SPE 147784

The Contribution Of Synthetic Based, Non-Aqueous, Drilling Fluids To The

Successful Development Of Mangala Field, India's Largest Onshore Oilfield
Graham Sawyer, SPE; Ian Lochhead, SPE; Tim McKenzie, SPE; Peter Peytchev, SPE; and Abhishek Uphadyay,
Cairn Energy India Ltd. David Marshall, SPE; Steve Vickers, SPE; and Balraj Kosandar, Baker Hughes Corp.

Copyright 2011, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition held in Jakarta, Indonesia, 20–22 September 2011.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
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Abstract
The Mangala field was discovered in 2004 in the sparsely populated, remote, undeveloped Thar Desert of NW India. Mangala
is India’s largest onshore producing oilfield and its development was fast-tracked with production start-up in 2009. This paper
describes the process of selection, design, testing, and implementation of specific synthetic-based drilling fluids and their
advantages (technical and economic) over conventional water-based fluids.

The field development plan includes 109 production (11 horizontal) and 53 water-injection wells, all directionally drilled from
wellpads. Newly-designed, mobile drilling rigs predominantly used rotary steerable systems. Synthetic-based fluids were
proved appropriate for drilling all main hole sections with a drill-in fluid system custom-designed for horizontal well sections.
Strict environmental requirements imposed restrictions on fluid choice, type, handling and disposal in this delicate ecosystem.
Over 18 months of continuous drilling, 3 rigs have drilled 130+ wells using and reusing these muds. Rigs are fitted with Hi-G
shakers using selected fine screens to ensure tightly controlled Particle Size Distribution (PSD) and drilling fluids are
constantly monitored for consistent specifications. Advantages delivered by these muds include very low fluid invasion,
excellent return permeability, low filter cake lift-off pressure and high ROPs. This drives drilling performance and has resulted
in worldwide top-quartile benchmark ranking in the industry standard database. Planned casing installations, data acquisition
and hole sections have been successfully delivered in all wells. Horizontal wells, drilled with 8.5” reservoir sections and
completed open-hole with sand screens have delivered record flow rates for onshore India, up to 14,000bopd. The field is
currently on production at 125,000bopd.

These custom-designed synthetic-based drilling fluids have been a major contributor to the successful drilling and completion
program at Mangala. The top-quartile drilling performance has achieved significant cost savings while still delivering highly
productive wells, including the longest, most productive, onshore horizontal wells in India.

Introduction
The Mangala Field is located in the northern Barmer Basin of Rajasthan state, India – see Figure 1. The basin is a Tertiary rift,
predominantly consisting of Palaeocene-Eocene sediments. The Mangala Field was discovered in January 2004 with the N-B-
1 well, which was subsequently renamed as Mangala-1. Mangala was appraised in 2004 with the drilling of 6 more wells, the
acquisition of a 3D seismic survey, and major data gathering efforts involving core analysis, fluids, and well testing.

The Mangala structure is a simple tilted fault block dipping at ~9º to the southeast. The main reservoir unit in the Mangala
Field is the Fatehgarh Group, consisting of interbedded sands and shales. The depth of the Mangala structural crest at the
Fatehgarh level is ~600mSS and the oil-water contact (OWC) is at ~960mSS, resulting in a total oil column of ~360m. The
group has been sub-divided into the Lower Fatehgarh Formation, dominated by well-connected sheetflood and braided channel
sands; and the Upper Fatehgarh Formation, dominated by sinuous, meandering, fluvial channel sands. Five reservoir units are
recognized in the Fatehgarh Formation, named FM1-FM5 from the top downwards. FM1 and FM2 comprise the Upper
Fatehgarh Formation and FM3, FM4 and FM5 form the Lower Fatehgarh Formation. Fatehgarh sand properties are excellent,
with porosities of 21-28% and an overall average permeability of ~5 Darcies.
2 SPE 147784

Mangala reservoir contains waxy sweet crude oil with API gravity ranging from 20ºAPI near the OWC to 28ºAPI or higher in
the oil column (average ~27ºAPI). The crude has an in-situ oil viscosity of 9-22 centipoise (cp), with live oil wax appearance
temperature (WAT) ~6°C lower than the average reservoir temperature of 65°C, and a high pour point of 40-45°C. These
attributes have had a great influence on all aspects of the project and process design.

