Nozzles

Unit 3

Unit 3 AP 1
Syllabus
Theory of flow in isentropic nozzles, nozzles and
choking, nozzle throat conditions, nozzle efficiency,
losses in nozzles. Over expanded and under
expanded nozzles, ejector and variable area nozzles,
interaction of nozzle flow with adjacent surfaces,
thrust reversal.

Unit 3 AP 2
NOZZLE BASICS REVIEW
• Nozzle produces thrust
• Convert thermal energy of hot chamber
gases into kinetic energy and direct that
energy along nozzle axis
• Exhaust gases from combustion are
pushed into throat region of nozzle
• Throat is smaller cross-sectional area than
rest of engine → gases are compressed to
high pressure
• Nozzle gradually increases in cross-
sectional area allowing gases to expand
and push against walls creating thrust
• Mathematically, ultimate purpose of
nozzle is to expand gases as efficiently as
possible so as to maximize exit velocity

F  m eVe  Pe  Pa Ae

F  m eVe
Unit 3 AP 3
 1st LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Boundary

e (J/kg) SYSTEM SURROUNDINGS

(unit mass of gas)

dq
• System (gas) composed of molecules moving in random motion
• Energy of all molecular motion is called internal energy per unit mass, e, of
system

• Only two ways e can be increased (or decreased):

1. Heat, dq, added to (or removed from) system
2. Work, dw, is done on (or by) system

de  dq  dw
Unit 3 AP 4
1st LAW IN MORE USEFUL FORM
• 1st Law: de = dq + dw
• Find more useful expression for dw, in terms of
p and r (or v = 1/r) ΔW  force distance 
ΔW   pdAs 

dw   psdA  p  sdA
A A
Change in
Volume (-)
dw   pdv

• When volume varies → work is done de  dq  dw

• Work done on balloon, volume ↓
• Work done by balloon, volume ↑
de  dq  pdv
Unit 3 AP 5
ENTHALPY: A USEFUL QUANTITY
Define a new quantity
called enthalpy, h: h  e  pv  e  RT
(recall ideal gas law: pv = RT)

Differentiate
dh  de  pdv  vdp

Substitute into 1st law dq  de  pdv

(from previous slide)
dq  de  dh  de  vdp

Another version of 1st law

that uses enthalpy, h:
dq  dh  vdp
Unit 3 AP 6
 HEAT ADDITION AND SPECIFIC HEAT
• Addition of dq will cause a small change in temperature dT of system

dq
dT

dq J
c 
dT kgK 
• Specific heat is heat added per unit change in temperature of system
• Different materials have different specific heats
– Balloon filled with He, N2, Ar, water, lead, uranium, etc…
• ALSO, for a fixed dq, resulting dTUnitdepends
3 AP on type of process… 7
SPECIFIC HEAT: CONSTANT PRESSURE
• Addition of dq will cause a small change in temperature dT of system
• System pressure remains constant

dq
dT

dq  dq 
c 
J cp   
dT kgK   dT  constantpressure
dq  c p dT Extra Credit #1:
dh  c p dT Show this step

h Unitc3pAPT 8
SPECIFIC HEAT: CONSTANT VOLUME
• Addition of dq will cause a small change in temperature dT of system
• System volume remains constant

dq
dT
dq J
c 
dT kgK 

 dq 
cv   
 dT  constant volume
dq  cv dT Extra Credit #2:
de  cv dT Show this step
e  cvT Unit 3 AP 9
 HEAT ADDITION AND SPECIFIC HEAT
• Addition of dq will cause a small change in temperature dT of system
• Specific heat is heat added per unit change in temperature of system
dq J
c 
dT kgK 
• However, for a fixed dq, resulting dT depends on type of process:

Constant Pressure Constant Volume

Specific heat ratio
 dq   dq  For air,  = 1.4
cp    cv   
 dT  constantpressure  dT  constant volume
cp
dq  c p dT
dh  c p dT
dq  cv dT
de  cv dT

cv
h  c pT e  cvUnitT3 AP 10
 ISENTROPIC FLOW
• Goal: Relate Thermodynamics to Compressible Flow
• Adiabatic Process: No heat is added or removed from system
• dq = 0
• Note: Temperature can still change because of changing density
• Reversible Process: No friction (or other dissipative effects)

