SCADA

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Unit 1 · Telemetry & SCAD A Systems : 2
Unit2 Instrumentation & SCADA : '. 24
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Unit 3 Maintenance and Condition Monitoring of T & I Equipments & SCADA
........... : · ·., 88
r Unit4. Control Room Layout : . . 99

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Unit 5 SCAD A in O i l & Gas P i p e l i n e s · 115
Unit6 Leak Detection through SCADA : : . . : 127
Unit 7 PLC Basic 134
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Unit 8 Basic PLC Programming 157
Unit 9 PLC startup a n d maintenance .: _. 188
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U N I T 1 : TELEMETRY & SCADA SYSTEMS J
. Introduction to T e l e m e t ry
Telemetry is the mechanism by which information is interchanged w i t h . remotely
separated locations for the purpose of monitoring and/or control. Telemetry ranges in
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complexity from systems with a couple of 1/0 to complicated controlling systems of
pipelines embracing more thousand technological units.

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The key components in many telemetry systems are the RTU (Remote Terminal Unit),
communication protocol, physical communication network, SCADA system (Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition). J
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The key components are as follows:
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The RTU is the· remote device responsible for acquiring the "real" information, typically
from field devices. It queries the data from the field devices and typically formats data
according to requirements of communication protocol, · puts data ' forward · to
communication network.
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The RTU may acquire their information through electrical s i g n a l s connected to the RTU
or from other intelligent devices via a serial data connection. RTUs may also perform
local control functions. The RTU functions are often fulfilled by a Programmable Logical J
Units (PLC).
•:• The communication protocol
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The communication protocol is the l a n g u a g e used in the transmitting and receiving of _J
data messages on the physical network. A protocol can describe who sent the
message, which it is going to, the meaning of the data in the message, verification
information to ensure the complete message arrives a n d that it is error free. Both the
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transmitter and receiver of the data message must use the same protocol in order that
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both understand the data message. - _J
•:• The communication network
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It provides the physical means for the transfer of information (message data) from an
RTU to a SCADA system, from an RTU to another RTU, and in some architectures
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between multiple SCADA systems. Choice of communication network is critical to the
operation of a telemetry system and can be a costly aspect of a telemetry system.

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•!• The SCADA system
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_ The SCADA system is comprised of one or more computers, providing an - interface to
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I the physical communication network (and hence to the RTUs), and an operator
i n t e rf a c e to the data obtained from RTUs. This data may be rebuilt, stored for later
retrieval, analyzed and transferred to other computer systems. A "S CA D A system often
r · provides a control interface for sending data to RTUs. This can happen by operator
commands .a n d automatic sequences based on RTU data can release commands too.
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Commands can be received from other computer systems (eg. leak detection at oil
pipeline for automatic shutdown pipeline gate valves.)
Communication Technologies
As with most technology, available communication technologies are evolving. The
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technologies used in telemetry ate often different than in other communication
disciplines such as computer n e tw o r k s , although .there is some overlapping with other
computer systems. Hardware needs to be flexible enough -to the eventual common use
of various communication techniques. (Cable connection, radio channels, optical
cables, phone lines etc). So much the more as in case of systems with increased safety
a reserve channel is a need which p o s s i b fy requires another kind of medium. ·
r In practice the following tools have been applied:
•!• Radio
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While initial equipment and installation costs can be higher t h a ri in other technologies,
the on-going running costs of a radio system are very economical independently from
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the number of RTUs applied. Expansion does not represent any problem either. Also -
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conventional radios based on U H F or VHF can also be used, f u rt h e r m o r e data-radios
r enabling s p e ci a l m u l t i p o rt structure, or conjugated.
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•!• Landline
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L a ri d l i n e communications were once the dominant communication medium .used in
telemetry. While radio t e l e m e t ry has significantly gained in popularity and reliability,
landline systems continue to be used in various renewed forms. The leased lines are
mostly used. Their recurrent costs can be very Care should be taken in assessing
landline o p ti o ns e . g . a point - to - point line with conventional modem s is not suitable for
multi drop telemet ry applications.
Furt h e rmore some digital data se rv ices are M aster / Slave and not suitable for more
co mp lex c o m munication arrangements. O ften sub je ct to f ailure due to l ightning.
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; Exp ans io n is not always possible cheaply. S a t ndard dialup modem technolog y is
ge nerall y ina p propriate in telemet ry systems because of long connection time s. I n
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sy s tems wi th sho rt er communication distances building R S485/ R S422 line s - is also
' po ssi b le . Li nes ca n be or g anized in m aster / sla v e or p eer peer configurations with half
and full duplex arrangements.
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•!• Miscellaneous
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Optic fiber technique g a i n s more and more ground in the future and even nowadays.
Very high data rates are achievable, even Ethernet networks can be established.
Ethernet networks enable connecting fast and high performance devices, comprises the J
use of more advanced communication technologies. ·
·These can be networked via bridges to wide area networks but can be. This is a
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standards based communication rnedia where compatibility is assured. At protocol level
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theTCP/IP (eg. Modbus/lP) is most widely spread, enables communicatio,n between

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· different vendor brands both of the physical a n d l i n k level.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n Techniques
There are as many communication techniques as there are different communication
media technologies, each optimized or using clever ways of improving bandwidth, or

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decreasing cost per connection. Regardless of the communication techniques used, it is
a fundamental requirement for different devices on a common communication channel
to be u n i q u e l y identified. This usually takes the form of a device address u n i q u e to that
device an d not used by any other device on the same c h a n n e l .

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Using communication medium already in use for some years, most telemetry
communication networks will support fairly low bandwidth data only. Larger a m o u n t of
data can only be transferred via most up-to date channels. (eg. Ethernet)
•!• Master/Slave C o m m u n i c a t i o n
This is the simplest but also least flexible of the telemetry communication techniques,
despite of this the mostly used one. It assumes centralized communication control,
usually performed by a SCADA system. The centralized controller is responsible for
requesting al l data and interpreting responses from remote devices.
The most common Master-Slave systems permit. o n l y · one remote device to
communicate at a time and only after a master station has requested the data. This
method provides very low bandwidth effectivity. The Master-Slave data gathering
activities commonly use sequencing based on a polling arrangement. While aliowing
priorities to be assigned to gather data more quickly from some sites, or s e n di ng data to
sites, Master -slave communications usually results in inefficient use of communication
bandwidth . .
Expansion of an installed master-slave system directly impacts on update rates or
requires installation of additional communication ch an n e l s . Some communication
medium technologies can only be used with this type of communication technique.
•!• Peer-to-Peer Communication
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Peer-to-pee.r communication varies from the Master-Slave technique by allowing all
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There is not a centralized communication controller; instead each remote node on the
network must perform its own communication control.
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.Exarnples of this in the computer networking field are Ethernet or Token Ring networks.
While no centralized communication controller is required, it is very common to have a

r SCADA system receiving a majority of the network data. Data update rates from remote
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devices are much improved over the Master-Sfave case for s i m i l a r sized networks a n d
communication efficiency is much higher. Importantly: telemetry, peer-topeer · ·
architectures provide the possibility for remotes. to exchange data independently from a
SCADA system or central controller. This provides enhanced reliability particularly for
distributed controt systems.
Expansion of peer-lo-peer networks by the connection o f . additional nodes can have
m i n i m a l impact on communication performance.
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Note that not all communication medium technologies s u p p o rt peer-to-peer
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communication architectures.
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•!• E n h a n c i n g Reliability in C o m m u n i c a t i o n s
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Some telemetry systems require very high communications reliability. T h i s is achieved
to varying extents by duplication of critical equipments ( e . q . hot standby radio repeater
systems). D u a l communication channel systems are sometimes arranged in a primary
l i n k and backup l i n k arrangements.
D e p e n d i n g on the use of Master-Slave or Peer-to-Peer techniques, control of switching

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' from primary to backup l i n k s may be handled at SCADA system or RTU level. It is not
uncommon to use different communication medium to primary-backup l i n k s .
· . The use of Peer-to-Peer techniques opens the way for networking of telemetry systems.
I n its simplest form, communication between two nodes on a single network relies on a .
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pair of device addresses: the source and the destination. ·
More complex communications are possible when more networks are connected, even
t h o u g h a differing communication media where routers, gateways, bridges are needed.
Issues of unique device addressing across networks then need to be carefully

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t examined. Combinations of linked local area telemetry networks can become part of a
wide area telemetry network and provide scenarios where multiple master stations can
be connected on a wide area network, where RTUs can exchange information for
control purposes even though they are not on the same communication c h a n n e l . ·
It should not be understated that the facilities which result from Peer-to-Peer
communications and telemetry networking .are providing major operational and asset
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management advantages to Industry, The most network telemetry networks uses
TCP/IP protocols that have the advantage of operating with e q u i p m e n t from various
vendors and provide an overlap with computer network technology. This can be
advantageous for _it is not necessary to build an entirely independent system at SCADA
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system level but networks and PCs already in use can also be applied.
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Data Gathering Techniques
•:• Polling Techniques J
The most common data gathering technique is polling. In its simplest form, a single ' )
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master Station sequentially requests data from each of the remote stations. While
simple, able to operate on virtually all physical communication media. Polling often
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results in wasted communication bandwidth, it is slow, with the system expansion data ....J
request period can be significantly longer.
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· •:• Polled Report By Exception Techniques
It's a little bit m o r e c o m p l e x while m a i n t a i n i n g most of the characteristics of p o l l i n g , the
master · spend most of its time requesting event changes from the remotes; If no
changes have occurred, then there will be no event data to return to the master. This is
a much more efficient data gathering technique for remotes which have large amounts J
of data which varies infrequently.
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The applied communication protocol s u p p o rt s . this solution; SCADA as well as RTU
understand the notions 'events' and static 'data'. Events are often time tagged at the ·
time of their occurrence. This can significantly improve the interpretation of data and J
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i events received at a SCADA system. I n case of standard p o l l i n g the time of occurrence
. of an event is inaccurate by as much as the polling cycle time.
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•!• Unsolicited Report By Exception Techniques
I Unsolicited reporting is becoming an important technique in telemetry architectures. The
, key difference in this architecture is the ability for a remote station to initiate a
communication without first being requested to do so as in the polling architectures

r described above. Telemetry systems operating in this m a n n e r make very efficient use of
available bandwidth, as the majority of data on the physical communication c h a n n e l is

r� sent by the remote only when it determines it is required. Continuous data request
process remains only at the extent that background polls verify a central station's data is
u p to date and checks the health of remote devices.

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•!• Quiescent Techniques
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S i m i l a r · to unsolicited report - by exception, the most bandwidth efficient technique is
quiescent operation. All communication is unsolicited report by exception and the
r receiver always - acknowledges reception · of transmitted messages. The only
disadvantages in using this type of network are that a central site does not regularly
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check on the state of devices and it may take an extended period to reliably detect the
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failure of a remote device.
r Automation
Automation is the use of control systems such as computers _ to control industrial

r ( machinery and processes, reducing the need for human intervention. An automation
system s h o u l d be:
•!• H i g h reliability and availability.

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•!• Fast troubleshooting.
•!• Easily configurable.
I •!• Process optimization.
•!• Asset optimization .
•!• Flexibility.
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•!• · Able to take each & every decision with minimum assistance from human
intervention.
The famous pyramid of Automation: this p y r a m i d · displays the hierarchy of the

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automation technology and components that makes any system automatic.
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Enterprise
Manufacturing Execution
Supervision (SCADA)
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Group cemrer
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Individual Control
Field
Primary lechnology
B u i l d i n g blocks of Automation
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A modern automated industry implements following functionalities in an integrated

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environment so as to benefit from automation technologies.
•!• Sensors and actuators J

•!• Analog and digital 1/0 modules
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•!• D O C direct digital control

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•!• PLC being replaced by PACs
•!• DCS distributed control systems

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•!• SCADA supervisory control and data acquisition �
•!• MES manufacturing execution system
•!• ERP enterprise resource p l a n n i n g

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Telemetry a n d Control
Local controls often performed with PLCs ( e . g . on site PLC automation) then connected
to telemetry RTUs or adjoin them into telemetry systems directly. The difference
between PLCs a n d RTUs will soon disappear namely not for the reason PLCs are more J
and more similar to RTUs but the possibilities of RTUs are increased by the fact that
they become more and more capable to control tasks, that is they function also like
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PL Cs.
Very interesting and promising topic is the appearance of IEC 1131 protocols, for it J
makes unification of controlling regardless. of RTU vs PLC . .
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P i p e l i n e Scada Systems
Pipeline SCADA systems cover a broad range from small to h u g e , relatively simple to
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very complex, a n d important to extremely critical for both financial and safety reasons. It
is imperative that p i p e l i n e SCADA support personnel understand the underlying p i p e l i n e
assets and the level of performance required to ensure that an appropriate and
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adequate system is in place and maintained properly for the task at h a n d .
SCADA Basics
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Pipeline companies use SCADA systems to allow their pipeline controllers, in a
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centralized control room, to efficiently and effectively monitor and control pipeline
operations in real time. Data is collected from field instrumentation by remote terminal
units (RTUs), flow computers, and/or programmable logic controllers (PLCs) which then
relay the information to the SCADA master station via the field communication network.
· The SCADA master station performs any required data conversions, intermediate
calculations, checks for u n u s u a l conditions which s h o u l d be broughtto the .attentlon of a
pipeline controller, and stores data for viewing, long-term archiving, a nd for use by
advanced applications. Pipeline controllers interface with the SCADA master station
through the graphical . user interface (GUI) which allows them to view current or
historical data, alarm messages, and issue controls to field e quipme nt
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A sm al l SCADA system may be comprised of a s i n g l e master station computer, which
I also supports the G U I , tohandle a few hundred points in a non-critical environment. A

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large SCADA system may be comprised of triple-redundant. sets of servers, in a
distributed configuration, spread out over multiple qeoqraphlc locations a l on g with

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l numerous multi-headed GUI workstations for controllers, s u p p o rt staff, and
management. Factors such as point count, data acquisition rates, and availability (up
r time) requirements determine the size, complexity, a nd redundancy of the system.

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The multi-disciplinary nature of a pipeline SCADA system, comprised of
instrumentation, pipeline h ydra ul i c behavior, field e q u i p m e n t with imbedded firmware,
various methods of communication, master station hardware/software, databases, local
area networks· (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), high-reliability systems, high
! performance systems, and high-level of security for a l l of it, will be quite apparent as we
become aware of the many different components required to provide all necessary
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. T h i s aspect probably presents the s i n g l e greatest c h a l l e n g e to i n i t i a l l y preparing p i p e l i n e
SCADA support staff for the task at h a n d , and keeping them adequately trained as the
underlying technologies evolve at an ever-increasing rate. · ·
The newest area of increasing concern is cyber-security. All other forms of attack.
against pipeline infrastructure require physical proximity to the pipeline assets, but
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cyber-attacks against the SCADA system can be conducted from anywhere in the world
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via the Internet unless the pipeline company exclusively uses its own, completely
isolated, network - which is typically not feasible.