The Mangala Field Development Plan suggested construction of 18 well pads, each pad capable of holding 24 well heads,
these being a mixture of producers and injectors. Wells would be connected to production and injection wellhead manifolds
respectively. Each well pad production manifold was to be connected to the central facilities by production-gathering lines.
Similarly, the injection manifolds would be connected to a central injection water distribution system. Electric power and high
pressure water would be supplied to each well pad for Electric Submersible Pumps (ESPs) and jet pumps, respectively,
providing flexibility in the selection of an optimum artificial lift method.

To date, 105 production wells have been drilled, with 11 of these being horizontal wells to drain the reserves in the FM3 and
FM4 sand units. The horizontal reservoir sections range from 300 m to 800 m in length. The horizontal wells were designed
for a production rate of 10,000bopd; subsequently the wells have been producing at rates up to 14,000bopd. The completion
design for these horizontal wells used a 300 micron stand-alone sand screen completion, with swell packers, in an 8½” hole.
Inflow control devices were to be installed with the sand screens in 9 of the 11 horizontal wells. The screen completion was to
be hung off in the production casing with a liner hanger and packer system. The 9⅝” production casing would be landed in the
top of the reservoir and the 8½” hole section drilled entirely in the reservoir. A robust design for the screen systems and liner
hanger was used to mitigate any potential hole condition issues.

Approximately 50% of the drilled wells have been completed; typically, the Mangala field produces 125,000bopd which
travels over 670 km down the longest heated pipeline in the world, from the Mangala Process Terminal, Rajasthan, to various
offtake points in Gujarat and finally to Kandla port for export.
 
 
Drilling Fluid Evolution from WBM to SBM
NB-1, the Mangala discovery well re-named Mangala-1, was drilled vertically with a 12¼” x 8½” profile, using a dispersed
water-based mud (WBM) system for the 12¼” section and a 14 wt % KCl/Glycol WBM in the 8½” section. Mud weights were
raised from 9.8 to 11.8 ppg while drilling the 8½” section to mitigate overpull and allow logging. Mangala-1ST followed using
Potassium Chloride (KCL) WBM but after this well, an environmentally-driven decision was made to switch to the use of
potassium sulphate (K2SO4) to provide the potassium ion for shale inhibition. This change of salt avoided the use of chlorides,
which were problematic for disposal, but despite saturating the water phase with K2SO4 to get maximum potassium ion
concentrations, the inhibition provided was significantly less than that delivered by 14 wt % KCl. The next six Mangala
appraisal wells drilled in 2004 used K2SO4 / Polymer WBM to drill below the surface casing. In these wells, mud weights up
to 12.5 ppg were required to prevent bore-hole instability and related problems such as caving and sloughing shales, stuck pipe
and logging tools, and tool loss.

Geomechanical studies indicated that mechanical (stress-induced) wellbore instability problems were due to the natural in-situ
stresses being high, relative to the strength of the rock material. Furthermore, interaction between the water from the drilling
fluid and the formation initiated clay-swelling of various degrees, which added considerably to the stress regime and resulted
in mud weight increases in an attempt to maintain borehole stability.

The requirement to increase mud density, in an attempt to control and maintain wellbore stability, was only partially successful
and resulted in significant non-productive time during the drilling phase. Driven by these limitations, a complete review of the
drilling fluid selection process was conducted, resulting in a Basis of Design for the Mangala Field development, built around
the use of synthetic-based invert emulsion mud (SBM). This approach addressed the environmental acceptability and impact of
using SBM onshore in India. Of particular concern was the type of synthetic oil used to formulate the SBM. Other land drilling
operations known to use SBM in environmentally sensitive areas, such as New Zealand¹ and Canada, were reviewed as part of
this process.

The problems seen when drilling the early wells in the field with water-based mud (borehole instability, high torque and drag,
stuck strings and logging tools) suggested that an SBM would deliver significant improvements in drilling and evaluation
performance, especially as later wells in the field would be more tortuous and/or deviated than the earlier wells. Following the
development of the Basis of Design, water-based mud was replaced with SBM in the bottom two sections of the well. The
uppermost of these two sections was drilled through predominantly shale formations and did not require any additional special
design criteria as the switch from a continuous phase based on water to one based on oil was all that was required to deliver
the anticipated improvements in borehole stability and lubricity. The first synthetic base muds used in Rajasthan were mixed
using linear paraffin base oil. This was later changed to a more readily available and economical blended synthetic paraffin.
SPE 147784 3

