk
of these injuries can be reduced by preparing
the perineum through massage.
 The perineum is an erogenous zone for both
males and females.
Key Terms
 lower rabbus: The term for perineum often
used in the UK.
 perineum: The region of the body inferior to
the pelvic diaphragm and between the legs. It
is a diamond-shaped area on the inferior
surface of the trunk which includes the anus
and, in females, the vagina.
 episiotomy: A surgical incision through the
perineum made to enlarge the vagina and
assist childbirth.
 perineal body: A pyramid-shaped
fibromuscular mass in the middle line of the
perineum at the junction between the
urogenital triangle and the anal triangle.
Key Points
 Mammary glands are not associated with the
female reproductive tract, but develop as
secondary sex characteristics in
reproductive-age females.
 The basic components of a mature mammary
gland are the alveoli, hollow cavities, a few
millimeters large lined with milk-secreting
cuboidal cells and surrounded by
myoepithelial cells.
 Alveoli join up to form groups known as
lobules, and each of which has a lactiferous
duct that drains into openings in the nipple.
 Secretory alveoli develop mainly in
pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin,
estrogen, and progesterone cause further
branching, together with an increase in
adipose tissue and a richer blood flow.

Key Terms
 Wnts: Morphogenic signaling proteins that
regulate cell-cell interactions.
 beta-1 integrin: One of the regulators of
mammary epithelial cell growth and
differentiation.
 mammary gland: A gland that secretes milk
for suckling an infant or offspring.
 lactiferous duct: The components that form
a branched system connecting the lobules of
the mammary gland to the tip of the nipple.
Physiology of the Female Reproductive
System
Oogenesis
Oogenesis is the maturation of the female
gametes through meiotic division.
Key Points
 Oogenesis starts with the process of
developing oogonia via the transformation of
primordial follicles into primary oocytes, a
process called oocytogenesis.
 Oocytogenesis is complete either before or
shortly after birth in humans. During the
menstrual cycle primary oocytes complete
maturation through further meiotic divisions.
 The first meiotic division is coordinated by
hormones: follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH), estrogen, luteinizing hormone (LH),
and progesterone.
 The oocyte is arrested in cell division prior to
the second meiotic division, which only
occurs after fertilization.
Key Terms
 polar body: A small haploid cell formed
concomitantly as an egg cell during
oogenesis, but which does not have the
ability to be fertilized.
 ootid: A nearly mature ovum that results
from
meiotic division of a secondary oocyte.
 lutenizing hormone: A hormone produced
by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, an
acute rise of LH triggers ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum.
 follicle: A small cavity or sac that is the site
of oocyte development in the ovary.
 follicle stimulating hormone: A
gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone, secreted
in part of the pituitary gland that stimulates
the growth of ovarian follicles in female
mammals and induces spermatogenesis in
male mammals.
Ovarian Cycle
The menstrual cycle is the physiological
process that fertile women undergo for the
purposes of reproduction and fertilization.
Key Points
 The ovarian cycle refers to the series of
changes in the ovary during which the follicle
matures, the ovum is shed, and the corpus
luteum develops.
 The follicular phase describes the
development of the follicle in response to
follicle stimulation hormone ( FSH ). As
luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and FSH levels
increase they stimulate ovulation, or the
release of a mature oocyte into the fallopian
tubes.
 In the luteal phase, the corpus luteum forms
on the ovary and secretes many hormones,
most significantly progesterone, which makes
the endometrium of the uterus ready for
implantation of an embryo.
 If implantation does not occur, the corpus
luteum will be degraded, resulting in
menstruation.
 If implantation occurs the corpus luteum is
maintained.
Key Terms
 ischemic phase: The final part of the
secretory phase. The endometrium becomes
pale and arteries constrict due to lower
hormone release by the disintegrating corpus
luteum.
 granulosa cells: These cells produce
hormones and growth factors that interact
 with the oocyte during its
development.
 menstrual cycle: The recurring cycle of
physiological changes in the females of some
animal species that is associated with
reproductive fertility.
 luteal phase: The latter part of the menstrual
cycle that occurs after ovulation, in which the