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SCAD A a n d DCS
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People new to the industry often use the terms SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition) and DCS (distributed control system) interchangeably. Although there is no
sharp line separating these two categories of control systems, and specific
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implementations often have characteristics of each, it is useful to distinguish between
them because of t h e i r unique strengths and weaknesses.
The most significant factor d i ff e r e n t i a t i n g pipeline SCADA systems from DCS today is ·
the "human in the loop". Traditional differences inelude SCADA's better tolerance of
communication and disallowance of multi-site control algorithms because of the

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potential for critical loss of long-line communications. DCS systems s u p p o rt e d plant
wide control algorithms because communications were expected to be much more
reliable than in pipeline SCADA environments.

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Today's environment includes greater overlap in SCADA and DCS functionality from a
· fundamental technical viewpoint. However, the application of these systems is still
influenced by better plant-wide control algorithms in DCS systems and availability of
pipeline applications in familiar pipeline SCADA systems. · J
Pipeline SCADA systems· assume that the pipeline controller will initiate most or all
control actions except for station safety logic, and will respond promptly and properly to
reported alarm conditions. The DCS issues controls automatically based on
instrumentation data and pre-programmed responses. Table 1 lists some of the major
characteristics typical of each type of system.
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Geographic span Large - cross country Small - single pump station
Point Count . . Large ·Small
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Moderate ...:.. seconds to Very fast - milliseconds to
Data Acquisition Rates
minutes seconds
Data Acquisition Slow with moderate error
Fast with low error rate

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Network rate
Graphic User. Interface
GUI
Full featured Basic·
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Alarming Subsystem Full featured Basic
Control Actions Human initiated Programmatically initiated

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Major components
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The major components of a typical pipeline SCAD A system include:
•!• Field instrumentation - connects the SCADA system to the pipellne measurement
and monitoring instruments;
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•!• RTUs, flow computers, and/or PLCs - convert analog data to digital format;
r consolidate data from field instruments, and present data to the master station when
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requested. ·
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•!• Communication network to acquire field data - provides· the data path between the
master station and RTUs/PLCs. This is usually comprised of some combination of
satellite, frame relay, corporate data network, leased telephone circuits, radio, and
dial-up telephone lines. Critical installations will typically have redundant
communication methods and paths to acquire field data. '

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•!• Master station, i n c l u d i n g :
� GUI - presents data to pipeline controllers and accepts commands to issue
controls t o f i e l d equipment (start/stop, open/close, etc.).
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� Display editor - creates/alters graphical and tabular displays used by controllers
to monitor and control the pipeline. · ·
� Database - stores configuration parameters, field data, calculated data, such as:
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a) Analog - continuously variable measurements such as temperature and
pressures
b) Discrete - specific states such as valve open/shut and pump on/off
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{ c) Meter - measure of product passing through a meter
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d) Digital output - control of valves, p u m p s , etc.
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e) Analog output - continuously variable control of pressures, rates, etc.
f) Event message - long-term archive o f . event messages issued by the system
whenever s.ignificant events occur such as alarms, acknowledgements, controls,
and user logins/logoffs.
� Supervisory control - issuance of controls from the. master station to the

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RTUs/PLCs via specific message protocols supported by the system.
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( , � Data acquisition - handles the transfer of data from the RTUs/PLCs to the
master station via specific message protocols supported by the system.
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� Data processinq ....:: converts data provided by RTUs/PLCs to the format required
at the master station, checks for abnormal conditions, and issues alarm
messages for p i p e l i n e controller notification.
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� Alarm processing - maintains the list of alarm messages currently outstanding J

with an indication of controller acknowledgement and alarm priority.
� Report processing - outputs periodic reports of data collected a n d processed by

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the SCADA system.
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� Security -. ensures that only authorized users are allowed access to the system
and that authorized users can only monitor and control items for which
permission has been granted. Also prevents outsiders from interfering with the J
normal and proper operation of the system. -
� Historical I trending - maintains a separate database for long-term storage of
field and calculated data for reporting and analysis.
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� Redundancy - the general rule is that there should be no s i n g l e point of failure
that will cause any critical functionality of the system to be unavailable. Critical
SCADA systems typically use double or triple redundant components. Triple J

redundancy allows for m a i n t a i n i n g a double redundant system even during times
of periodic maintenance;
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� System · configuration - SCADA system configuration information used to
customize the standard SCADA system functionality an d capabilities to fit the
needs of a particular installation.
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Care and Feeding
Although most pipeline SCADA systems · are very · robust, they do have their
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vulnerabilities. The following items are very important to ensure reliable SCADA
performance: .
•!• Protect and periodically validate the integrity of the configuration parameters in t h e ·
database, such as alarm limits and deactivated points, via well-defined change
management procedures.
•!• Implement hardware, software, an d procedures to keep the system secure from
unauthorized access or interference by people or systems internal a n d external to
the company.
•!•. Ensure al l parts of the system have adequate computing and network resources to ·
h a n d l e normal, peak, and abnormal conditions with an appropriate a m o u n t of spare

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capacity remaining.
•!• Periodically audit the SCADA system to ensure error logs reflect a well-functioning J
system, and that computing and network resources remain a d e q u a t e . '
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Life Cycle
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The life cycle of a . pipeline SCADA system varies considerably among pipeline
r companies, ranging from three years to fifteen years, or more. At the low end of the
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range, users typically perform more modest hardware upgrades and software
enhancements on a relatively frequent basis to meet the demands imposed by c h a n g i n g
r system size or requirements, while the h i g h end typically involves fairly static operations
where changes are only implemented when absolutely necessary.
r The cycle typically i n c l u d e s the following phases:
•!• Determine need for the upgrade I replacement
•!• Performance no longer adequate
•!• No room for a d d i t i o n a l data points
•!• Difficult or expensive to export data
•!• Difficult or expensive to i m p l e m e n t a new high-level application
•!• Hardware u n r e l i a b l e or too expensive to maintain
•!• SCADA software no longer supported
•!• Need new SCADA system capabilities.
•!• Specify upgrade/replacement requirements
•!• Select vendor to perform upgrade/replacement
•!• Vendor develops system
•!• New system factory testing
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•!• Install new system
•!• Train company personnel on new system
•!• New system field testing
•!• Cut-over operations to new system
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•!• R u n n i n g on new system.
r Advanced applications ·
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Many users of p i p e l i n e SCADA systems choose to enhance the basic monitoring and J
· control capabilities of their SCAOA system by adding related advanced applications.
Typical advanced applications used with p i p e l i n e SCADA systems i n c l u d e :

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•!• Pipeline model I simulation - used to better understand actual hydraulic behavior
of the p i p e l i n e .
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•!• Controller training system . - provides hands-on controller training without
involving the operating pipeline.
•!• Computational pipeline monitoring (CPM) - refers. to software-based leak
detection. There are several methods available which can be used to identify the
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presence of a leak, its location, and often an estimate of lost product.
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•!• Batch tracking and scheduling - monitors batch location, calculates estimated
time of arrival (ET A), and prints batch tickets. ·

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•!• Power optimization - determines optimal pump or compressor usage to m i n i m i z e
power costs for a stated throughput.

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•!• Open path analysis - ensures product path is not blocked by a closed valve
before starting p u m p s a n d h e l p s p r e v e n t product contamination. J
•!• Historical playback- provides for viewing G U I displays presenting historical data
rather-than real-time data for analysis.

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•!• Intelligent alarm processor - helps identify the root cause of an upset rather than
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merely reporting a l l of the symptoms.
•!• Gas load forecaster - uses weather forecast and historical usage data to J
estimate the expected gas load for a given period of time.
SCADA Architecture
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SCADA systems have evolved in parallelwith the growth and sophistication of modern
computing technology. The following sections will provide a description of the followinq
three generations of SCADA systems
First Generation - Monolithic
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Second Generation - Distributed

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•!• Third Generation - Networked
M o n o l i t h i c SCADA Systems
•!• When SGADA systems were first developed, the concept of computing in general
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each centralized system stood alone. As a result, SCADA systems were
standalone systems with virtually no connectivity to other systems.
•!• The Wide Area Networks (WANs) that were implemented to communicate with
remote terminal units (RTUs) were designed with a s i n g l e purpose in mind-that of
communicating with RTUs in the field and nothing else.
First Generation SCADA Architecture Hardware Architecture
SCADA Master
ide Area Network
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Distributed SCADA Systems
•!• The next generation of SCAQA systems took advantage of developments and
improvement in system miniaturization and Local Area Networking (LAN)
technology to distribute the processing across multiple systems.
•!• Multiple stations, each with a specific function, were connected to a LAN and
shared information with each other in real-time. These stations were typically of
the mini-computer class, s m a l l e r and less expensive than t h e i r first generation
processors.
15 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

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•:• Some of these distributed stations served as communications processors, J
primarily communicating with field devices such as RTUs.
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Communications
Server
Operating J
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Wide Area Network (WAN) j
Operating Operating
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Remote
Local Area Network Terminal Unit

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(LAN)
Networked SCADA Systems J
•:• The current generation of SCADA master station architecture is closely related to
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that of the second generation, with the primary difference being that of open ·
system architecture rather than a vendor controlled, proprietary environment.
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•:• There are still multiple networked systems, sharing master station functions.
There are still RTUs utilizing protocols that are vendor-proprietary.

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•:• The major improvement in the third generation is that of o pe n ing the system
architecture, utilizing open standards and 1 3 protocols a n d making it possible to

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distribute SCADA functionality across a WAN and not just a LAN.
•:• The utilization of off-the-shelf systems makes it easier for the user to connect
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third party peripheral devices (such as monitors, printers, disk drives, tape drives,
etc.) to the system and/or the network.

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Third Generation SCADA Architecture
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One distinguishes two basic layers in a SCADA system: the ''client layer" which caters
for the man machine interaction and the "data server Iayer" which h a n d l e s · most of the
process data control activities. ·
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The data servers communicate with devices in the field through process controllers.
Process controllers, e.g. RTUs, are connected to the data servers through telecom
network (OFC/ Microwave I Leased line I VSAT).
Data servers are connected to each. other a n d · to client stations via· an Ethernet LA N .
The data servers and client stations are Unix platforms but for many products the client
stations may also be in Windows platform.
In the subsequent sections, details of SCADA system are described in respect of
following aspects: .
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•!• Architecture
•!• Interfacing
•!• Functionality
•!• Potential benefits

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Typical Hardware Architecture

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Software Architecture J
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The products are multi-tasking an d are based upon a real-time database (RTDB)
· located in one or more servers. Servers are responsible for data acquisition an d J
h a n d l i n g ( e . q . p o l l i n g controllers, alarm checking, calculations, logging and archiving) on
a set of parameters, typically those they are connected to. '
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Generic .Software Architecture
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However, it is possible to have dedicated servers for p a rt i c u l a r tasks, e . g . historian, data
logger, alarm handler. Fig. above shows a SCADA architecture that is generic for the
products that were evaluated.
Communications
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Internal C o m m u n i c a t i o n .
Server-client and server-server communication is in general on a publish-subscribe and
event-driven basis and uses a TCP/IP protocol, i . e . , a client application subscribes to a
parameter which is owned by a particular server application and only changes to that
parameter are then communicated to the client application.
Access to Devices
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The data servers poll the RTUs at a user defined polling rate. The p o l l i n g . rate may be J
different for different parameters. The RTUs pass the requested parameters to the data
servers. Time stamping of the process parameters is typically performed in the RTUs
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and this time-stamp is taken over by the data server. If the RTU and communication
protocol used support unsolicited data transfer then the products will s u p p o rt this too.
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The products provide communication drivers for most of the RTUs and widely used are
IEC and DNP Protocol. In GAS PIPELINE OPERATOR Foxboro SCADA software
works in D N P 3 protocol. J
A single data server can support multiple communications protocols:

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Interfacing
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Application Interfaces I Openness
The products provide

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A. An Open · Data Base Connectivity (ODBCl interface · to the data in the

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archive/logs, but not to the configuration database,
B. An ASCII import/export facility for configuration data, J
. C. A library of A P l s s u p p o rt i n g C, C++, to access data in the RTDB, logs and

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archive. The A P I often does not provide access to the product's internal features
such as alarm h a n d l i n g , reporting, trending, etc.
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Database
The configuration data are stored in a database that is logically centralized but
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physically distributed and that is generally of a proprietary format.
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For performance reasons, the RTDB resides in the memory of the servers a n d is also of
proprietary format. .
The archive and l o g g i n g format is u s u a l l y also proprietary for performance reasons, but J
some products do s u p p o rt logging to a Relational Data Base Management System
( R D B M S ) for e . g . ORACLE at a slower rate either directly or via an O D B C interface. l

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· Functionality
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Access Control
Users are allocated to groups, which have defined read/write. access privileges to the
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process parameters in the system and often also to specific product.functionallty.
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The products support multiple screens, which can contain combinations of synoptic
r: diagrams and text.