This oil is synthesized from natural gas using the Fischer-Tropsch Gas-to-Oil process which produces a complex blend of
linear and branched hydrocarbons which is almost completely free from aromatic content. The oil has a kinematic viscosity of
2.7 mm2/s at 40°C, making it suitable for the mud density range required (typically 10 – 10.5 ppg). Following extensive testing
commissioned with NEERI (The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute), an Indian government funded
research institute, the synthetic paraffin and SBM made using this product was approved for use in India. NEERI’s
conclusions stated that the biodegradability of the synthetic paraffin and SBM prepared from it had a higher biodegradation
potential than that specified in the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) guidelines. To augment
the SBM’s environmental credentials, sodium formate was used to replace the more commonly used calcium chloride as the
brine phase of the invert emulsion, an environmentally driven move similar to changing the WBM salt from potassium
chloride to potassium sulphate.

Performance Improvements from the use of SBM

SBM was first used in Rajasthan in December 2004 to drill the 8 ½” hole section from 3126m to 3739m, TD on well
Raageshwari-5. The section was trouble-free in comparison to the previous 12 ¼” section on this well, drilled with Potassium
Sulphate WBM, where the drill string stuck and a logging run was aborted. Following this, SBM was used to drill below the
surface casing on virtually all wells drilled by Cairn in Rajasthan. WBM was retained for drilling the surface sections to
protect the shallow aquifers, so important to the sustainability and livelihood of the region. The pros and cons of using SBM
vs. WBM were:
Pros:
• Radical reduction in adverse mechanical downhole events such as stuck drill strings and logging tools
• Improved borehole quality, leading to better electronic data acquisition and better cement jobs
• Reduction in mud weights by 1.0 – 1.5 ppg, leading to reduced fluid invasion to the formation and less mud lost due
to the lighter programmed mud weight
• Improved lubricity (friction coefficient is much less than that of a WBM - important in an inclined hole)
• The ability to condition and re-use SBM vs. the continued disposal and replacement of WBM
• Reduced pressure on rig crews who deal with fewer unplanned events
Cons:
• Environment: using SBM onshore presents greater challenges than WBM, but with proper PPE use, handling and
containment, health and safety and waste issues can be managed
• Cost: the high initial cost of SBM can be a factor against selection. However, savings in well construction costs, by
way of increased ROP and reduced NPT, far outweigh the additional costs of using SBM  

Reservoir Flow Assurance

To improve drilling efficiency, there was a switch from water-based mud to an emulsion synthetic-based mud system; this
required careful design, particularly of the fluid used to drill the reservoir sands, in order to ensure that improvements in
drilling performance would not be gained at the expense of productivity. Drilling the reservoir sections of these wells without
causing formation damage was critical to the success of the project and significant efforts were made to ensure that the SBM
used here was fit for purpose and tailored to the specific requirements of the Mangala sands.

While maintaining a focus on the non-damaging properties of the SBM drill-in fluid (SBMDIF) it was still essential to ensure
that the fluid was fit-for-purpose as a drilling fluid. All SBM DIFs need to provide a good rheological profile to ensure
efficient hole cleaning and low gels to reduce flow initiation pressure. In addition to these basic requirements, a number of
desirable features were considered for inclusion in the design of the SBM for use in the Mangala reservoir:

• Rapid development of a low permeability, low spurt loss, external filter cake to seal the reservoir at the borehole wall
and minimise filtrate invasion2,3
• Selection of an emulsion package designed to provide a stable emulsion in the drilling fluid while avoiding significant
wettability changes in the reservoir rock
• A non-chloride internal phase for the emulsion phase of the mud to minimise any problems associated with disposal
of drilling waste on a large project
• Bridging material sized to balance the needs of plugging the formation pore throats and yet avoid problems due to
plugging sand screens
4 SPE 147784

• Exclusion of possible formation-damaging materials such as Gilsonite by substituting a liquid polymer fluid-loss
additive
• Enable well flowback with low drawdown pressures (<200 psi) as the Field Development Plan did not include a
specific clean-up step to remove the filter-cake by chemical or mechanical means