• Isentropic Process: (1) Adiabatic + (2) Reversible

• (1) No heat exchange + (2) no frictional losses
• Relevant for compressible flows only
• Provides important relationships among thermodynamic variables at
two different points along a streamline

 
 1
p2  r 2   T2   = ratio of specific heats
       = cp/cv
p1  r1   T1  Unit 3 AP
air=1.4
11
DERIVATION: ENERGY EQUATION
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
de  dq  dw
Start with 1st law

Adiabatic, dq=0 dq  0
1st law in terms of enthalpy dq  dh  vdp  0

Recall Euler’s equation dp   rVdV

Combine dh  vrVdV  0
dh  VdV  0

h2 V2
Integrate 
h1
dh   VdV  0
V1

V22 V12
Result: frictionless + adiabatic flow h2  h1   0
Unit 3 AP 2 2 12
ENERGY EQUATION SUMMARY
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; can only change physical form
• Same idea as 1st law of thermodynamics

2 2 Energy equation for frictionless,

V V
h1   h2 
1 2 adiabatic flow (isentropic)
2 2
2
h = enthalpy = e+p/r = e+RT
V h = cpT for an ideal gas
h  constant
2

V12 V22 Also energy equation for

c pT1   c pT2  frictionless, adiabatic flow
2 2
2
V Relates T and V at two different
c pT   constant points along a streamline
2 Unit 3 AP 13
 SUMMARY OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS
STEADY AND INVISCID FLOW
• Incompressible flow of fluid along a
continuity
streamline or in a stream tube of A1V1  A2V2
varying area
1 1
• Most important variables: p and V p1  rV1  p2  rV22
2

• T and r are constants throughout flow 2 2

Bernoulli
continuity r1 A1V1  r 2 A2V2
• Compressible, isentropic
 
(adiabatic and frictionless)
p1  r1   T1   1
flow along a streamline or in a isentropic      
stream tube of varying area p2  r 2   T2 
1 2 1 2
• T, p, r, and V are all variables energy c pT1  V1  c pT2  V2
2 2
equation of state p1  r1 RT1
at any point
Unit 3 AP p2  r 2 RT2 14
 EXAMPLE: SPEED OF SOUND
• Sound waves travel through air at a finite speed
• Sound speed (information speed) has an important role in aerodynamics
• Combine conservation of mass, Euler’s equation and isentropic relations:

dp p
a 
2
a   RT
dr r
• Speed of sound, a, in a perfect gas depends only on temperature of gas

• Mach number = flow velocity normalizes by speed of sound

– If M < 1 flow is subsonic

V
– If M = 1 flow is sonic M
– If M > flow is supersonic a
• If M < 0.3 flow may be considered incompressible
Unit 3 AP 15
KEY TERMS: CAN YOU DEFINE THEM?

• Streamline • Constant pressure process

• Stream tube
• Constant volume process
• Steady flow
• Unsteady flow • Adiabatic
• Viscid flow
• Inviscid flow • Reversible
• Compressible flow
• Incompressible flow • Isentropic

• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow
• Enthalpy

Unit 3 AP 16
 MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW
• If M > 0.3, flow is compressible (density changes are important)
• Need to introduce energy equation and isentropic relations


1 2 p0    1 2   1
c pT1  V1  c pT0  1  M1 
2 p1  2 
2 1
T0 V1 r0    1 2   1
 1  1  M1 
T1 2c pT1 r1  2 
T0  1 2
 1 M1 cp: specific heat at constant pressure
M1=V1/a1
T1 2 air=1.4
Unit 3 AP 17
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW
• So, how do we use these results to measure airspeed
 1 
2   p   p0 and p1 give
M 12   0   1 Flight Mach number
  1  p1   Mach meter

2 
 1 
2 a  p   M1=V1/a1
V12  1  0   1
  1  p1  
Actual Flight Speed

2 
 1 
2 a  p  p   Actual Flight Speed
V12  1  0 1
 1  1
  1  p1  
using pressure difference

 1 

2a  p0  p1 
2  What is T1 and a1?
2
Vcal  s
  1  1 Again use sea-level conditions
  1  ps   Ts, as, ps (a1=340.3 m/s)
 Unit 3 AP 18
 EXAMPLE: TOTAL TEMPERATURE
Total temperature

T0  1 2
 1 M1
T1 2
Static temperature Vehicle flight
Mach number
• A rocket is flying at Mach 6 through a portion of the
atmosphere where the static temperature is 200 K

• What temperature does the nose of the rocket ‘feel’?