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They also s u p p o rt the concept of a "generic" graphical object with l i n k s to process

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variables. These objects can be "dragged a n d dropped" from a library and included into
a synoptic diagram. ,
Most of the SCADA products that were evaluated decompose the process in "atomic"
parameters (e.g. a power supply current, its maximum value, its on/off status, etc.) to
which a Tag-name is associated. The Tag-names used to link graphical objects to
devices can be .edited as required. It includes a library of standard graphical symbols,
m a n y of which would however not be applicable to the type of applications encountered

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I in the experimental physics community.
i . T r e n d i n g
The products all provide trending facilities and one can s u mmari ze the common
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capabilities as follows:
•:• The parameters to be trended in a specific chart can be predefined or defined on
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•:• Real-time and historical trending are possible, although generally not in the same
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chart
•:• Historical trending is possible for an y archived parameter
•:• Zooming and scrolling functions are provided
•:• Parameter values at the cursor position can be displayed
Alarm H a n d l i n g
Alarm h a n d l i n g is based on l i m i t and status checking and performed in the data servers.
r More complicated expressions (using· arithmetic or logical expressions)· can be

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developed by creating derived parameters on which status or limit .checking is then
performed. The alarms are logically handled centrally, i . e . , the information only exists in
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( one place and al l users see the same status ( e . g . , the acknowledgement), and m u l t i p l e
alarm priority levels (in general many more than 3 such levels) are supported.
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I t . is generally possible to group alarms and to handle these as an entity (typically
filtering on group or acknowledgement of all alarms in a group). Furthermore, it is
i possible to suppress alarms either individually or as a complete group. The filtering of
alarms seen on the alarm page orwhen viewing the alarm log is also possible at least

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on priority, time and group. However, relationships between alarms cannot generally b e · J
· defined in a straightforward manner. ·
L o g g i n g I Archiving
The terms logging and archiving are often used to describe the same facility. However,
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logging can be thought of as medium-term storage of data on d i s k , whereas archiving is
long-term storage of data either on disk or on another permanent storage medium.
Logging is typically performed on a cyclic basis, i. e . , once a certain file size, time period J
or number of points is reached the data is overwritten.
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Logging of data can be performed at a set frequency, or only initiated if the value
changes or when a specific predefined event occurs. Logged data can be transferred to
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an archive once the log is full. The logged data is time-stamped and can be filtered __J
when viewed by a user.
Report Generation
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One can produce reports using SQL type queries to the archive, RTDB or logs.
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Potential Benefits of SCADA
J
The benefits one can expect from adopting a SCADA system for the control of
experimental physics facilities can be summarized as follows:

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•!• A rich functionality and extensive development facilities. The amount of effort
invested in SCADA product amounts to 50 to 1 0 0 p-years! J
•!• The amount of specific development that needs to be performed by the end-user is
limited, especially with suitable engineering. ·

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•!• Reliability and robustness, These systems are used for mission critical industrial
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processes .where reliability and performance are paramount. In addition, specific
development is performed within a well-established framework that enhances
reliability and robustness. J
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U N I T 2 : I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N & SCADA J
Introduction
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SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) has been around as long as there
have been control systems. The first 'SCADA' systems utilized data acquisition by
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means of panels of meters, lights and strip chart recorders. The operator manually
operating various control knobs exercised supervisory control. These devices were and
still are used to do supervisory control and data acquisition on plants, factories and
power generating facilities. · ·
The following figure shows a sensor to panel system. J
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The sensor to panel type of SCADA system has the following advantages:
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•!• It is s i m p l e , no C P U s , RAM, ROM or software programming needed
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•!• The sensors are connected directly to the meters, switches and lights on the
panel
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•!• It could be (in most circumstances) easy and cheap to add a s i m p l e device like a
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switch or indicator __)
The disadvantages of a direct panel to sensor system are:
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•!• The a m o u n t of wire becomes u n m a n a g e a b l e after the installation of hundreds of
sensors
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•!• The quantity and type of data are m i n i m a l and rudimentary

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•!• Installation of additional sensors becomes progressively harder as the. system
gr.ows
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•!• Re-configuration of the system becomes extremely d i ff i c u l t
•!• Simulation using real data is not possible
•!• Storage of data is minimal and d i ff i c u l t to manage
•!• No off site monitoring of data or alarms
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•!• Someone has to watch the dials and meters 24 hours a day
Fundamental Principle of Modern SCADA Systems
In modern manufacturing and industrial processes, mining industries, public and private·
utilities, leisure and security industries telemetry is often needed to connect equipment
and systems separated by large distances. This can range from a few meters to
thousands of kilometers. T e l e m e t ry is used to send commands, programs and receives
m o n it o r i n q information from these remote locations.
SCADA refers to the combination . of telemetry and data acquisition. SCADA
r encompasses the collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site,
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c a r ry i n g out any necessary analysis and control and then displaying that information on
a number of operator screens or · displays. The required control actions are then
conveyed back to the pr�cess.
In the early days of data acquisition, relay logic was used to control production and plant
systems. With the advent of the CPU and other electronic devices, manufacturers
incorporated digital electronics into relay logic equipment. The PLC or programmable ·
logic controller. is still one of the most widely used control systems in industry.
As need to monitor and control more devices in the plant grew, the PLCs were
distributed and the systems became more intelligent and smaller in size. PLCs and DCS
( distributed control systems) are used as shown below .
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The advantages of the PLC I DCS SCADA system are:
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•!• The computer can record a n d store a very large amount of data ·
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•!• The data can be displayed in any way the user requires
•!• Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system __J
•!• The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system
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•!• M a n y types of data can be collected from the RTUs
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•!• The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site
The disadvantages are� J
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•!• The system is more complicated than the sensor to panel type I
•!• Different operating s k i l l s are required, such as system analysts and programmer
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•!• With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with
•!• The operator can see o n l y as far as the PLC

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As the requirement for s m a l l e r and smarter systems grew, sensors were designed with
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the intelligence of PLCs and DCSs. These devices are known as IEDs (intelligent
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electronic devices). The I E D s are.connected on a fieldbus, such as Profibus, Device net
or Foundation Fieldbus to the PC. They include enough intelligence to acquire data,
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communicate to other devices, a n d hold their part ofthe overall program·.
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Each of these super smart sensors can have more than one sensor on-board. Typically,
an IED could combine an analog input sensor, analog output, P I O . control,
communication system a n d proqrarn memory in one device.
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The advantages of the PC to I E D field bus system are:
�:· M i n i m a l wiring is needed
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•!• The operator can s_ee down to the sensor level
•!• The data received from the device can include· information such as serial
n u m b e r s , model numbers, when it was installed and by whom
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I •!• All devices are plug and play, so installation and replacement is easy
•!• S m a l l e r devices means less physical space for the data acquisition system
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The disadvantages of a PC to I E D system are:

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•!• Sensor prices are h i g h e r (but this is offset somewhat by the lack of PLCs)
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•!• The I E D s rely more on the communication system
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SCAD A Hardware
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A SCADA system consists of a number of remote terminal units (RTUs) collecting field
data and s e n d i n g that data back to a master station, via a communication system. The
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master station displays the acquired data and allows the operator to perform remote
control tasks.
The accurate and timely data allows for optimization of1he plant operation and process.
Other benefits include more efficient, reliable and most importantly, safer operations.
This result in a lower cost of operation compared to earlier non-automated systems. J
On a more complex SCADA system there are essentially five levels or hierarchies:
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•!• . Field level instrumentation and control devices

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•!• M a r s h a l l i n g terminals a n d RTUs
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•!• Communications-system
· •!• The master station(s)

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-•!• The commercial data processing department computer system
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T h e · RTU provides an interface to the field analog a n d digital sensors situated at each
remote site.
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The communications system provides the pathway for communication between the
master station and the remote sites. This communication system can be wire, fiber
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optic, radio, telephone line, microwave and possibly even satellite. Specific protocols
a n d error detection philosophies are used for efficient and optimum transfer of data.
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The master station ( or sub-masters) gather data from the various RTUs and generally
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provide an operator interface for display of information and control of the remote sites.
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In large telemetry systems, sub-master sites gather information from remote sites and
act _as a relay back to the control master station. )
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SCADA Software
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SCADA software can be divided into two types, proprietary or open. Companies
develop proprietary software to communicate to their hardware. These systems are sold
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28 I Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy I
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as 'turnkey' solutions. The main problem with this system is the overwhelming reliance
on the s u p p l i e r of the system.

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Open software systems have gained popularity because of the interoperability they
bring to the system. Interoperability is the ability to mix different manufacturers'
equipment on the same system: Citect and Wonder Ware are just two of the open
software packages available in the market for SCADA systems.
Some packages are now including asset management integrated within the SCADA
system. The typical components of _a SCADA system are indicated in the next diagram.
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Key features of SCADA software are:
•!• User interface
•!• Graphics displays
•!• Alarms
•!• Trends
•!• RTU (and PLC) interface
•!• Scalability
•!• Access to data
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•!• Database
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•!• Networking
•!• Fault tolerance and redundancy

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•!• Client/server distributed processing i
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L a n d l i n e s for SCADA I
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Even with the reduced amount of wire when usi ng a PC to I E D system, there is us u a l ly
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a lot of wire in the typical SCADA system. This wire brings its own problems, with the _j
m a i n problem being electrical noise and interference.
Interference and noise are important factors to consider when d e s i g n i n g and installing a J
data communication system, with particular considerations required to avoid electrical
interference. Noise can be defined as . the random generated undesired signal that
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corrupts (or interferes with) the original (or desired) s i q n a l .
This noise can get into the cable or wire in m a n y ways. It is up to the designer to .....J
develop a system that will have a minimum of noise from the beginning. Because
SCADA systems typically use small voltage they are inherently susceptible to noise. l
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The use of twisted p a i r s h i e l d e d cat5 wire is a requirement on most systems.
U s i n g good wire coupled with correct installation techniques ensuresthe system will be
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a s · noise free as possible: Fiber optic cable is g a i n i r:i g popularity because of its noise
immunity. At the moment most installations use glass fibers, but in some industrial
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areas plastic fibers are increasingly u s e d . ·
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infrared systems. Wire will be relegated to supply ing power a nd as power requirements
of electronics become m i n i m a l , even the need for power will be reduced.

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SCADA & Local Area Networks
Local area networks (LAN) are all about sharing information and resources. To enable
a ll the nodes on the SCADA network to share information, they must be connected by
r some transmission medium. The method of connection is known as the network

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topology. Nodes. need to share this transmission medium in such a way as to allow all
. .--. · nodes access to the' m e d i u m without disrupting an established sender:

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A LAN is a communication path between computers, file-servers, terminals,

r- workstations, and various other intelligent peripheral e q u i p m e n t s , which are generally
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referred to as devices or hosts. A LAN allows access for devices to be shared by
several users, with full connectivity between all stations on the network.
A LAN is usually owned and administered by a private owner and is located within a
localized group of b u i l d i n g s . Ethernet is the most widely use LAN today because it is
cheap and easy to use. Connection of the SCADA network to the LAN a l l o w s · anyone
within the company with the right software and permission, to access the system.
Since the data is held in a database, the user can be limited to reading the information.
Security issues are obviously a concern, but can be addressed.
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Often in SCADA systems the RTU (remote terminal unit (PLC, DCS or I E D ) ) is .located I
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at a remote location. This distance can vary from tens of meters to thousands of
kilometers. One of the most cost-effective ways of communicating with the RTU over
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long distances can be by d i a l u p telephone connection.

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With this system the devices needed are a PC, two dialup modems and the RTU
(ass uming that the RTU has a b u i l t in COM port). The modems are put in the auto J
answer mode' and the RTU can dial into the PC or the PC can dial the RTU. The
software to do this is readily available from RTU manufacturers. The modems can be
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bought off the shelf at the local computer store.
Line modems are used to connect RTUs to a network over a pair of wires. These
systems are us ually fairly short (up to 1 kilometer) and use FSK (frequency shift keying)
to communicate. Line modems are used to communicate to RTUs when RS-232 or RS- I
485 communication systems are not -practical. The bit rates used in this type of system
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are u s u a l l y slow, 1 2 0 0 to 9600 bps.
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Computer Sites & Trouble Shooting
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Maintenance tasks could include daily, weekly, monthly or annual checks. When
maintenance is necessary, the technician or e n g i n e e r may need to check the following
equipment on a regular basis:
•!• The RTU and component modules
•!• Analog input modules
•!• Digital i n p u t module
•!• Interface from RTU to PLC (RS-232/RS-485)
· •!• Privately owned cable
•!• Switched telephone l i n e
•!• Analog or digital data links
•!• The master sites
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•!• The central site
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Two main rules that are always followed in repair and maintenance of electronic
systems are:
•!• If it is not broken, don't fix it
•!• Do no harm
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Technicians and engineers have caused more problems, than they started with, by
do i ng stupid things like cleaning the e quip me n t because it was slightly dusty. Or trying
to get that one more .01 dB of power out of a radio and blown the amplifier in the
process.
[, Components That C o u l d Need Maintenance
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SCADA Implementation
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I When first p l a n n i n g and designing a SCADA system, consideration should be given to
integrating new SCADA systems into existing communication networks in order to avoid
the substantial cost of setting u p new infrastructure and communications facilities.
This may be carried out through existing LANs, private telephone systems or existing
radio systems used for mobile vehicle communications. Careful engineering must be
carried out to ensure that overlaying of the . SCADA system on to an existing
communication network does not degrade or interfere with the existing facilities.
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If a new system is to be implemented, consideration must be given to the quality of the
system to be installed. No company has an endless budget. Weighing up economic
considerations against performance and integrity requirements is vital in ensuring· a
r · satisfactorily working system at the end of the project.

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The availability of the communications links an d the reliability of the equipment are
r important considerations when planning performance expectations of systems. All the
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aforementioned factors will be discussed in detail in the book. They will· then be tied
r together in a systematic approach to allow the reader to de si g n, specify, install a n d

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maintain an effective telemetry and data acquisition system that is .sultable for the
industrial environment into which it is to

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be installed.
Comparison of Terms: SCADA, DCS, PLC & Smart Instrument

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SCADA System
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A SCADA (or supervisory control and data acquisition) system means a system
consisting of a number of remote terminal units (or RTUs) collecting field data J
connected back to a master station via a communications system. The master station
displays the acquired data and also allows the operator to perform remote control tasks.
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The accurate and timely data (normally real-time) allows for optimization of the
operation of the plant and process. A further benefit is more efficient, reliable and most
importantly, safer operations. This all results in a lower cost of operation compared to J
earlier non-automated systems.
J
There is a fair degree of confusion between the definition of SCADA systems and
process control system. SCADA has the connotation of remote or distant operation. The
inevitable question is how far 'remote' is - typically this means over a distance such that
the distance between the controlling location and the controlled location is such that
direct-wire control is impractical ( i . e . a communication l i n k is a critical component of the·
system).
J
A successful SCADA installation d e pe nds on utilizing proven and reliable technology, J .

with adequate and comprehensive training of all personnel in the operation of the
system. There is a history of unsuccessful SCADA systems - contributing factors to
these systems includes inadequate· integration of the various components of · the J

system, unnecessary complexity in the system, unreliable hardware arid unproven
software.
J
Today hardware reliability is less of a problem, but the increasing software complexity is
producing new challenges. It should be noted in passing that many operators judge a J
SCADA system not o n l y by the smooth performance of the RTUs, communication li n k s
and the master station (all falling under the u m b r e l l a of SCADA system) but also t h e .
field devices (both transducers and control devices). The field devices however fall
outside the scope .of SCADA in this m a n u a l and .will not be discussed further.
A diagram of a typical SCADA system is given opposite.