To ensure premium well productivity, a complete and thorough laboratory study was undertaken to ensure that reservoir
drilling fluids used on the Mangala project were compatible with the geology and chemistry of the reservoir. The proposed
completion type and design were taken into consideration when selecting the components of the drilling fluid, especially with
regard to the bridging Particle Size Distribution (PSD). Particles large enough to block the completion screen were to be
avoided in the reservoir drilling fluid, either in its make-up formulation or during the actual drilling phase to avoid subsequent
screen blockages and impaired productivity. The reservoir drilling fluid formulation was engineered to have minimal effect on
formation and completion permeability. Return permeability measurement is required to determine the fluid’s performance
with regard to well productivity and results from such testing provided the key parameters used to qualify the fluid design
prior to its use. The PSD of the solids in the system was measured using a laser particle analyser and this test method was
replicated at the rig-site throughout the drilling phase. This ensured that the bridging efficiency of the fluid was kept at
optimum levels. After completion of drilling, the SBDIF was planned, if necessary, to be conditioned over selected fine shaker
screens. Screened mud was continuously tested using a purpose-built 1 litre capacity Flow Through Test (FTT) apparatus (see
Figure 6), screening the mud through a coupon cut from a sample of the completion screens to be used and timing the flow-
through rate for comparative analysis. When the FTT and laser particle analysis indicated that the active mud system was
optimized to pass through the down-hole screens, the completion assembly was run. These processes ensured that the screens
would arrive in the reservoir with no reduction in their flow capacity.

To reduce damage within the reservoir, the SBM DIF formulation did not use any particulate filtration controllers and relied
on the emulsion to keep fluid loss low by preventing fluid passage through the filter cake. This can have advantages if the fluid
loss additives are proving to affect permeability but care must also be taken with emulsifier strength and concentration. If an
excess of emulsifier is present in an SBM DIF, when it enters the formation in the filtrate it can come into contact with the
connate water in the reservoir. This can result in wettability changes to the reservoir rock and the formation of blocking
emulsions; these are two of the most common damage mechanisms when using SBMs in the reservoir.
 
Bridging was provided using sized calcium carbonate. The required mud densities were too high to exclude barite so the
anticipated filter-cake laid down while drilling was designed as a blend of barite and calcium carbonate, the latter product
constituting 80 ppb in the fully formulated fluid. This concentration was high enough to provide good bridging and a large
enough acid-soluble component in the filter-cake should remedial treatments be required while still being low enough to
prevent problems with screen blockage during production. During laboratory testing, fluids were formulated using only
calcium carbonate for bridging and density but these had undesirable rheological profiles (high plastic viscosity) and the high
solids loading would, in the field, have resulted in high pump pressures which may have reduced the flow rates; this, in turn,
would have had implications for hole-cleaning efficiency.
 
In order to ensure that the SBM DIF selected was fit for purpose, a programme of laboratory testing was executed. This
ensured that specific design criteria for the fluid were developed in advance and that test results obtained confirmed that the
fluids met the key criteria.

The original property specifications for the fluid were:

Density 11.5 ppg

Oil-water ratio 80/20
Yield point ~25
HPHT fluid loss <4.0 ml at 150°F

These were not particularly demanding and were readily met with a fluid based on a synthetic hydrocarbon oil, sodium
formate brine internal phase and blend of barite and calcium carbonate to provide the combination of density and bridging.
Because the permeability of the Mangala reservoir is high, with the maximum permeability estimated at 10 Darcy, effective
bridging and tight fluid loss control were essential. In view of this, further design criteria were applied to the formulation, i.e.

• Initial Spurt Loss < 2 mls and Total Fluid Loss <3 mls/30 mins using Permeability Plugging Apparatus in conjunction
with sized Aloxite discs
• Soluble Bridging/Weighting Solids >35 lbs/bbl
• Bridging solids with PSD matched to pore throat size
• Non-Soluble Drill Solids < 3%
SPE 147784 5

Previous wells drilled in this field with water-based mud had suffered extensively from stuck pipe and stuck logging tools in
these highly permeable formations. Better design in this area was required to avoid the non-productive time associated with
these incidents in deviated development wells. Pore throat size measurements (see Figures 3 and 4) of Mangala had shown that
the dominant pore throat size was approximately 20-30 microns, with the bulk of the pore throats being below 60 microns.
Bridging selection was first calculated using a computer program that can simulate bridging particle behaviour. By entering
the pore throat sizes into the software, a recommendation for the best particle size distribution is made. The Vickers Method4
was used to predict which particle-size distribution would give the most efficient fluid loss control and this was verified by
laboratory testing. Fluid loss testing is routinely carried out using paper filters, but in order to better simulate the downhole
environment, the mud was tested for filtration on aloxite disks with a 60 micron pore throat size. The original fluid design met
the above specifications on both paper filters and aloxite disks.