corpus luteum secretes progesterone to
prepare the endometrium for the implantation
of an embryo.
 follicular phase: The phase of the estrous
cycle that involves follicular maturation within
the ovary and, controlled by the hormone
estradiol.
Key Points
 The uterine cycle includes the increase in the
endometrium in preparation for implantation
and the shedding of the lining following lack
of implantation, termed menstruation.
 Menstrual cycles are counted from the first
day of menstrual bleeding.
 Endometrial thickening is stimulated by the
increasing amount of estrogen in the follicular
phase.
 If implantation does not occur, progesterone
and estrogen levels drop, which stimulates
menstruation.
Key Terms
 endometrium: The mucous membrane that
lines the uterus in mammals, in which
fertilized eggs are implanted.
 menstrual cycle: In the females of some
animal species, the recurring cycle of
physiological changes associated with
reproductive fertility.
 decidua: A mucous membrane that lines the
uterus: it is shed during menstruation and
modified during pregnancy.
Key Points
 The follicular phase begins with an increase
in follicle -stimulation hormone ( FSH ), which
causes increases in luteinizing hormone ( LH
) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (
GnRH ). Concurrent increases in estrogen
levels cause increases in progesterone,
stimulating proliferation of the endometrium.
 A spike in LH and FSH (“LH surge”) causes
ovulation, following a suppression of GnRH.
 Estrogen levels continue to rise following
ovulation and the corpus luteum forms, which
secretes progesterone in significant levels
and causes decreases in LH and FSH levels.
 Without implantation, estrogen and
progesterone levels will fall and the corpus
luteum will degrade.
Key Terms
 estrogen: A hormone responsible for the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics
of human females at puberty and the
maturation and maintenance of the
reproductive organs in their functional state.
 cumulus: A cluster of cells that surround the
oocyte both in the ovarian follicle and after
ovulation. These cells
coordinate follicular development and oocyte
maturation.
 progesterone: A steroid hormone secreted
by the ovaries that prepares the uterus for
the implantation of a fertilized ovum and
subsequent pregnancy.
 theca cells: A group of endocrine cells in the
ovary made
up of connective tissue surrounding the
follicle. They provide
androgen synthesis and signal transduction
between granulosa cells
and oocytes during development.
 luteinizing hormone surge: Acute rise of LH
levels that triggers ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum.
Key Points
 Estrogen promotes female secondary sex
characteristics and has structural and
metabolic functions, including bone
formation, salt and water retention, and
increased cortisol levels.
 The effects of progesterone are largely
amplified by estrogen and include increases
in core temperature, anti-inflammatory
effects, increased use of fat for energy, and
regulation of insulin release.
 Progesterone is sometimes called the ”
hormone of pregnancy” as it has many roles
relating to the fetal development, including
preparing the uterus for implantation,
 increasing the amount of cervical mucus, and
decreasing the maternal immune response.

Key Terms

 estrogen: A hormone responsible for the

appearance of secondary sex characteristics
of human females at puberty and for the
maturation and maintenance of the
reproductive organs in their mature functional
state.
 aldosterone: A mineralocorticoid hormone
secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulates
the balance of sodium and potassium in the
body.
 progesterone: A steroid hormone secreted
by the ovaries that prepares the uterus for
the implantation of a fertilized ovum and
subsequent pregnancy.

Key Points

 Responses specific to females include

engorgement of several tissues including the
nipples, vulva, clitoris, and vaginal walls.
 Further changes include changes to the
shape of the vagina and the positioning of
the uterus in the pelvis, as well as increases
in blood pressure and heart rate.
 Experienced by males and females, orgasms
are controlled by the involuntary or
autonomic nervous system.
 Age-related changes in sexual
responsiveness may be associated with
changes in estrogen.

Key Terms

 vulva: The vaginal opening to the uterus.

 estrogen: A hormone responsible for the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics
of females at puberty and for the maturation
and maintenance of the reproductive organs
in their mature functional state.
 clitoris: A small, sensitive, and elongated
erectile organ at the anterior part of the vulva
in females and homologous with the penis.