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•:• Field level instrumentation and control devices
•:• Marshalling terminals and RTUs
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•!� Communications system
•!• The master station( s)

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•:• The commercial data processing department computer system .......)
•:• The RTU provides an interface to the field analog and digital signals situated at
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each remote site.
The communications system provides the pathway for communications between the
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master station and the remote sites. This communication system can be radio,
telephone line, microwave and possibly even satellite. Specific protocols and error
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detection p h i l o s o p h i e s are used for efficient and optimum transfer of data.
The master station (and sub masters) gather data from the various RTUs and generally
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provide an operator interface for display of information and control of the remote sites.
In large telemetry systems, sub master sites gather information from remote sites and
act as a relay back to the control masterstation.
SCADA technology h a s · existed since the early sixties and there are now two other
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· competing approaches possible - distributed control system (DCS) and programmable
logic controller (PLC). In addition there has been a growing t r e n d · to use smart
instruments as a key component in a l l these systems. Of course, in the real world, the 1
.......)
designer will mix and match the four approaches to produce , an effective system
matching his/her application.
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Distributed Control System
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l In a DCS, the data acquisition and control functions .are performed by a number of
distributed microprocessor-based units_ situated near to the devices being controlled or
the instrument from which data is being gathered. DCS systems have evolved into
systems providing very sophisticated analog (e.g. loop) contro_l capability.
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A closely integrated set of operator interfaces (or man machine interfaces) is provided
to allow for easy system configurations and operator control. The data highway is
normally capable of fairly high speeds (typically 1 Mbps up to 1 0 Mbps):
r 39 I Page Indian School of Petroleum & Enerzv

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. Programmable Logic Controller
Programmable logic controllers are primarily: "small computers, dedicated to automation

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tasks iri an industrial environment". · Since the late 1970s, PLCs have replaced
hardwired relays with a combination.of ladder-logic software and solid state electronic
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i n p u t a n d output modules. They are often used in the implementation of a SCADA RTU
as they offer a standard hardware solution, which is very economically priced.
Advantage of using P L C : J
•!• Provides soft wiring advantage.

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· •!• Hlqh Reliability
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•!• S m a l l space requirement
•!• Computing capabilities ,
•!• Reduced costs
•!• Versatility & flexibility
•!• Ease of design & Installation
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PLC Stalion.#1 PLC Station #2
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Parts of PLC
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I n p u t/ Output Modules (1/0 Modules):
1/0 modules allow the PLC to read sensors arid control actuators. There exists a wide
variety of 1/() m o d u l e types offered by the PLC manufacturers.
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Power Supply Module
'
Power s u p p l y module provides power to the CPU and often provides power to drive
sensors and low power actuators connected to 1/0 m o d u l e s .
Peripheral Equipments

They are used for purposes such as preparing, storing a n d loading control programs, J
system monitoring a n d - even can be used for communicating with other computers with
which the PLC may be networked.

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· A PLP in an automated system is like:
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Programming unit to
monitor and/or edit
program and data in PLC J
---- Network interface to other controllers J

(interface may be in CPU module)
Communication link to
remote 1/0
Connectors on
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(interface may be in CPU module)
bus for more
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Digital Dig�I Analog 1/0modules
input output output

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module module module
Power CPU
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supply module
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Analog
actuators
AC
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(e�g., motors
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or motor position
controllers)
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Digital sensors · Digital actuators
(e.g., limit swit.chas, (e.g., pneumatic valves,
. proximity sen�rs)
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indicator lamps)
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Each PLC operational cycle is made u p of three separate parts:
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•!• Input scan at which input terminals are read and .the input status table is updated,
•!• Program scan at which· data in the input status table is a p p l i e d . to the user J
program, the program is executed and the output status table is executed
•!• Qutput scan at which data associated with the output status table is transferred
to output terminals.
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Standard PLC scan cycle is:

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PLC switched into "run•
PLC inttialization program

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1. Copy data from input modules into the
input image area of the CPU module's

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RAM memory.
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2. Run the user-program, which modifies
data in areas of RAM mem-ory, including
the output image·area. ·
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. 3. Copy data from the output image memory
area to the output modules.
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Another device that should be mentioned for completeness is the smart instrument
which. both PLCs and DCS systems can interface to.
Smart Instrument
Although this term is sometimes misused, it typically means an intelligent
(microprocessor based) digital _measuring sensor (such as a flow meter) with digital data
communications provided to some diagnostic panel or computer based system.
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4 3 . 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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Modulator I Demodulator Interface
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PLC Smart Instrument
Remote Terminal Units

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An RTU (sometimes referred to as a remote telemetry unit) as the title implies, is a
standalone data acquisition and control unit, generally microprocessor based, which
monitors and controls equipment at some remote location from the central station.
Its primary task is to control and acquire data from process e q u i p m e n t at the remote J
location and to transfer this data back to a central station. It generally also has the
facility for having its configuration and control programs dynamically downloaded from
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some centralstation.
There is also a facility to be configured locally by some RTU programming unit. J

Although traditionally the RTU communicates back to some central station, it is also
possible to communicate on a peer-to-peer basis with other RTUs.

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The RTU can also act as a relay station (sometimes referred to as a store a n d forward
station) to another RTU, which may not be accessible from the central station. j
S m a l l sized RTUs generally have. less than 1 0 to 20 analog and digital s i g n a l s , m e d i u m
sized· RTUs have 100 digital and 30 to 40 analog inputs. RTUs, having a capacity J
greater than this can be classified as large.
The Typical RTU Block

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A short discussion follows on the individual hardware components. Typical RTU
hardware modules include:
Control processor and associated memory
•:• Analog inputs
•:• Analog outputs
•:• Counter inputs
•:• Digital inputs

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•!• Digital outputs
•!• Communication interface(s)
•!• Power supply l

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•!• RTU rack and enclosure
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Control Processor
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This is generally microprocessor based (16 or 32 bit) e.g. 68302 or 80386. Total
memory capacity of 256 kByte (expandable to 4 Mbytes) broken into three types:
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•!• E P R O M ( or battery backed RAM) 256 kByte
•!• RAM 640 kByte

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•!• Electrically erasable memory (flash or E E P R O M ) 1 2 8 kByte

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A mathematical processor is a useful addition for any complex mathematical
calculations. This is sometimes referred to as a coprocessor. J
Communication ports - typically two or three ports either RS-232/RS:-422/RS-485 for:

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•!• Interface to diagnostics terminal
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•!• Interface to operator station
•!• C o m m u n i c a t i o n s l i n k to central site ( e . g . by modem) J
Diagnostic LEDs provided on the control u n i t ease troubleshooting and d i a g n o s i s of

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problems (such as CPU failure/failure of 1/0 m o d u l e etc).
Another component, which is provided with varying levels of accuracy, is a real-time J

clock with full calendar ( i n c l u d i n g leap year support). The clock s h o u l d be updated even
during power off periods. The real-time clock is useful for accurate time stamping of
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events.
A watchdog timer is also required to provide a check that the RTU program is regularly J
executing. The RTU program regularly resets the watchdog time. If this is not done
within a certain time-out period the watchdog timer flags an error condition (and can
reset the C P U ) J
Analog I n p u t M o d u l e s
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r There are five m a i n components m a k i n g up an analog i n p u t m o d u l e . They are:
•!• The i n p u t multiplexer
·:· The i n p u t signal amplifier
•!• The sample and hold circuit �
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•!• The AID converter
•!• The bus interface and board timing system
Input
Channel
Sample &
Sample&
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Hold
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AID Converter
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1� Step/Next
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Timing System
Ext. Clock
Ext. Trigger
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ill 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Li es
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Multiplexers
A multiplexer is a device that samples several (usually 16) analog inputs in turn and
switches each to the output in sequence. The output generally goes to an AID
converter, eliminating the need for a converter on each input c h a n n e l . This can result in
considerable savings. A few parameters related to multiplexers are:
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Crosstalk
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The amount of signal coupled to the output as a percentage of i n p u t s i g n a l s applied to
a l l O F F c h a n n e l s together.
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I n p u t Leakage Current
The maximum current that flows into or out of an OFF channel i n p u t terminal due to
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switch leakage.
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Settling Time
The time that the multiplexer output takes to settle to a certain percentage (sometimes J
90% or sometimes ± 1 LSB of the i n p u t value) when a single i n p u t swings from -FS (full
scale) to FS or from +FS to -FS. Essentially, the output must settle to within a b o u t ± %
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LSB of the input range, before the A/D converter can obtain an accurate conversion of
the analog i n p u t voltage.

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· Switching Time
A s i m i l a r parameter to settling time, it specifies how long the multiplexer output takes to
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settle to the i n p u t voltage when the multiplexer is switched from o n e c h a n n e l to another.
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T h r o u g h p u t Rate
This relates to the highest rate at which the multiplexer can switch from c h a n n el to J,
channel; it is limited by the settling time or the switching time, whichever is longer.
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. Transfer Accuracy
Expresses the input-to-output error as a percentage of the input. J
Amplifier
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Where low-level voltages need to be digitized, they must be amplified to match the i nput
range of the board's AID converter. If a low-level signal is fed directly into a board
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without amplification,· a loss of precision will be the result. Some boards provide
onboard amplification (or g a i n ) , while those with a PGA make it possible to select from
software, different g a i n s for different c h a n n e l s , for a series of conversions. J
The ideal differential input amplifier o n l y responds to the voltage difference between its
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two i n p u t terminals regardless of what the voltage common to both terminals is d o i n g .
Unfortunately, common mode voltages do produce error outputs in real-world amplifiers.

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An important characteristic is the common mode rejection . ratio, CMRR, which is
calculated as follows.
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CMRR = 20log (Vern I Vdiff) [dB]
Where:
Vern is the voltage common to both inputs
Vdiff is the outpui ierror) voltage when Vern is applied to both inputs An ideal value for
C M R R would be 80 dB or greater.
Drift is another important amplifier specification; it depends on time a n d temperature. If
an amplifier is calibrated to give zero output for zero i nput at a p a rt i c u l a r temperature,
the output (still at zero input) will change over time a n d if the temperature c h a n g e s .
. . .
Time drift and temperature drifts are usually measured in PPM/unit time and PPM/°C,
respectively. For a 1 2 ..: b i t board, 1 _LSB is 1 count in 4096 or 244 PPM. Over an
operating range of 0°C to 50°C , a 1 LSB drift is t hus:
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244 PPM/50°C = 4 . 8 8 PPM/°C
r In choosing a component, you need to ensure that the board's time a n d temperature
drift specifications over the entire operating temperature range are compatible with the
precision you require and don't forget that it can get quite warm inside the RTUs
enclosure.
S a m p l e a n d Hold Circult
Most AID converters require a fixed time during which the input signal remains constant
(the aperture time) in order to perform an AID conversion. This is a requirement of the
conversion algorithm used by the AID converter. If the i n p u t were to change d u r i n g this
t i m e , the AID would return an inaccurate reading.
Therefore, a sample-and-hold device is used on the input to the AID converter. It ·
samples the output s i g n a l from the multiplexer or g a i n amplifier very quickly a n d holds it
constant for the A/Os aperture time. .
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The standard design approach is to place a simple sample-and-hold chip between
multiplexer and AID converter.
AID Converters
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The AID converter is the heart of the m o d u l e . Its function is to measure an i n p u t - a n a l o g
voltage and to output a digital code corresponding to the input voltage. There are two
· main types of AID converters u se d :

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lnteg,rating (or Dual Slope) AIDS
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These are used for very low frequency applications (a few h u n d r e d hertz m a x i m u m ) and
may have very high accuracy and precision (e.g. 22 bit). They are found in
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· thermocouple and RTD modules. Other advantages i n c l u d e very low cost, noise and
mains pickup tend to be reduced by the integrating and dual slope nature of the AID
converter.
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The AID procedure essentially requires a capacitor to be charged with the input s i g n a l
for a fixed time, a n d then uses a counter to calculate how long it takes for the capacitor J
to discharge. This length of time is proportional to the i n p u t voltage,
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Successive Approximation AIDS
Successive approximation A/Os allow much h i g h e r sampling rates (up to a few hundred J
kHz with 12 bits is possible) while still being reasonable in cost. The conversion
algorithm is similar to that of a binary search, where the AID starts by comparing the
i n p u t with a voltage (generated by an internal DIA converter), corresponding to half of

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the full-scale range. ·
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If the i n p u t is in the lower half, the first digit is zero a n d the AID repeats this comparison
u s i n g the lower half of the· i n p u t range. If the voltage had been in the upper half, the first
d i g i t would have been 1 . J
This dividing of the remaining fraction of the inputrange in half and comparing to the
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input voltage continues until the specified number of bits of accuracy have been
obtained. It is obviously important that the input signal does not change when the
conversion process is underway. J
· The specifications of A/D,converters are discussed below.