Samples of Mangala core were obtained to conduct formation-damage testing using a return permeameter (Figure 4) on the
fluid designed. The permeameter is probably the most important tool available when designing and verifying fluid and
component suitability for the reservoir5. A proactive approach is always more efficient in terms of cost, time and productivity
when designing a fluid to be non-damaging in the reservoir; any formulation must be verified as being non-damaging by
conducting a return permeability test. Initially, testing on field mud samples of conventional SBM showed poor return
permeability results, which highlighted the need for a specifically designed fluid. The changes that were suggested by the
laboratory studies were positive in terms of the return permeability and resulted in a final measurement of between 4 and 12%
damage when the two cores were exposed to the SBM DIF in a full test – see Table 1. Despite the high or very high
permeability of the cores, the SBM DIF was able to provide good bridging to minimise damage due to fluid or particulate
invasion on both cores. In general terms, any figure of less than 30% for reduction in permeability in this kind of testing is
acceptable. Further evidence of the effectiveness of the mud system design was provided by the pressures required to initiate
flow during the measurement of permeability in the production direction. This parameter provides a good indication of the
ease with which the filter-cake laid down during drilling can be removed simply by flowing the well. In both tests, flow
through the core was observed with a 1 psi drawdown: an excellent result.
 
Field Results – Horizontal Well Drilling
The horizontal wells had 9⅝” production casing landed in the top of the reservoir. The reservoir sections were drilled with a
rotary steerable system in 8½” hole. In the first two wells, new build SBDIF was used for each reservoir section. This
requirement was subsequently relaxed to drill several reservoir sections with the same mud when wells were batch drilled.

The drill-in fluid was prepared in a centrally located mud plant and delivered to the rig at the required specification. The fluid
was tested initially to confirm it was within specification before drilling the reservoir sections. Additional fluids-monitoring
and management technicians were deployed to the rig for these wells to ensure the fluid could be monitored throughout the
drilling process. As noted previously, shale shaker screens were sized specifically to ensure the PSD was achieved. The rig’s
shaker setup was two primary scalper shakers and two secondary shakers, which were fitted with the finer specific screens.
Initially, the finer secondary shaker screens were targeted at API 200 (d100 of 70µ) but this proved impractical due to screen
overflow; subsequently a combination of API 200, 170 (d100 of 98 µ) and 140 (d100 of 116µ) screens were used. Field laser
particle analysis showed fluid d90 rarely exceeded 90µ and remained mostly in the range of 70 – 80 µ. The aim was to
maintain PSD below 100 microns to ensure the production screens would not be plugged.

The drilling fluids were continuously monitored throughout the drilling process using a portable Laser Particle Analyser, a
Particle Plugging Apparatus (PPA) and aloxite disks, and a Flow-Through Tester using a 300µ sand screen coupon. The target
was to sample the fluid hourly, which was generally achieved throughout. A final mud sample was taken at or near TD to
confirm fluid specifications prior to pulling out of hole. The drilling fluid was kept within specification throughout drilling of
all horizontal wells. This was of great advantage in that it enabled the screens to be run immediately after pulling out of the
hole. Generally, additional fluid conditioning time was not needed as the final fluid specification was successfully maintained
throughout the drilling of the reservoir section.

In order to monitor the bridging ability of the mud on the reservoir face, a permeability plugging apparatus (PPA) was
deployed to the rig-site and regular measurements were taking while drilling in the reservoir. The test is normally conducted in
such a way that spurt loss and 30-minute fluid loss are recorded at reservoir temperature and a pressure of 1000-2000 psi,
measured against an aloxite disk with a permeability index comparable to that of the reservoir being drilled. The spurt loss is
effectively the initial loss of whole drilling fluid prior to the initial bridging of the pore throats. Spurt loss is usually considered
to be a critical parameter, to be maintained at as low a value as possible to prevent formation damage from occurring as a
result of particulate matter entering the pore throats of the reservoir and reducing near-wellbore permeability. During drilling,
the spurt loss was maintained at < 0.5 ml in the above test. This was facilitated by the regular treatment of the circulating mud
system with small quantities of specifically sized calcium carbonate to ensure that the correct particle-size distribution of
solids was being carried in the mud at all times.
6 SPE 147784