• T0 = 200(1+ 0.2(36)) = 1,640 K!

Unit 3 AP 19
 MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUPERSONIC FLOW
• What can happen in supersonic flows?

• Supersonic flows (M > 1) are qualitatively and quantitatively different from

subsonic flows (M < 1)

Unit 3 AP 20
 HOW AND WHY DOES A SHOCK WAVE FORM?
• Think of a as ‘information speed’ and
M=V/a as ratio of flow speed to information
speed

• If M < 1 information available throughout

flow field

• If M > 1 information confined to some

region of flow field

Unit 3 AP 21
 MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUPERSONIC FLOW

  1
p02    1 M  1    2M 12
2 2
 
1
p1  4M 1  2  1
2
 1
Notice how different this expression is from previous expressions
You will learn a lot more about shock
Unit 3 APwave in compressible flow course
22
SUMMARY OF AIR SPEED MEASUREMENT

2 p0  p  • Subsonic,
Ve  incompressible
rs

 1 

2a  p0  p1 
2  • Subsonic,
2
Vcal  s
  1  1 compressible
  1  ps  


  1
p02    1 M 12  1    2M 12
2
 
 
p1  4M 1  2   1 
2
 1 • Supersonic

Unit 3 AP 23
HOW ARE ROCKET NOZZLES SHAPPED?

Unit 3 AP 24
MORE ON SUPERSONIC FLOWS
Isentropic flow in a stream tube rAV  constant
lnr  lnA  lnV  ln constant 
Differentiate dr dA dV
  0
r A V
Euler’s Equation dp   rVdV
drVdV dA dV
   0
Since flow is isentropic dp A V
a2=dp/dr
VdV dA dV
 2   0
a A V
Area-Velocity Relation
dA
A
 
 M 1
2 dV
V
Unit 3 AP 25
CONSEQUENCES OF AREA-VELOCITY RELATION

dA
A
 M 1
2

dV
V

• IF Flow is Subsonic (M < 1)
• For V to increase (dV positive) area must decrease (dA negative)
• Note that this is consistent with Euler’s equation for dV and dp

• IF Flow is Supersonic (M > 1)

• For V to increase (dV positive) area must increase (dA positive)

• IF Flow is Sonic (M = 1)
• M = 1 occurs at a minimum area of cross-section
• Minimum area is called a throat (dA/A = 0)
Unit 3 AP 26
TRENDS: CONTRACTION
1: INLET 2: OUTLET

M1 < 1 V2 > V1

M1 > 1 V2 < V1

Unit 3 AP 27
TRENDS: EXPANSION
1: INLET 2: OUTLET

M1 < 1 V2 < V1

M1 > 1 V2 > V1

Unit 3 AP 28
PUT IT TOGETHER: C-D NOZZLE

1: INLET 2: OUTLET

Unit 3 AP 29
MORE ON SUPERSONIC FLOWS

• A converging-diverging, with a minimum area throat, is necessary to

produce a supersonic flow from rest

Unit 3 AP
Supersonic wind tunnel section Rocket nozzle 30
Unit 3 AP 31
 NOZZLE BASICS REVIEW
• Expansion Area Ratio:
• Most important parameter in nozzle design is expansion area ratio, e

Aexit Ae
e  *
Athroat A
• Fixing other variables (primarily chamber pressure) → only one ratio
that optimizes performance for a given altitude (or ambient pressure)
• However, rocket does not travel at only one altitude
• Should know trajectory to select expansion ratio that maximizes performance
over a range of ambient pressures
• See Lecture Notes on Isentropic Nozzle Calculations for more Details