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Absolute Accuracy
J
· This value refers to the maximum analog error; it is referenced to the national bureau of
standards' standard volt.
Differential Linearity J
This is the maximum deviation of an actual bit size from its theoretical value for any bit
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over the full range of the converter. -
G a i n Error (Scale Factor Error) J

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The difference in slope between the actual transfer function and the ideal function in
percentage:
U n i p o l a r Offset
The firsttransition should occur % LSB above analog common. The unipolar offset error
is the deviation. of the actual transition point from the ideal first transition point. It is
usually adjustable to zero with calibration software· a n d a trim pot on the board. This
parameter also u s u a l l y has an associated temperature drift specification.
B i p o l a r Offset
Similarly, the transition from FS/2-% LSB to FS/2 (7 FFh to 800 h on a 1 2 - b i t AID)
should occur at % LSB below analog common. The bipolar offset (again, usually
adjustable with a trimpot) and · the temperature coefficient specify the initial deviation
and the maximum change in the error over temperature. ·
Linearity Errors
With most AID converters g a i n , offset a n d zero errors are not critical as they may be
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calibrated out. Linearity errors, differential non-linearity ( D N L ) and integral non-linearity
· . I N L ) are more important because they cannot be removed.
Differential Non-Linearity
Is the difference between the actual code width from the ideal width of 1 LSB. If D NL
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· errors are large, the output code widths may represent excessively large a n d s m a l l input
voltage ranges. If the magnitude of a D N L is greater t h a n 1 LSB, then at least one code
r width will v a n i s h , y i e l d i n g a rnlsslnq code. ·

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Integral Non-Linearity
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Is the deviation of the actual transfer function from the ideal straight l i n e . This line may
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the points where the codes begin to change (low side transition or LST). Most A/Os are
specified by LST I N L . Thus the l i n e is drawn from the p o i n t % LSB on the vertical axis at
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Resolution
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This is the smallest change that can be distinguished by an AID converter. For example,
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for a 12-bit AID converter this would be 1/4096 = 0.0244%.
M i s s i n g Code
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This occurs when the next output code misses one or more digits from the previous J
code.
Monotonicity
This requires a continuously increasing output for a c o n t i n u o u s l y increasing i n p u t over J

the full range of the converter.
Quantizing Uncertainty
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Because the AID can o n l y resolve an input voltage to a finite resolution of 1 LSB, the
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actual real-world voltage may be up to � LSB below the voltage corresponding to the
output c o d e · or up to % LSB above it. An A/D's quantizinq uncertainty is therefore
always ±% L S B . · J
. Relative Accuracy
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This refers to the input to output error as a fraction of full scale with gain and offset error
adjusted to zero. J

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The bus interface provides the mechanism for transferring the data from the board and
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gain/channel information) or other commands to the board. The interface can be 8 - , 16-
or 32-bit.-
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Analog I n p u t Configuration
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It is i m p o rt a n t to take proper care when connecting external transducers or similar
devices (the signal source); otherwise the introduction of errors and inaccuracies into a
data acquisition system is v i rt u a l l y guaranteed:

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Connection Methods
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There are two methods of connecting signal sources to the data acquisition board:
Single ended and d i ff e r e n t i a l that is shown below. In general, d i ff e r e n t i a l inputs should J

be used for maximum immunity. Single-ended inputs should only be used where it is
impossible to use either of the other two methods.
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In the descriptions that follow, these points apply:
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•!• All signals are measured relative to the board's analog ground point, AGND,
which is O V.
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•!• HI and LO _refer to the outputs of a signal source, with LO (sometimes called the·
signal return) being the source's reference point and HI being the signal. value.
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Esn represents the signal values (that is, VHln - VLOn) in the diagrams, where n
is the signal's channel number.
J
•!• AMP LO is the reference input of the board's d i ff e r e n t i a l amplifier. It is not the
same as AGND but it may be referenced to it.
•!• Because of lead resistance, etc, the remote signal reference point (or ground) is
at a different potential to AGND. This is called the common mode voltage VCM.
J
In the ideal situation VCM would be O V, but in real-world systems VCM is not O
V. The voltage at the board's inputs is therefore £::sn + VCM.

l
___;
S i n g l e Ended Inputs
J
Boards that accept single-ended inputs have a single input wire for each signal, the
source's HI side. All the LO sides of the sources are communed and. connected to the
analog ground AGND p i n .. This input type suffers from loss of common mode rejection
and is very sensitive to noise. It is not recommended for long leads (longer t h a n % m) or
. for high gains (greater than 5x). The advantage of this method is that it allows the
J
maximum number of inputs, is simple to connect (only one common or ground lead
necessary) and it allows for simpler AID front-end circuitry.
l
._J
We can see from Figure below that because the amplifier LO (Negative) terminal is
connected to AGND, what is amplified is the difference between Esn + VCM and AGND,
and this introduces the common mode offset as an error into the readings. Some boards
J
do not have an amplifier and the multiplexer output is fed straight to the AI D . Single
ended inputs must be used with these types of boards. l

____;
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External
Cable ,,, " · Host Input Connector
Signals
/
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·.,
Input Ampli.fer
.....
<1.) with G a i n G .
x
{
CH2
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r Cl.
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..... AID
ESo ESc +V,;11.
CH4
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:::] O V
CHs
a. Code
c
CH0
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CH7
ESo +Vc1.1
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�..-.-.-..-+-...-.,._�-"'\n�.�, .AGNO
r= VcM ' . ' A G N D or OV

RLEAD '
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Common s i g n a l System reference
'
ground ' -, ground point
r ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
i
Differential Inputs
True differential inputs provide the maximum noise immunity. This method must also be
used where the s i g n a l sources have different ground points and cannot be connected
,--,
'
together. Referring to Figure we see that each channel's individual common mode ·
(
voltage is fed to the amplifier negative terminal, the individual VCMn voltages· are thus
subtracted on each reading.

r
I
Note that two input muitiptexers are needed and for the same number of input terminals
r as single-ended and pseudo-differential inputs, only half the number of input channels is
(
available in differential mode.
Also, bias resistors may be required to reference each input c h a n n e l to g r o u n d . This
depends on the board's specifications (the book will explain t h e . exact requirements),
but it normally consists of one large resistor connected between each signal's LO side
r and A G N D (at the s i g n a l end of the cable) and sometimes it requires another resistor of
the same value between the H I side and A G N D .

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· · · · · · · · · · · · , _ , , . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · , , , __ , ,.,- .

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External signats Cable Host input connector
J
. CH0 Hi ----1
ES, ':_
f CH Hi _,_____, ... �
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1
Input amplifer
� �{
with gain G
v . . ��:--:T--...U CH? Hi - �
. �CH.Hi �
. : I ES� +VCM(
AfD
· ; I . CH
0
Lo ---l------r---, J
....
CH. Lo ------1 -�
5.� Digltal l
v-; c a.
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- ;:. Code
CH l L
. 0 --t--+---t '5
CH) Lo --t--+---r__....,
J
AGND ------------
Refer�nce ground
A G N D o r OV
system reference ground point
' ,__ - - - - - - - - - - - - -·-
Note that VCM and VCMn voltages may be made up of a DC part and possibly a time
varying A C part. This A C part is called noise, but we can see that using differential
)
inputs, the noise part will also tend to be cancelled out (rejected) because it is present __J
on both inputs of the input amplifier. ·
Typical .Analog I n p u t M o d u l e s
J
These have various numbers of inputs. Typically there are:

J
•!• 8 or 1 6 analog inputs
•!• Resolution of 8 or 1 2 bits
J.
•!• Range of 4-20 mA (o t h e r possibilities are 0-20 m A/ ± 1 0 volts/0-10 volts)
•!• Input resistance typically 240 kO to 1 MO __J
•!• Conversion rates typically 1 O microseconds to 30 milliseconds
J
•!• Inputs are generally single ended (but also d i ff e r e n t i a l modes provided)

1
,_J
_...)
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r:
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r
!
For reasons of cost and minimization of data transferred over a radio link, a common
configuration is eight single ended 8-bit points reading 0 - 1 0 volts with a conversion rate
of 30 m i l l i s e c o n d s per analog point. ·
An important but often neglected issue with analog input boards is the need for
s a m p l i n g of a signal at the correct frequency. The Nyquist criterion· states that a signal
must be sampled at a m i n i m u m of two times its highest component frequency. Hence
the analog to digital system must be capable of s a m p l i n g at a sufficiently h i g h rate to be
well outside the maximum frequency of the input s i g n a l .
r+-
!
Otherwise filtering must be employed to reduce the input frequency components to an
acceptable level. This issue is often neglected d ue to the increased cost of installing
filtering with erroneous results in the measured values. It should be realized the
r
I
software filtering is not a substitute for an inadequate hardware filtering or s a m p l i n g
rate. This may smooth the s i g n a l but it does not reproduce the analog signal faithfully in
,--
a digital format.
1
Analog Outputs
r
i
Typical a n a l o g u e output m o d u l e
r
i
•:• Typically the a n a l o g u e output m o d u l e has the following features:
•:• 8 analogue outputs
•:• Resolution of 8 or 1 2 bits

r
•:• Conversion rate from 1 0 µ seconds to 30 milliseconds
r
(
•:• Outputs ranging from 4-20 mN± 1 0 volts/0 to 1 0 volts
r
I Care has to be taken here on e n s u r i n g the load resistance is not lower than specified
(typically 50 kO) or the voltage drop will be excessive.

,..-..
I
Analog output m o d u l e designs generally prefer to provide voltage outputs rather than
current output (unless power is provided externally), as t h i s · places lower power

r requirements on the backplane. ·
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5 7 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Enersv

1
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. .
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Digital Inputs
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)
These are used to indicate items such as status and alarm s i g n a l s . Status s i g n a l s from _J
a valve could comprise two limit switches with. contact closed indicating valve - open
status and the other contact closed indicating valve - closed status. When both open
and closed status contacts are closed, this could indicate the valve is in transit. (There
J
would be a problem if both status switches indicate open conditions.) A h i g h level switch
indicates an alarm condition.

J
It is important with alarm· logic that the RTU should be able to distinguish the first alarm
l
__J
from the subsequent spurious alarms that will occur. Most digital input boards. provide
groups of 8 , 1 6 or 32 inputs per board. Multiple boards may need to be installed to cope
. with n u m e r o u s d i g i t a l points (where the count of a given board is exceeded). l

_J
The standard, normally open or normally closed converter may be used for alarm. In
general, normally closed alarm digital inputs are used where the circuit is to indicate an j
alarm c o n d i t i o n .
_J
The input 'power supply must be appropriately rated for the particular convention used
normally open or normally closed. For the normally open convention, it is possible to
derate the digital input power. s u p p l y . Optical isolation is a good idea to cope with
J
surges induced in the field w i r i n g . A typical circuit a n d its operation are indicated in the
figure below.
· . J
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1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
• T ::
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{ �. Optical· •
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I ! r - - - - '- - , : Field
i I 1 , i WirlnQ! fuse
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lntet�ace �-----,1----1�-il : � I AW Digtta�cl +
r� Backplane : T . ..l,1- · _· : � ' �. Input i () 24V DC
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Typical' digital input module
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5 9 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Enerev

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Typically the following would be expected ofa digital i n p u t module:
•!• 1 6 digital inputs per module
•!• Associated LED indicator for each i n p u t to indicate current states
J
· •!• ,Digital i n p u t voltages vary from 1 1 0 / 2 4 0 VAC and 12/24/48 VDC
j
•!• Optical isolation provided for each digital i n p u t
Counter or Accumulator Digital Inputs I

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There are many applications where a p u l s e - i n p u t module is required - for example from
' )
_J
a metering p a n e l . T h i s can be a contact closure s i g n a l or if the p u l s e frequency is h i g h
e n o u g h , solid state relay s i g n a l s .
_J
P u l s e i n p u t s i g n a l s are normally 'dry contacts' ( i . e . the power is provided from the RTU
power s u p p l y rather than the actual p u l s e source). ·

-.
I
._)
The figure below gives the diagram of the counter digital input system. Optical isolation
· is useful to minimize the effect of externally generated noise. The size of the I
_J
accumulator is important when considering the n u m b e r of pulses that will be counted,
before transferring the data to another memory location.
_J
For example, a 12-bit register has the capacity for 4096 counts. 16-bit gives 65536
p u l s e s , which could represent 48 minutes @ 20 000 barrels/hour, for example. If these
limits are ignored, the classical problem of the accumulator cycling through zero when J
full could occur.
..__)

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Optical Isolation
Pulse input
r·---
,
-...,_...1 rt: Pulse input 1
accumulator �
Pulse
buffer register
input 1
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. �
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Address and Data Bus
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Interface Circuitry .
Counter Card
r-,
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L - - � - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.,....,.
I Two approaches are possible:
r: •!• The accumulator contents. cqn be transferred to RAM memory at regular intervals
l
where the old and current value difference can be stored in a register.
•!• The second approach is where a detailed and accurate accounting needs to be
made of l i q u i d s flowing into and out of a specific area. A freeze accumulator
r command · is broadcast instantaneously to all appropriate RTUs. The pulse

t
accumulator will then freeze the values at this t i m e · an d transfer to a memory
location, and resets the accumulator so that counting can be resumed again.
t:
l
Typical Counter Specifications ·
6 1 1 Page- Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

J
The typical specifications here are: .
�I
•!• 4 counter inputs
•!• Four 16 bit counters (65 536 counts per counter input)
•!• C o u n t frequency up to 20 kHz range
•!• Duty cycle preferably 50% (ratio of mark to space) for the upper count frequency
limits.
J
Note that the duty rating is important, as the counter i n p u t needs a finite time to switch
I
on (and then off). ___J
If the on p u l s e is too short, it may be missed· although the count frequency is within the
specified limits. A Schmitt trigger gives the preferred input conditioning although a
resistor capacitor combination across the counter i n p u t can be a cheap way to spread
i
the pulses out. ___J
Digital Output M o d u l e
A digital output module drives an output voltage. at each of the appropriate output
c h a n n e l s with three approaches possible:
•!• Triac switching·
•!• Reed relay switching

.
_J
•!• TTL voltage outputs ·
The TRIAC is commonly used for AC switching. A varistor is often connected across the __J
output of the TRIAC to reduce the d a m a g i n g effect of electrical transients.
Three practical issues s h o u l d also be observed:

J
•!• A TRIAC output switching device does not completely switch on and off but has I
__J
low and high resistance values. Hence although the TRIAC is switched off it still
has some leakage current at the output.
J
•!• Surge currents s h o u l d be of short duration (half a cycle). Any longer will damage
the m o d u l e .
•!• The manufacturer's continuous current rating should be adhered to. This often
\
refers to i n d i v i d u a l channels a n d to the n u m b e r of c h a n n e l s . There are situations ,

_J
where all the output channels of the module can be used ·at full rated current

·
'
__J
_J
r
\
r
\ capacity. This can exceed the maximum allowable power dissipation for- the
whole m o d u l e .
Typical Digital Output Modules
r •!• 8 d i g i t a l outputs
l
•!• 240 V AC/24 V DC ( 0 . 5 a m p to 2 . 0 a m p ) outputs

r
•!• Associated LED indicator for each output to indicate current status
r
•!• Optical isolation or dry relay contact for each output
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Di!)�1)
OiliptJt 1
ii-
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'!'
'Dry' relay contacts (i.e. no voltage applied to the contacts by the output module) are
often provlded, These could be reed relay outputs for example. Ensure that the current
rating is not exceeded for these devices (especially the inductive current). ·
Although each digital output could be rated at 2 A m p s , the module as a whole cannot
s u p p l y 1 6 Amps (8 by 2 amps each) a n d there is normally a m a x i m u m current rating for
r
\
the module of typically 60% of the number of outputs multiplied by the maximum current
per output. If this total current is exceeded there will be overheating of the module and
eventual failure. ·
·····-··-·-·-····--·'"•'"•"""" .

r
\
_J
Note also the difference in sinking and sourcing of an 1/0 module . Jf a m o d u l e sinks a
specified current, it means that it draws this current from an external source. If a module J
sources a specific current it drives this current as an output.
\
__;
1 1 Sink I t S o u r c e
I tCurrent I , Current J
I )--1 (,�,
Digital Digital
Output Output I
_J
I.�
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0-1
I
l J
I
...L
- �-
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Wheri connecting to inductive loads it is a good suggestion to put a flywheel diode
across the relay for DC systems a n d a capacitor/resistor combination for AC systems.
T h i s minimizes the back E M F effect for DC voltages with the consequent voltage spikes
J
when the devices are switched off.
__J
J
-·····--··-··--·-
_J
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....
... lllJlai
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I __ . . - ._lljl,IJ![llr·
' " " ' l +
C!llgii�al £. - - · ,
0.utpU!I: ;' 11,,t;i�d Q DC V.oltag,e
{;t,annel N t . � - ' -
.... -- ,., ;
Oigttal ou,put
·uod,ule
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, : _ I __
...-1 · h :.,-"if' .. -- . . [��- -�;«H::: :�.. J