The SBM DIF was pre-heated by circulating inside the casing shoe and/or while drilling the shoe track; this was done prior to
drilling into the reservoir section to ensure that cool fluid did not interact with reservoir fluids, which may have resulted in
wax deposition on the sandface. This required the use of a hot-oil heat exchanger at the rig-site to increase the circulating
temperature of the mud until a temperature of ≥ 65°C was reached prior to drilling ahead. The ability to monitor the downhole
circulating temperature in real time via the MWD tool was very useful in this regard; it confirmed that the downhole fluid
temperature was at the reservoir temperature. The combination of the rotary steerable drilling assembly and the drilling fluid
resulted in a very good borehole profile through the reservoir and no problems were encountered when running or installing
the screens.

After the reservoir section was drilled and the sand screens had been installed by the drilling rigs, an upper completion with
4½” production tubing was installed using a completion rig. With the exception of the first horizontal well, Mangala 43, there
was a delay of several months between the suspension of the wells after drilling and the eventual completion and well
flowback. Mangala 43 was flowed back immediately with very good results (initial PI was 80 bbl/d/psi); flow rates in excess
of 11,000bopd were achieved which provided confidence in the drill-in fluid design. This well was drilled and completed with
the drill-in fluid left in the open hole; light weight displacement or remedial treatment fluids were not used on this well.

The SBM DIF formulation shown in Table 1 was used in the reservoir sections of all the horizontal wells in this block. Table 2
shows typical mud properties from four of the wells compared to the values programmed for the field. Rheologically, the mud
system proved relatively easy to maintain with all properties being kept at or close to programmed values. The programme had
called for a very tight control of filtrate fluid loss and typical values were rarely more than 1 ml/30mins outside this range.
Subsequent production figures suggested that these slightly higher values were not detrimental to the reservoir and that the
original specifications were possibly a little aggressive.
 
The use of sodium formate as the internal phase of the mud system did not create any problems or issues. Sodium formate
brine was prepared in the Mud Plant and blended during SBMDIF preparation. Water activity of the SBMDIF was measured
using a hygrometer and sodium formate concentration was interpolated from salt tables. Solids adjustments were made using
the mud company’s proprietary software. Chloride concentrations were monitored and reflected no increases over and above
make-up water chlorides of ~1,000 mg/l, suggesting no chloride pick-up from formation or connate waters.

In all 11 horizontal wells the lower 5½” screen completion (with ICDs and swell packers) was run after drilling to TD. The
screens were set on a liner hanger and a flapper-type fluid loss valve was run below the liner hanger to ensure there was no
overbalance on the sandface while the well was suspended pending completion. A 2⅞” inner washpipe was run to enable the
DIF in the screens to be displaced with a light-weight synthetic based fluid if required, to aid in unloading the well when
brought on to production (Tables 3 & 4).

All 11 horizontal wells were successfully drilled and completed and are on production; nine have achieved satisfactory levels
of productivity and have not required any remedial treatment but two wells have productivity less than expected. The
evaluation of the reasons for the poor performance of these wells is ongoing. Due to various operational constraints, coiled
tubing or PLT access to these wells has not been possible.
   
Discussion on non-horizontal wells
After the successful drilling of the horizontal wells and the ever-present concern of sand production, the application of the
open hole screen completion, which required the reservoir to be drilled with the SBMDIF, was reconsidered for the non-
horizontal production wells. The offtake rate of the field was also increased above the original planned 100,000 bopd so
increasing or removing drawdown limits, imposed by the sand management approach, was important.

This new well design comprised drilling the reservoir section with SBMDIF and installing a lower completion with sand
screens which incorporate a sliding sleeve and swell packers. The sliding sleeve and swell packer combination allowed
discrete production from individual sands within the FM 1 and FM 2 sand units, which was a significant advantage for
reservoir management that was not possible with the original cased and perforated design. The stand alone sand screen was
suitable for sand control in Mangala as the sands are very uniform and have limited amounts of migrational fines.

Due to improvements in drilling performance, this new well type was delivered at a similar construction cost to original well
cost estimates for cased and perforated wells.

These wells were drilled in two formats:

• Light producers - 6” open hole completed with 3 ½” screens and a 3½” tubing upper completion
• Heavy producer - 8½” open hole completed with 4 ½” screens and a 4½” tubing upper completion
SPE 147784 7

All producer wells up to Mangala-53, with the exception of the horizontal wells, (35 wells in total) were cased and perforated
and all subsequent producer wells were screened. All screened wells were drilled using SBMDIF in the intermediate and
production sections.