• Other factors must also be considered

• Nozzle weight, length, manufacturability, cooling (heat transfer), and
aerodynamic characteristics. Unit 3 AP
32
Isentropic Supersonic Flows Through Nozzles

(A/A*)=(1/M2){(2/[γ+1])(1+(y-1)M2/2}(y+1)/(y-1)

Unit 3 AP 33
Isentropic Subsonic Nozzle flows

Unit 3 AP 34
Supersonic Nozzle flow withUnit
a normal
3 AP shock inside the nozzle 35
Unit 3 AP 36
Nozzle Efficiency

• Nozzle efficiency is the ratio of the actual enthalpy

drop to isentropic enthalpy drop between the same
pressure.
• From the definition of isentropic nozzle efficiency,
η ≡ (ht−he)/(ht−hes)

Unit 3 AP 37
Loses In Nozzle
• Flow divergence
• Non uniformity
• po loss due to heat addition
• Viscous effects
– boundary layers-drag
– boundary layer-shock interactions
• Heat losses
• Nozzle erosion (throat)
• Transients
• Multiphase flow
• Real gas properties
• Non equilibrium flow Unit 3 AP 38
 Lect-29

Nozzles
• Nozzles form the exhaust system of gas turbine engines.
• It provides the thrust force required for all flight conditions.
• In turboprops, nozzles may generate part of the total
thrust.
• Main components: tail pipe or tail cone and the
exhaust duct.
• Nozzles could be either of fixed geometry or variable
geometry configuration.

3
Unit 3 AP 9
 Lect-29

Nozzles
• Besides generating thrust, nozzles have other functions too.
• Variable area nozzles are used for adjusting the exit area for
different operating conditions of the engine.
• For thrust reversal: nozzle are deflected so as to generate a
part of the thrust component in the forward direction
resulting in braking.
• For thrust vectoring: vectoring the nozzles to carry out
complex maneuvers.
• Exhaust noise control

4
Unit 3 AP 0
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Types of nozzles:
– Convergent or Converging-diverging
– Axisymmetric or two-dimensional
– Fixed geometry or variable geometry
• Simplest is the fixed geometry convergent
nozzle
– Was used in subsonic commercial
aircraft.
• Other nozzle geometries are complex and
require sophisticated control mechanisms.

41
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29
Exhaust nozzles: Fixed geometry
Subsonic, convergent nozzle

Nozzle

Tailpipe
Nozzle

Supersonic, C-D nozzle

4
Unit 3 AP 2
Exhaust nozzles: Variable geometry
Subsonic, convergent nozzle

Supersonic, C-D nozzle

Variable
nozzle

Tailpipe

Afterburner Variable nozzle

43
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Nozzle must fulfill the following:
– Be matched with other engine components
– Provide optimum expansion ratio
– Have minimum losses at design and off-design
– Permit afterburner operation
– Provide reversed thrust when necessary
– Suppress jet noise and IR radiation
– Provide necessary vectored thrust
– Have minimal weight, cost and maintenance
while satisfying the above.

44
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Convergent nozzles are normally used in
subsonic aircraft.
• These nozzles operate under choked condition,
leading to incomplete expansion.
• This may lead to a pressure thrust.
• A C-D nozzle can expand fully to the
ambient pressure and develop greater
momentum thrust.
• However due to increased weight, geometric
complexity and diameter, it is not used in
subsonic transport aircraft.
45
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Variable geometry nozzles

• Variable area nozzles or adjustable nozzles are
required for matched operation under all
operating conditions.
• Three types of variable area nozzles are:
– Central plug at nozzle outlet
– Ejector type
– Iris nozzle
• The Central plug is very similar to the spike of an
intake.
• Unlike intake, the central plug causes
external expansion fans.

46
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Central plug nozzles

Expansion fan Expansion fan shock

Central plug

Central plug at nozzle outlet

47
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Ejector type nozzles

• Ejector nozzle: creates an effective nozzle
through a secondary airflow
• At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape.
• As the speed increases, the two nozzles
dilate and the two nozzles form a CD shape.
• Some configurations may also have a
tertiary airflow.
• SR-71, Concorde, F-111 have used this type
of nozzle.