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,.. fll�c:1c:i;;,l�ne"'-.:_ _ J Load ·····e AC Voilt.&ge13:
. --.-,,,l---"·
....""r..,l«MO.'.. ,.., "' "'(.,f.J l
...
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Mixed Analog and Digital Mo.dules ·

r=:
As many RTUs have only modest requirements, as far as the analog and digital s i g n a l s
a r e concerned, a typical solution would be to use a mixed analog and digital module. ·
T h i s would typically have:
•!• 4 analog inputs (8-bit resolution)
•!• 2 digital inputs

r:
I
•!• 1 digital output
•!• 2 analog output (8-bit resolution)
Communication Interfaces

J
The modern RTU should be flexible enough to handle multiple communication media
such as: \
---1
•!• RS-232/RS-442/RS-485
. l
__J
•!• D i a l u p telephone lines/dedicated l a n d l i n e s
•!• Microwave/MUX J
•!• Satellite I
'""")
•!• X . 2 5 packet protocols
J
•!• Radio via trunked/VHF/UHF/900 M H z
Interestingly e n o u g h , the more c h a l l e n g i n g design for RTUs is the radio communication

J
interface. T h e · 1 a n d l i n e interface i s · considered to be an easier design problem, These ·
standards will be discussed in a later section.
Power S u p p l y Moduie for RTU

I
-,
_J
The RTU s h o u l d be able to operate from 1 1 0 / 2 4 0 V AC ± 1 0 % 50 Hz or 12/24/48 V DC
± 10% typically. Batteries that should be provided are lead acid or nickel cadmium.
�J
Typical requirements here are for 2 0 - h o u r standby operation and a recharging time of
12 hours for a fully discharged battery at 25°C. The power supply, battery and
associated charger are normally contained in the RTU h o u s i n g . J
Other important monitoring parameters, which should be transmitted back to the central
site/master station, are:

J
•!• Analog battery reading

J
•!• Alarm for battery voltage outside normal range

j
Cabinets for batteries are normally rated to I P 52 for internal mounting and I P 56 for
external mounting.
J
RTU Environmental Enclosures
J
Typically, the printed circuit boards are plugged into a backplane in the RTU cabinet.
The RTU cabinet usually accommodates inside an environmental enclosure which
protects it·from extremes of temperature/weather etc.

J
Typical considerations in the installations are:

J
_J
r
l
r�
I
•:• Circulating air fans and filters: This should be installed at the base of the RTU
enclosure to avoid heat b u i l d - u p . Hot spot areas on the electronic circuitry s h o u l d
r be avoided by uniform air circulation. I t · is important to have a heat soak test too.
I
•:• Hazardous areas: RTUs must be installed in explosion proof e n c l o s u r e s : ( e . g . o i l

r,
(
· and gas environment). ·
r....... Typical operating temperatures of RTUs are variable when the RM is located outside
i
the building in a weatherproof enclosure. These temperature specifications can be
relaxed if the RTU is situated inside a b u i l d i n g , where the temperature variations are not
,--. .
I . as extreme (provided consideration is given to the situation, where there may be failure
(
of the ventilators or air-conditioning systems).
r
l Typical humidity ranges are 10-95%. Ensure at the high humidity level that there is no
possibility of condensation on the circuit boards or there may be contact corrosion or
short-circuiting. Lacquering of the printed circuit boards may be an option in these

r
cases. Be aware of the other extreme where low humidity air (5%) can generate static
electricity on the circuit boards due to stray capacitance.
r
I
CMOS based electronics is particularly susceptible to problems in these circumstances.
Only screening and grounding the affected electronic areas can reduce static voltages.
All maintenance personnel s h o u l d wear a ground strap on the wrist to m i n i m i z e the risk
of creating a n d transferring static voltages. ·
If excessive electromagnetic interference ( E M I ) a n d · radio frequency interference (RFI)
is anticipated in the vicinity of the RTU, special screening and e a rt h i n g s h o u l d be used.
Some manufacturers warn against using h a n d h e l d transceivers in the neighborhood of
their RTUs.
,�
! ,
Continuous vibration from vibrating plant and equipment can also have an unfavorable
impact on an RTU, in some cases. Vibration shock mounts should be specified for such
RTUs. Other areas Which should be considered with RTUs are lightning (or protection
from electrical surges) a n d earthquakes (which is equivalent to vibrations at frequencies
of 0 . 1 to 1 0 Hz).
r
(
Testing & Maintenance
r
Many manufacturers provide a test box to test the communications between the RTU
and master stations, and also to simulate- a master station or RTU in the system. The
three typical configurations are indicated in the figure below .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .

r,;x .:
IK
--:*". .
--- " Remote
J
Master
Terminal
$talion Rx "l- TX_
- - - - Unit
- -
Tx Rx
Test
box
Test Box as RTU simulator

l
__J
T)( _,,... Rx
�1>t!!r
--- Remote
Terminal
station R.x --+- Tx '
j
- - - Ut\it
_,,J
Tx Rx
Test
bo)(
J
1'c�1 Box as Master-Station simulator J

-·
Tx ....... Rx
Remote
Master
m�lion
Terminal J
Rx � Tx
Unit
Tx RX
I
.......)
Test
box
J
·
T l,st Box as a11 Eaves,lropper (,,ri..iste11er)
J
The typical functions provided on a test box are:
I
•!• Message switches: The simulated messages that the user wants to send to the .......)
RTU or master station is i n p u t here.
j
•!• · Message indicators: Display of transmit a n d receive data.
•!• Mode of operation: The user selects one of three modes of operation, test box in l
___;
eavesdropping mode between RTU and master station, test box to RTU, test box
to master station.
An additional self-test mode is often provided. There are other features provided such
as continuous transmissions of preset messages. Often the test box is interfaced to a

J
PC for easier display a n d control of actions.
Typical Requirements for an RTU Syster,n

J
J
r
r
( ,
In the writing of a specification, the following issues should be considered:
r Hardware
I
Individual RTU expandability (typically up to 200 analog and digital points)
r.
(
•!• Off the shelf modules
•!• Maximum number of RTU sites in a system shall be expandable to 255
r •!• Modular system - no p a rt i c u l a r order or position in installation (of modules in a rack)

(
•!• Robust operation - failure of one module will not affect the p e rf o r m a n c e · of other
modules
r •!• Minimization of power consumption (CMOS can be an advantage)

{
•!• Heat generation minimized

r=-
. 1
•!• Rugged a n d of robust physical construction
r •!• Maximization of noise immunity (due to ' h a r s h environment)
r l
•!• Temperature of -10 to 65°C (operational conditions)
•!• Relative humidity up to 90%
r
•!• Clear indication of diagnostics
•!• Visible status LEDs
r
i •!• Local fault diagnosis possible
•!• Remote fault diagnostics option
•!• Status of each 1/0 module and channel (program rurming/failed/communications
O K/ f a i l e d )
•!•·Modules all-connected to one common bus
•!• Physical interconnection of modules to the bus shall be robust and suitable for use in
harsh environments
•!• Ease of installation of f i e l d wiring
r
•!• Ease of module replacement
r
6 9 1 Page · Indian School of Petrolenmee Enerzv
r
•!• Removable screw terminals for disconnection a n d reconnection of wiring
J
Environmental Considerations
. The RTU is normally installed in a . remote location with fairly harsh environmental
conditions. It typically is specified for the following conditions:
•!• Ambient temperature range of O to +60°C (but specifications of -30°C to 60°C are
J
not u n c o m m o n )
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•!• Storage temperature range of -20°C to + 70°C
•!• Relative humidity of O to 95% n o n-c o nd e n s ing J
•!• Surge withstand capability to withstand power surges typically 2 . 5 kV, 1 MHz for 2
seconds with 1 5 0 o h m source impedance

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•!• Static discharge test where 1.5 cm sparks are discharged at a distance of 30 cm
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from the u n i t ·
•!• Other requirements include dust, vibration, rain, salt and fog protection. Software
(and firmware)
•!• Compatibility checks of software configuration of hardware against actual hardware
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•!• Log kept of a l l errors that occur in the system both from external events a n d internal
faults
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•!• Remote access of a l l error logs a n d status registers
•!• Software operates continuously despite powering down or u p of the system d u e to
loss of power s u p p l y or other faults I
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•!• Hardware filtering provided on all analog i n p u t channels
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•!• Application program resides in non-volatile RAM
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•!• · Configuration a n d diagnostic tools for: J
•!• System setup

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•!• Hardware and software setup
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•!• Application code development/management/operation
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•!• Error logs
· •!• Remote and local operation
Each module should have internal software continuously testing the systems 1/0 and
hardware. Diagnostic LEDs should also be provided to identify any faults or to diagnose
r failure of components. It is important that all these conditions are communicated back to
the central station for indication to the operator.

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U N I T 3 : M A I N T E N A N C E AND C O N D I T I O N M O N I T O R I N G OF T & I
E Q U I P M E N T S & SCADA
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Introduction
.._J
The equipments installed at compressor stations are h i g h l y capital intensive, therefore
enhancing of life of equipments by correct and effective methods of maintenance
becomes al l the more essential. Instruments are integral to the Pipeline and
compressors Stations. and it is equally vital to operate, and maintain properly, safely to
keep them available and healthy.
J
A listing of the Common and major Instruments has been d o n e . General procedure for
maintenance of electrical systems has been described. Work Instructions of various
basic electrical maintenance activities has been described. A typical Task list has also
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been i n c l u d e d . Standard abbreviations have been used throughout the chapter.
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Instrumentation, SCADA Equipments and Systems
Instrumentation System of pipeline and station equipments are integral to the
irrespective systems for their function, the way nervous system to the human body.
Instrumentation systems measures, indicate, transmit, sense and carry several other l
._J
functions in respect of various parameters like Flow, temperature, pressure, velocity,
ti m e, length etc. Some of the Major instruments located in various parts of a p i p e l i n e
system are listed below: J
•!• Flow Transmitter (FT)

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•!• Flow l n d i c a t o r ( F I )
•!• Flow computer
•!• Temperature Transmitter (TT) _..J
•!• Temperature Indicator (Tl)

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•!• Temperature g a u g e
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•!• Thermowell
•!• Pressure Transmitter

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•!• Pressure Indicator

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•!• Pressure gaug_e
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•!• Instrumentation panel
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•!• Remote Terminal Units (RTU)
Maintenance P h i l o s o p h y
The maintenance philosophy of Instrumentation system is based on the company's
, maintenance philosophy, Vendor's recommendation and Plant Maintenance Module
r- under ERP-SYSTEM System for various systems. The endeavor is made that every
system functions smoothly and provide uninterrupted availability of equipments for the
operation of Compressor Station, to ensure m i n i m u m · downtime keeping spare
consumption within bench mark l i m i t .
Procedure
Master Data for all Equipments has been described in Equipment Master in ERP
SYSTEM those can be viewed and verified in Soft form in E R P - P l a n t Sever.
Preventive Maintenance
•!• Preventive Maintenance Frequency for Maintenance Activities should be been
addressed in ,Preventive- Maintenance, Maintenance Item & Maintenance Plan in
, ERP-SYSTEM
•!• Effort s h a l l be made to close the Notification as raised in the system, d e p e n d i n g
on the criticality, urgent, important or normal criterion as defined in the PM·
Module against each e q u i p m e n t .
•!• All preventive maintenance activities shall be carried out in accordance with good
r e n g i n e e r i n g practices, vendor instructions & checklists/datasheets, as applicable.
•!• The reference of vendor instructions, as applicable, are given in the checklists I
datasheets a n d · in case of any doubt regarding the 'methodology of carrying out
the job, the same can be referred .
. •!• Before carrying out any maintenance activity necessary clearances/safety
permits as detailed out in the Work Clearance Management shall be taken from
Control Room. The status of Preventive Maintenance carried out s h a l l be logged
in the Notification in the E R P System. ·
· Predictive Maintenance
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I , •!• The basis of carrying out the predictive maintenance is the feedback from the on
line instruments and off-line condition monitoring reports. The feedback is from
••• :••••••••• y
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MCR or C/R or an observation by maintenance personnel during routine J

checking.
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Major I Break Down Maintenance
•!• Upon receipt of SYSTEM-mail intimation about a Failure & Mal Function of J
equipment or any other break down, the Maintenance Planner shall issue a
Maintenance Order-Notification as per ERP Procedure for such breakdown. After
obtaining Maintenance Order the concern Work Center shall c a r ry . out the
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rectification. Before carrying out any maintenance activity, necessary Notification
I Work clearances I Material as detailed out in the procedure s h a l l be taken from

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Maintenance P l a n n e r .
Out Sourcing Maintenance Services J
•!• The requirement of the jobs to be out sourced s h a l l be identified by Maintenance

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Planner. A complete proposal, justifying the need and indicating the financial
implication shall be prepared and included in the Annual Budget. Financial
concurrence shall be obtained for the expenditure involved. Approval from J

competent authority s h a l l be obtained, as per Delegation of Powers ( D . O . P ) .
Monitoring & Maintenance at Repeater Stations
For carrying out any maintenance work preventive I breakdown by any department at
J
any of the RR station, the p i p e l i n e department of the respective section & M C R must be
informed. However, for carrying out any control functions I modifications with valve,
CCVTs etc. pipeline representative must accompany so as to avoid any breakdown I . J
shutdown of the system.
I
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It is mandatory for a l l the maintenance persons to inform MCRat the time of entry & exit
from RR stations.
J
· Maintenance Detail
Tasklist J
Preventive Maintenance work Instructions are listed in the following Task Lists. System·
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codes are for classification.
,,J
30151101 Y1 Check List for GTC Instrument M a i n t
30151102 Y1 Check List for GTG Instrument Maint
30151103 Y1 A S Controller & Cntrl Valve S i m u l ' n J