To date, results of the new format screened wells have been mixed, with some wells performing to expectation while others
have been difficult to clean up and flow back. This may be related to the longer than planned delays of some months in getting
these well online, due to operational constraints. The investigation into the problems with these wells is ongoing and in cases
has required remedial actions, including jetting of screens with coiled tubing; this last action has had some success.

Conclusions
The transition from WBM drilling fluids to Synthetic Based, Non-Aqueous drilling fluids used in Mangala development
drilling and other drilling in greater Rajasthan enabled a step-change in well construction design which allowed clusters of
well to be drilled rapidly from well-pads. The following conclusions can be drawn:

• Lab work done in the initial design stages, comparing the custom-designed fluid with our conventional SBM,
highlighted the superior return permeability attained (90-95% compared to 54%) with the custom designed fluid;

• The systematic development of the custom-designed SBMDIF played a vital role in the drilling and completion of the
wells in the Mangala field. The fluid formulation that was established through lab work and observation of field
performance provided excellent results with respect to drilling and return permeability;

• Custom-designing sized bridging agents with respect to pore throat size and sand screen aperture, the use of properly
sized shaker screens and constant monitoring of PSD, while drilling, mitigated the risks of formation invasion and
sand screen plugging;

• The extremely low spurt loss, ≤ 0.5 mls, achieved by the custom-designed SBMDIF, was instrumental in providing
the excellent return perm results seen in laboratory testing;

• A similar low spurt loss fluid design, used to provide the Low Invasion Coring Fluid for coring in Mangala, and
Cairn’s adjacent fields, Raageshwari and Bhagyam, resulted in extremely low invasion: ~0.5 cm, in 6” diameter
cores. In these fields, the coring fluid was modified by employing the Vickers Method4 bridging agent philosophy; 
 
• Close co-operation between the operator and the fluids provider was required to achieve success.

Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Cairn Energy India Pty Ltd. and Baker Hughes for the permission to publish this paper.
8 SPE 147784

Fig. 1 – Illustrates the position of Cairn’s Rajasthan concession in N. W. India, the concession area in Rajasthan with the
Mangala field inlaid and the Mangala field with development well pads, infield pipelines and the Mangala Process Terminal.

Fig. 2 – Pore throat radii from the FM3 unit of the Mangala reservoir
SPE 147784 9

Fig. 3 – Pore throat radii from the FM1 unit of the Mangala reservoir

Fig. 4 – Return Permeameter used for determining formation damage potential of drill-in fluids

Sample Well Depth Fluid Applied Initial Final Permeability after

(m) Permeability cake removal & spindown
(mD) (mD)
(% change on base perm)
1A Mangala- 1166.17 SBM DIF 1253 1198
7st Followed by (-4.39%)
Drawdown to Dead Crude Oil
1B Mangala- 1171.64 SBM DIF 5681 5026
7st Followed by (-11.5%)
Drawdown to Dead Crude Oil

Table 1. Formation damage test results for the SBM DIF

10 SPE 147784

Well Name Programmed Mangala 43 Mangala 45Z Mangala 46 Mangala 55

PV (cP) 24-27 27 – 29 28 – 29 22 – 26 27 – 30
YP (lb/100ft2) 18-22 16 – 24 18 – 22 16 – 27 19 – 22
6 RPM (dial) 8-10 10 – 13 11 – 12 9 – 15 9 – 12
Gels (10sec/10min)
9-12/14-19 11-13 / 15-19 13-14 / 16-17 9-14 / 11-16 12-13 / 18-20
(lb/100ft2)
ES (v) >400 360 – 560 430 – 550 480 – 580 340 – 480
HPHT Fluid Loss
< 3.0 mls 2.2 – 2.8 1.8 – 2.6 2 – 2.9 2.6 – 3.6
(ml/30min)

Table 2. Programmed vs. typical mud properties for the SBM DIF

Fig. 5 – Flow Through Tester assembly

Light Weight Synthetic Based Fluid Formulation.    Conc.    
Base Oil  lb/bbl  208 
Emulsifier  lb/bbl  8 
Water  lb/bbl  67 
Sodium Formate  lb/bbl  21 
Organophilic Clay  lb/bbl  11 
Properties @150°F   Unit    
600 rpm     51 
300 rpm     38 
200 rpm     33 
100 rpm     27 
6 rpm     16 
3 rpm     16 
Gels 10 second     18 
Gels 10 minute     35 
Apparent Viscosity  cP  25 
Plastic Viscosity   cP  13 
Yield Point  lb/100ft²  25 
Density  ppg  7.2 