48
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Ejector type nozzles

High Mach Tail flap
Low Mach positions

Secondary air High Mach

Dividing
Low Mach streamlines

Engine core flow

Tertiary air Blow in doors for low Mach

High Mach
Secondary air

Low Mach
Engine core flow

49
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Variable geometry nozzles

• Iris nozzle: uses overlapping, adjustable
petals.
• More complicated than the ejector type
nozzle.
• Offers significantly higher performance.
• Used in advanced military aircraft.
• Some of the modern aircraft also have iris
nozzles that can be deflected to achieve
vectored thrust.

50
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Iris type nozzles

Iris petals for variable geometry

51
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust vectoring
• Directing the thrust in a direction other than that
parallel to the vehicles’ longitudinal axis.
• This allows the aircraft to undergo maneuvers
that conventional control surfaces like ailerons
or flaps cannot provide.
• Used in modern day combat aircraft.
• Provides exceptional agility and
maneuvering capabilities.

52
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust vectoring
• Thrust vectoring was originally developed as a
means for V/STOL (Vertical or Short Take Off
and Landing).
• Thrust vectored aircraft have better climb rates,
besides extreme maneuvers.
• Most of the modern day combat aircraft have
thrust vectoring.
• Some of the latest aircraft also have
axisymmetric nozzle thrust vectoring.

53
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust vectoring
• There are two types of thrust vector
controls:
– Mechanical control
– Fluidic control
• Mechanical control involves deflecting the engine
nozzle and thus physically alter the direction of
thrust.
• Fluidic vectoring involves either injecting fluid
or removing it from the boundary layer of the
primary jet.

54
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust vectoring
• Mechanical vectoring system is heavier and
complex.
• There are two types of mechanical thrust
vectoring
– Internal thrust vectoring
– External thrust vectoring
• Internal thrust vectoring permits only pitch
control.
• External thrust vectoring can be used for pitch
and yaw controls.

55
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Internal thrust vectoring

Flaps for deflection

during thrust vectoring

Flaps deflected during

pitch down

56
Unit 3 AP
External thrust vectoring

Flaps or petals to be appropriately

deployed to effect vectored thrust

57
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust vectoring
• This method has several advantages over the
mechanical control.
• Main challenge lies in ensuring an effective
control with a linear response.
• Other concepts like Shock thrust vector control,
coflow and counter flow thrust vectoring
concepts are also being pursued.

58
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Fluidic thrust vectoring

Secondary flow Shock vector
thrust vectoring
Primary flow

Shock

Secondary flow

Primary flow

Co-flow and counter-flow

thrust vectoring
59
Unit 3 AP
Unit 3 AP 60
Unit 3 AP 61
Unit 3 AP 62
 Lect-29

Thrust reversal
• With increasing size and loads of modern day
aircraft, wheel brakes alone cannot brake and
aircraft.
• Deflecting the exhaust stream to produce a
component of reverse thrust will provide an
additional braking mechanism.
• Most of the designs of thrust reversers have
a discharge angle of about 45o
• Therefore a component of the thrust will now
have a forward direction and therefore
contributes to braking.

63
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust reversal
• There are three types of thrust reversal
mechanisms that are used
– Clamshell type
– External bucket type
– Blocker doors
• Clamshell type: is normally pneumatically
operated system.
• When deployed, doors rotate and deflect the
primary jet through vanes.
• These are normally used in non-
afterburning engines.
64
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust reversal
• Bucket type system uses bucket type doors to
deflect the gas stream.
• In normal operation, the reverser door form
part of the convergent divergent nozzle.
• Blocker doors are normally used in high
bypass turbofans.
• The cold bypass flow is deflected through
cascade vanes to achieve the required flow
deflection.

65
Unit 3 AP
 Lect-29

Thrust reversal

Bucket type thrust reverser

Clamshell type thrust reverser

66
Unit 3 AP
Unit 3 AP 67
Unit 3 AP 68
Unit 3 AP 69
Unit 3 AP 70