30151104 Y1 Nitrogen PLANT A&B - Inst. M a i n t

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! 30151105 Y 1 - P e rf o r . & Repeat. check of DP Switch
30151106 M6 Fire & Gas Detection System (GTG)
30151107 Y1-Perfor. & Repeat. check of Press Gage
30151108 Y1-Perfor. & Repeat. check of DP Gauqe
30151109 M6 Fire & Gas Detection System (GTC)
r 30151110 Y1-Perfor. & Repeat. check of Temp G a u Q e .
30151111 Y1 Check List for IA Comp HVJ Inst M a i n t

1........,
30151112 Y1 Check List for DEG Instrument Maint
•.
30151113 Y1 Check List for Fire Water Sys I n s t
30151114 Y1 Check List for M/L Filter Sep. A/B/C ·
30151115 Y 1 - P e rf o r . & Repeat check of Temp Switch
30151116 Y 1 - P e rf o r . & Repeat check of Temp Trans.
30151117 Y1 Check List for B/L Filter Sep. A/B

. .
30151119 . Y1 Check List for GTG Filter Sep. A/B
30151121 · Y 1 - P e rf o r . Check of Flow Computers

rv 30151127 Y1 Check List for M/L FGCU Inst Maint A/B
30151129' Y1 Check List for B/L F G C U Inst Maint A/B
30151131 Y1 Check List for GTG F G C U Inst M a i n t A/B
30151133 Y1 Check List for Starting Gas System
30151134 Y1 Check List for IA Dryer Inst Maint A
30151135 Y1 Check List for IA Dryer Inst M a i n t B
30151136 Y1 Check List for Inst Air Recvr Inst
r 30151137 Y1 Check List for Plant Air Recvr I n s t

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301.51138 Y 1 Check List for IA Comp DVPL Inst Maint
30151141 Y1-Task List For PSV Calibration
30151142 Y 1 - C A L I B A N D C H E C K I N G OF PT
30151143 Y 1 .;. C A L I B A N D C H E C K I N G OF DPT
30151144 M3 DVPL SEAL GAS F I L T E R E L E M E N T C L E A N I N G
30151166 Y1DVPLCOMPRESSORS
30151172 Check List For Primary I n s t Calibration
30151172 Check List For Primary Inst Calibration
30151185 Y 1 - C A L I B OF P R E S S U R E SWITCH .
D. Maintenance of Equipment Through System
t. For Preventive Maintenance for Equipment an auto Notification and Maintenance
Order s h a l l be generated as per S c h e d u l i n g by the ERP System.
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2. For unplanned Maintenance Notification shall be generated by Control Room by
selecting proper e q u i p m e n t from E q u i p m e n t List of particular Maintenance Plant.
3. For Calibration · of Instrument an auto Maintenance order PM05 Type shall be
generated by the ERP System as per Schedule-Cycle.

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4. Maintenance P l a n n e r s h a l l plan a l l the Maintenance orders on the basis of priority of J

equipment.
5. Maintenance Planner shall assign operations from task list to c a r ry · out the
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maintenance by respective work center.
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6. Maintenance P l a n n e r s h a l l assign components from BOM of E q u i p m e n t for spares
a n d consumables to do the maintenance.
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7. Maintenance p l a n n e r s h a l l attach Work Clearance Application to do the work in safe
manner.
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8. Control Room shall prepare Work Clearance documents, Safety Officer S h a l l give
approval for Hot Work Permit and Electrical Engineer shall give permission for J
Electrical Lock Out permit, Tagging of Switch Gear Panel and untagging approval
after completion of work.· ·

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9. Maintenance P l a n n e r s h a l l issue Maintenance Order against the Notification.
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1 0 . Material Requisition Slip, Tagged Print, Maintenance Order w i l l get print a n d copy
given to respective work center to perform the maintenance work.

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1 1 . A f t e r completion of work, maintenance engineer shall return the permit & unused
material if any, and fill the actual data in the Maintenance Order I Notification screen.
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1 2 . Maintenance planner after review will declare Technical completion of Maintenance
order. J
1 3 . Maintenance P l a n n e r s h a l l close the Notification with h i s remarks, if any . .

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1 4 . All the information as filled in the Maintenance Order a n d Notification gets recorded
in the E q u i p m e n t History.
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1 5 . U n d e r P M I S a l l the report in various forms s h a l l be updated. These reports can be
viewed by Authorized person and these can be printed as per requirement. J
1 6 . Information flow, e q u i p m e n t data, cost calculation, E q u i p m e n t History becomes easy
to store and archive it as per requirement.
1 7 . By u s i n g Transaction Code of MM m o d u l e martial a n d service can overviewed. J
Maintenance Plan
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A Maintenance Plan is devised and approved at the beginning · of the year for each
e q u i p m e n t and facility so that system can be maintained in good operating condition

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92 I Page . Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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with safe and environment friendly practices and are documented. A sample index of
plan is as follow.
��Jf�1�;�MN-te,1,�n1�t1i��? i��1;1rt�rfr!��i��at�t��1:MaiJ1}tQnarrc�e;:Prim��:�t�1�1�1r1r��f�it�:t�{��,�r
6443 HALF YEARLY M A I N T E N A N C E OF GTG-B
r '6448 YEARLY M A I N T E N A N C E OF GTC-A
6450 QUARTERLY MAINTENANCE OF GTC-B
r 6456 YEARLY M A I N T E N A N C E OF GTC"'.C
6458 QUARTERLY M A I N T E N A N C E OF GTC-D
6459 HALF YEARLY M A I N T E N A N C E OF GTC-D
7305 APM PLAN - IA SYSTEM I N S T R U M E N T S
7306 APM PLAN - FGCU I N S T R U M E N T S

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7307 APM PLAN - F I L T E R S E P . A I N S T R U M E N T S
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7308 APM PLAN - FILTER S E P . B I N S T R U M E N T S
.7309 APM P L A N � F I L T E R S E P . C I N S T R U M E N T S
7311 Q P M PLAN - COMN STATION I N S T R U M E N T S
7312 APM P L A N :. COMN STATION I N S T R U M E N T S
r 7313 A P M PLAN - COMN STN S U C T I O N PT & FT

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8177 HALF YEARLY M A I N T . OF N P -A
8180 HALF YEARLY M A I N T . OF N P -B
r 8183 HALF YEARLY MAINT. OF N P -C
6809 GTC-A VENT VALVE-1

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Calibration of Instruments
Calibration of Instruments is to be carried out as per Maintenance P l a n . For calibration
PM 05 type of Maintenance order is to be used. Calibration frequency is defined in the
Task List. Calibration frequency of a l l Instruments is one year except meters used in
custody transfer applications.
History Sheet
History of equipments gets automatically updated in PM module of SYSTEM.
· Transaction code YRIR 003 can be used in conjunction with the equipment or
Functional Location in order to retrieve History of that particular e q u i p m e n t or Functional

Location. · - ·
Annual Calibration Plan
The Maintenance Plans once created a n d Scheduled in PM Module automatically follow
the frequency and the respective Maintenance orders for calibration. are created by the
system at the b e g i n n i n g of the month. ·

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Calibration Procedure
................•.................. ·-···-······· .. ···············-·- ,.......... . ··-··-· .
,---..
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Calibration of the instruments shall be carried out as per the frequency of calibration J
indicated in the format "TASK LIST".
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Whenever the calibration of the compressor station field instruments is to be carried out,
Work Clearance Document (WCD) shall be obtained from operation group before
starting the j o b . J
It is the responsibility of the HO D of the department to ensure that the Maintenance
pl ans and hence calibration schedule of the Instruments of, their department, which are ·
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· un der calibration, is implemented properly. They have to plan about the Master .
instruments falling d u e for calibration, considering the lead-time 60 days for calibration.
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lfcalibration of Master is not carried out as per the Maintenance Plan the e q u i p m e n t
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s h a l l not be used until calibration is done . ...J
. Proving of Turbine Meter: Proving interval for Turbine Meter used at terminals for
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custody transfer shall not exceed 5 years. This shall be carried out at an accredited
approved facility. ·
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Proving interval for Master T u r b i n e Meter used in Meter Proving facility s h a l l not exceed
15 years. These meters shall be proved against the Reference Meters (Traveling
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Standards. traceable to international standards).
In order to prevent tampering of setting by unauthorized

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Sealing For Integrity:
. personnel all the adjustment points affecting the performance of the instruments used in
custody transfer measurement system, shall be locked with paint. ·
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Traceability: Upkeep of · Master Instruments with regard to safety, accuracy &
repeatability are to be ensured. As far as possible the "Masters" shall be calibrated ·

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traceable to National/International standards through an unbroken c h a i n . ·
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I n some situations, where such facilities are not available or are far off, the calibration of J
Master Instruments will also hold good if the same are calibrated using customer's
calibration facilities and certificate of conformance is issued by the Calibration Lab.
S u c h · calibration will hold good for a period not exceeding six months from the date of J
calibration. lncharge-lnstrument Lab shall maintain the record of calibration of Master
Instruments
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Non-Conforming Instruments
Identification & Storage of Non-Conforming Instruments

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The instruments found non-conforming to the required standards will be · marked as

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"Rejected" a n d . will be· stored in a place kept reserved for such instruments. OIC/HOD r
(Inst. Maint.) is authorized to declare these instruments as " R E J E C T E; D " .

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Downgrading of the Non-Conforming Instruments

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No downgrading of the non-conforming instruments is allowed. If d u r i n g calibration the
error of Master test equipment is found to be more than permissible limit the same.
s h o u l d not be used and marked as R E J E C T E D .
Disposal of the Rejected Instrument
· The non-conforming instruments declared as "Rejected" and other scrap will be·
returned to the store from time to time as per the prevailing stores procedure
SCADA Maintenance
r· Functional capabilities of SCADA system are designed to provide the central monitoring
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a n d control of gas transmission pipeline system so as to achieve safe, reliable, efficient
and economic pipeline operations. For the following section abbreviations are given
once and standard notations apply. This section should be read in conjunction with
Scada System Surveillance chapter. ·
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1. The following are maintained:
(a) A list of equipments and corresponding ·reference m a n u a l s for maintenance in
hard or soft copy.
(b) A list of measuring and test equipment which are needed for maintenance in
hard or soft copy.
(c) List of RTUs indicating jurisdiction iii hard or soft copy . .
The electronic hardware involved in Telemetry system requires no Preventive or
Predictive Maintenance. Only breakdown maintenance will be performed.
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Master Station Equipment Breakdown history and maintenance record shall be
maintained for each type of equipment e . g Host Servers, F E P s , CLSs, MMls, Mimic
r panels, Terminal Servers, G P S s .
All faulty modules, shall be labeled and tagged as per following details for easy
identification.:
Modu le Name:
Equipment N a m e :
Location:
Fault Details:
Siqnature with Date:
RTU Down Time Log will be maintained as per format.

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Every month a "SYSTEM AVAILABILITY REPORT" shall be generated at Master J

Control Centre for the entire SCADA system and filed for record. The System
Availability Report would be based on availability of Remote terminal u n i t .

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Any e n g i n e e r visiting the Repeater for RTU maintenance activities s h a l l do so o n l y after
prior intimation to the P/L department. However during testing of remote control of any J
field device like Valves/CCVTs through SCADA, he must ensure that a Pipeline
e n g i n e e r is present at site to tackle any eventuality.

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House Keeping
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House Keeping jobs are performed daily at active Master Station logged in "DAILY
HOUSE KEEPING LOG" to check the system health. The jobs involve the following
routine checkups followed by appropriate corrective actions wherever necessary. J
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a) RTU availability Whether a n y RTU is unavailable.
b) MS Hardware Whether any of the Hardware component in the MS is �
Availability unavailable
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c) Low speed C h a n n e l Whether any Low speed data c h a n n e l is unavailable
availability
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d) History subsystem Whether History archiving is functioning and free space
a n d archiving· is available in the Optical d i s k for further archiving
e). Disk space in the Checkinq for free d i s k space in each of the Hosts. Free
SCADA Hosts · d i s k space i n . the '/opt' file system should be about 2 5 % .

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If required,_delete archive files from
'/opUscada/log/archive' folder keeping at least last
fifteen days data J
E q u i p m e n t Breakdown J
Breakdown of any equipment is likely to be noticed during routine check-up of the
system or may be observed by the Operator in shift at M C R .

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Maintenance will be performed keeping the equipment down time as m i n i m u m .

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The Gas dispatch Operator on duty at MCR will be informed prior to carrying out those
.maintenance jobs, which may affect availability of data at M C R .

Maintenance will be carried out consulting the relevant vendor manuals · I SCADA
Documentation CD for the e q u i p m e n t .
Software Maintenance
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Any kind of modification/change in the System hardware/Software and · RTU
configuration shall be logged Software related modifications including modifications of
Graphic displays and RTU configuration shall be carried out only at active Master .
Station.
Any modification in the Development Database will be carried out o n l y at active Master
Station: It shall be followed by export and backup in secondary storage media. ·
Monitoring & Maintenance at Reapter I SV / IP Stations
For carrying out any maintenance work preventive/breakdown by a n y department at any
of t h e · RR/SV/IP station, the pipeline department of the respective section & active
Master Station must be informed. However, for carrying · out any · control
functions/modifications with valve, CCVTs etc. p i p e l i n e representative must accompany
so as to avoid any breakdown/ shutdown of the system. It is mandatory for all the
maintenance persons to inform MCR at the time of entry & exit from RR stations.
List of Quality Records
Oualitv records of SACDA Maintenance have been identified as per details given below
F�� st{�/NP f��- -

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a JtYf�Riita�rcf ii+tfJ?:�;�::�;;�1��,;}�f�1�:t\:·
f ,�:o/E p�rrit�,t��N Q:i'."it:
1 MASTER STATION E Q U I P M E N T
BREAKDOWN M A I N T E N A N C E RECORD
2 RTU BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE RECORD
3 . DAILY H O U S E K E E P I N G LOG
r 4 SYSTEM M O D I F I C A T I O N LOG
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5 RTU PATH STATUS REPORT
6 SYSTEM AVAILABILITY R E P O R T
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7 C H E C K LIST FOR E M E R G E N C Y MASTER
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STATION HAZIRA
Major Maintenance Records are to be followed as per typical formats given below.
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Master Station Equipment Breakdown Maintenance Record
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· · · · - · · .•.................