Table 3. Light Weight Synthetic Based Mud Formulation and Properties

SPE 147784 11

Well Name  PI   Pay (m)  Completion 

Bbl/day/psi 
M‐43   FM3  68  333  Screens only 
M‐45z FM4  28  482  Screens only 
M‐46   FM3  120  508  ICD and screens 
M‐55 FM3  78  406  ICD and screens 
M‐56 FM4  57  689  ICD and screens 
M‐57 FM3  150  628  ICD and screens 
M‐68 FM3  230  616  ICD and screens 
M‐70 FM4  30  671  ICD and screens 
M‐65 FM3  90  577  ICD and screens 
M‐91 FM3  27  518  ICD and screens 
M‐93 FM4  6  695  ICD and screens 

Table 4. Horizontal Wells Productivity

Table 5. Field PSD /PPA/FTT testing Summary

12 SPE 147784

Issue  Risk  Mitigation

Unable to flow back filter  None or very low production  Select SBM emulsifiers which form filter cakes with   low lift‐off pressure.
cake – no lift‐ off formation  Test Fluid with core plugs for FC lift off & return   permeability.  
 Possible use of Low Solids, Low Gels, Brine Weighted Synthetic Based Fluid 
QC at well‐site.  
Remedial fluid and procedures to be designed to wash/dissolve filter cake 
Equipment available to do work as contingency in field e.g. CT 
Remedial CT Sandvac operations 
Filter cake material plugs  None or very low production  Condition mud over correctly sized shaker screens while drilling and prior to 
screens  running screens. 
Flow‐back testing through screen sample periodically, using SBMDIF samples from 
the flow‐line.  
 QA/QC on site. 
Laser Particle Analyzer on site for PSD analysis 
Poor hole Cleaning, both in  Problems running screens.  Good fluid rheological properties LoViscosity / HiWeight tandem pills for hole 
open hole and in casing.  cleaning if required. 
Frequent Short trips to clear cuttings beds. 
Control drilling to minimize cuttings and drill solids. 
Use of Synthetic Based Muds to avoid hole enlargement which leads to reduced 
annular velocities and poor hole cleaning.   
Well‐bore stability  Hole collapse, problems running  Mud weights?
screens.  Detailed review of the stability data 
Continue to update stability model as drilling development 
Design fluid and flow back for higher than optimum mud weight 
Stuck Pipe    Use lubricious Synthetic Based Muds. 
Rotary Steerable Tools to preclude cuttings beds build‐up. 
Problems running screens  Damage to screens  Smooth wellbore profile
Unable to get to bottom  Lubricity control on mud 
Rotary steerable tools used 
Low dogleg severity <5 deg/30 
Use a robust screen design 

Table 6- DIF Associated Issues, Risks and Mitigation

Nomenclature;
bopd = Barrels of Oil Per Day
CT = Coiled Tubing
ESP = Electric Submersible Pump
FTT = Flow Through Tester
HTHP = High Temperature High pressure
ICD = Inflow Control Device
mD = Millidarcy
m = Metre
MWD = Measurement While Drilling
NPT = Non Productive Time
PI = Productivity Index
PPA = Particle Plugging Apparatus
PSD = Particle Size Distribution
PSI = Pounds per Square Inch
SBMDIF = Synthetic Based Mud Drill-In-Fluid
SBM = Synthetic Based Mud
TD = Total Depth
WBM = Water Based Mud

References

1 Karen McCosh, Jonathan Getliff. Drilling Fluids Chemicals and Earthworm Toxicity, IPEC Conference 2003
2 Glenn E.E and Slusser M.L. Factors affecting well productivity. 1957 AIME 210
3 Kruegger R. F. An overview of formation damage and well productivity in Oilfield Operations. (1986) AIME 281
4 T.Jones, S.Vickers, M.Cowie and Alan Tywnam BP. A new methodology that surpasses current bridging theories to
efficiently seal a varied pore throat distribution as found in natural reservoir formations. Houston Texas 2006 AADE 06
DF HO 16
5 Van der Zwaag C.H., Benchmarking the Formation Damage of Drilling Fluids (2004) SPE 86544