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SI. Breakdown Equipment Sign Rectification Fault Signature

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No. Identification ature identific
and Problem ation I

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observed Remark
Date Time Date Time
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RTU Breakdown Maintenance Record

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Format No.:
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SI_. Down RTU Sign Restored Rea - Details Sign
No. Date Time Name Date Time son when "E" l
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& (1/E) - Previous
Obser Failure Date
vation when "I" J
I - Internal - when RTU failure is due to a component failure in RTU _J
E "'. External - when RTU failure is due to any other reason l i k e · power source I )
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telecomm failure

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U N I T 4: CONTROL ROOM LAYOUT
Introduction
The central site computer facilities have to be designed and· installed to ensure the
satisfactory operation of the hardware and software and to ensure that the operators
a n d other users c a n use the system effectively a n d safely.
This chapter discusses the requirements for the central site computer facilities with
reference to the following:
• Recommended installation practice
• Ergonomic requirements
• Design of the computer d i s p l a y s
• Alarming and reporting philosophies
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Recommended installation practice ·
There are a n u m b e r of requirements, which have to be carefully adhered to in installing
t h e computer system in a building. These are reviewed in the following paragraphs.
Environmental considerations
The environment in which the system is installed must be appropriate to the computer.
system and the associated electronics systems. Typical environmental conditions that
are considered suitable for the standard and the industrial environment are . listed in
Table below.
Obviously, the environment in a control room should not have these extremes; but the
equipment should be rated for these ranges. Typical control room environmental ranges
are discussed under ergonomic requirements. Industrial computer systems may be
mounted in a less stringent environment than for the standard air-conditioned control
room.
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Reco1mme.nd!ed Ra.n1 ,e
E.nvi ronme ntal

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Condiitio.n lndustri a:I Standard
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·operating 0°C to 60°C 0 ° G to 50/QC

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Temperature
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Storage --40°C to 85°G - 1 0 ° C to 60/QC

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Temper:ature ·
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Relative Humidity 5 t o 95°tc
. · .. • a
RH 5 to 90�/o RH
Should personnel suspect that there could be problems with the environment having J
excessive dust, corrosive vapors, moisture or oil the best approach is to mount the
computer system in an enclosure. This will provide the necessary protection for the
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processor. Special consideration may have to be given to such issues as vibration and it
may be necessary to mount the computer in the enclosure on shock mountings to
absorb some of the vibration. J
Ensure that the enclosure doors can be easily opened and that the heat is allowed to
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dissipate. Note that hot air rises and there can be b u i l d u p of heat inside the top of the
enclosure a n d a fan may be needed to circulate the air.

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Computer manufacturers have table's available providinq data on the allowable a m b i e n t
temperatures around their equipment. Generally computers do not immediately fail
when the heat is excessive but have intermittent dropouts and suffer long-term d a m a g e . J
The enclosure should be large e n o u g h to allow space to work on the system and to
observe diagnostic lights/LEDs etc.

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E a rt h i n g and s h i e l d i n g
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Ensure that all hardware is securely earthed. The earth electrode is the central point for
all electrical equipment a n d AC power within the facility. Use the maximum size copper
wire (say, 8 AWG) for the earth. ·

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Certain connections require shielded cables to reduce the effects of electrical noise. ·
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Ensure that only one end of the shield is earthed. E a rt h i n g at both e n d s of a s h i e l d e d
cable s h o u l d be avoided, as it will cause an earth loop in the cable. l
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Cabling
100 I Page Indian School of Petroleumee Energy

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Some points . to emphasize when installing communications cabling between the
different computers and systems in th,e control. room are listed below:
•!• Calculate the actual distance the cable is being run :- i . e . both the horizontal and
vertical distances. Select the shortest possible path away from sources of noise.
•!• Route the 'cables well away from potential sources of electrical interference,
harsh chemicals, excessive heat, wet environments and sources of physical
damage.
•!• Ensure that no one will walk or drive on the cable.
•!• Ensure that the cable is not put under u n d u e tension (such as h a n g i n g between
two points).
•!• Do not bend the cable excessively in the installation process.

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Power Connections
For installations near sources of electrical interference, an isolation transformer is. a
recommended approach. Note that the output devices being controlled should draw
r power from the original source of the voltage unless the secondary of the isolation
transformer (which is supplying the· computers) has been specifically rated for these
additional devices.
Where the AC power source has variations, a constant voltage (CV) transformer can
stabilize the voltage for short periods of time, thus minimizing shutdowns. It is worth
noting here, that CV transformers are very sensitive to variations in m a i n frequency and
will not operate successfully with unstable m a i n s frequency s u p p l i e s .
For both the constant voltage transformer a n d the isolation transformer the operating
frequency a n d the operating voltage s h o u l d be carefully specified ( e . g . 240 V AC + 1 0 %
- 1 5 % or 50 H z ± 2 % ) . ·
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1 0 1 1 Page Indian School of PetroleumS, Energy
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Disconnect Fuses 4 1 5 VAC

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-
.,,..---�--c..:,°'J:'.,C:>----c:::l><lCl---__,,-- � L1
;-----<�O------'-CJ><O----+-----,.-----� L2
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'-----0-....c>---<:;r;.-<10----i,-.-.----+-'------� L3 )
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��, S tep- d o w n
#"'l<')("X,n,c�, :Transformer
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· Other
Computer
..----------1--------- Equipment J
- 1
Isolation or : :
1
Constant Voltage ·· · · · 1
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Transformer :_(!JQQ_OJSJ:
To Compute,
Power S u p p l i e s
l l · J
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· An isolation transformer
It is i m p o rt a n t to size transformers correctly:

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• If the transformer is too small it will clip the peaks off the sine wave (due to saturation)
resulting in a lower rms value of the voltage. The power supply could sense this as a
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low voltage and shutdown. The transformer may also overheat and burn out.
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• Excessively large transformers do not provide as much isolation as a correctly sized
transformer, due to higher capacitive coupling. Useful techniques to reduce the
electromagnetic i n t e rf e r e n c e and switching transients are given in Figure J
ontacts ontaots
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l� l�
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Coil
R C
·---�-I- J
RC Network Flywheel Diode
........��-·�·t-��----------' J
240 VAC Supply voe supply
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Su ression Network for AC Su ression Network for DC
Techniques for reducing electromagnetic interference and surges

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Ergonomic Requirements
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1 0 2 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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The main reason for considering ergonomic requirements is to improve the working
environment of control room personnel. In the long run this should improve the
productivity and reliability of the overall system.
r Design Methodology
: . "' ·-·-········"-' ---·--· 1
r . j Allocate
lden,tify $¥Stems i runcdo·ns to

required to I
i--
•: ---:,-
- · machf,ne,
;achieve· goals · oomputet or

human operator !
computer -or
Humantasiks madhine,.based - � - -r;
functions
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Training! Workstation EnvifanmeMaJ; Interface
selection spedficatic:m desig1n. specification
The flowchart presents the .,,,idea lizedi'I path for· the
systemati<i= introduction of ergonom lncs,
,--.· -
•!• The . main· reason for considering ergonomic requirement is to improve the
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working environment of control room personnel. In the long run this should
improve the productively and reliability of the overall system.

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� The horseshoe control room layout is designed so that anyone in the
r-'
centre can see a l l the screens. Operators· at any of the operators display
( . should be able to view the entire control room's screen without undue
difficulty.
� Areas in. the system that are being monitored should be situated close
together to avoid unnecessary movement.
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� Voice communication system should be situated as close as possible to _J

the operator.
� Consoles have a major impact on the well being of the user.

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The majority of tasks in a computer control room can be broken down into the following:
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•!• Monitoring of the system 1
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•!• Control adjustments
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•!• Alarm/emergency procedures
•!• Staying awake J
Typical control room layout
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\Entry White Board @ 1 . 2 m alf !1047-·- J
' 'f
r "',,.,
1�-1 �
;Critical/' J
I Coni,1 \.
;!f"·,,,,,b perator\
; · · . .. ...... . /.- · \_ Statio9,..,..,..\
f .. ,,,. R2248.50/ \ ,,.._,,,,./ \

i Operator -' �----,. / \ Operator '; 858 ...._
Station f -�,.,,82248.50 ·.,. .. ) . ' ----..-
900 I,. · / /;)'- Station j
..: · · · )Jl,-f-.---. -- -I 4�-� -..... ,,. 464 / (.(· ) ----·-··--·---- i
1
1 Operator I r: ){50 · '·,-.....,._,,f · .._,/ o per I J

1----------1 Station , \ ,J
8ta ion
1�tor
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i ... --------·---\ '···-·' 3166 ----------- !
Printe Printer Printer \ Operator'; _ --C···----.::·-:t�· 714··--=-·-·--• o erator 7

BBB \ Station,..)\
\ _.,....,_,., \
...._ (3 desk sections)
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,.._
/
;--.. .. pation /
,.........._ I
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\;-'6perator\ ;:,-�) · / Operator'-1
' \ Station>" <, l� C } 400. .r>: Station / . ·,
'I \ / r"� ------ �-< v, i
\\ ,rOperat�r ! 1 ·
1 • \ "--., /
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- St ti1 0 I ' i \ - . Closed Circui
'--� a , FLtu ui I \ 7--TVofCritical
- ....__ / 1
· re F ! \ ,./ Areas
"'<..... I I >-
----------l ! ,/'� -..:ZSI\,.:
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Entry I
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.,.
Doors must comply with safety
requirements and hence must open

a not d.
Typical layout of the computer control room
The horseshoe control room layout is designed so that anyone in th'e center can see all
the screens. Operators at any of the operator displays should be able to view the entire
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control room's screens without u n d u e difficulty as well. _J
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Although the focus in a control room is normally on the equipment and computers, the
· amount of space for the operators should also be maximized to avoid congestion
(particularly when there is a changeover of shifts). Operators will spend a considerable
amount of time in front of their consoles and the layout should ensure that the operator ·
can see anyone coming into the control. room and not have 'people peering over t he i r
shoulders.
S i m i l a r areas in the system that are being monitored should be situated close together
to avoid unnecessary movement by the operators to see what is g o i n g on. The voice
communications system (either radio or telephone) should be situated as close as
possible to the operators and for other persons entering the control room. For the
control room indicated in the diagram at least three internal telephones should be·
provided for easy access (with frequently used numbers programmed into the system).
. . . . .
The amount of desk space s h o u l d not be compromised. Space s h o u l d be allowed form
a n n u a l s and other items to be left on the desk without unnecessary clutter. The printers
for the system are situated in a separate room to isolate the operators from the
associated (rather repetitive) noise. The associated inconvenience of having to walk to
l the printer room to view alarms can be minimized by providing on-screen alarm reports.
· A separate meeting room should' be provided to avoid holding meetings in the control
r room which is of no interest to the operator but which disrupt h i s work. The following
specific issues should also be considered in t h ed e s i q n o f the computer control room.
Lighting
Tungsten halogen light sources produces warm lighting while the light l i f e of 2000 to
4000 hours is reasonable. They are also not diffused and can produce significant
shadowing. If longer life is required t u b u l a r fluorescent lamps have a life of 5000 to 10
000_ hours but may have variable color rendering and variable apparent color if the
correct color tube is not chosen. ·
The l u m i n a r i e s should be fixed overhead and provide direct l i g h t i n g . Desk lighting can
r> be installed to provide localized lighting over the keyboard. A general level of lighting of
[
400 l ux is recommended throughout the control room with a personal level of 200 to 600
lux set by the operator.
An average reflectance level of 30 to 60% is recommended for the wa i l s . The ceiling
. ,,.-- sho u l d have a reflectance of at least 75% with floors a n average of 4 0 % . ·
S o u n d environment
A maximum noise level of 54 to 59 d B ( A ) is re c ommended.
Ventilation
1 0 5 1 Page·· Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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. The a i r temperature s h o u l d be between 20°C a n d 26°C with relative h u m i d i t y range of
40 to 60% RH fresh air s h o u l d flow at the rate of 7 liters/sec per person throughout the
control room.
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Colors of e q u i p m e n t
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Colors for walls and e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d have a matt finish ( i . e . no s h i n y s u rf a c e s ) to

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avoid irritating reflections from the operator d i s p l a y s . Strong contrasts in color s h o u l d

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also be avoided to m i n i m i z e g l a r e . ·
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Where the general l i g h t level is low (less than 300 lux) warm color schemes are more
acceptable than those in which cold colors predominate. A pleasant color. scheme can
be achieved with warm colors backed up with cool secondary colors.

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D e s i g n of the computer displays

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The objective of this discussion is to provide a useful set of g u i d e l i n e s for the design of
an effective operator d i s p l a y system. The approach s h o u l d be to ensure that the
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displays are as easy to read a n d understand as p o s s i b l e . This reduces the decoding
process in the h u m a n brain to a m i n i m a l level and maximizes . the decision-making
processes of the brain as per F i g u r e below. T h i s ensures that the operator can react
j
quickly and effectively without having to work out where the problem is.
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Ergonomic versus non-ergonomic representation of data
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Typical hardware that is provided i s :
•!� One or more operator displays (which may be of the touch type)
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•!• I n d u s t r i a l (or Mylar) type keyboards which have a u d i b l e or tactile feedback
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106 I Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy )
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•:• Operator panels consisting of highlighted keys to bring up predefined graphic
displays
•:• Printers (one for alarms and one for reports)
,--,
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•:• Alarm buzzers ( or external sirens)
1' (A useful addition although possibly expensive option is a video copier for reproducing
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the operator screens in color.)
A useful configuration is as in Figure
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1
.
r=:
Configuration of the operetor screens
1
Displays should appear within one second of the operator pressing the appropriate
d i s p l a y key(s).
Operator displays a n d graphics
The organization of displays should be· d o n e in a clear a n d logical way to allow the
operator to quickly and effectively identify the information of interest. The architecture of
displays is to have a progressive decrease in scope of the displays a n d a progressive
increase in detail as the operator looks for some specific information (and is proceeding
down the hierarchy of displays).
Displays s h o u l d be organized into three layers:
•:• The primary level which is an overview level and which should be reached
directly from the function keys on the keypad.
. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
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•!• The secondary level, which consists of a n u m b e r of displays, associated with that
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of the primary l e v e l . . These should be able to be accessed directly from the
primary level d i s p l a y s .
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•!• The tertiary level, which gives more details on certain secondary level, displays.
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The suggested layout of the displays is given in figure below.
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Indexes - -
- Primary
Displays --
L Function
Key
- (Overviews)
- Selection
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'" Note: Displays refer to customi zed
group or trend displays. Each
display point has a help screen
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associated with it.
,
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� Secondary -
-
L
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Function
Key J
- Displays
- ·Selection
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,.
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I Key
t-
Tertiary -
- -- Sequence
1
Displays
- For Selection _J
Display hierarchy
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With more than three levels, the display becomes u n d u l y complex and this s h o u l d be
avoided unless absolutely necessary. There are various associated displays such as
j
trend displays a n d help screens. Zoom boxes ·are useful features, w h i c h · provide more
detail on a specific area of the schematic.
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.-_ canrfot' inust��te rat� 6r cha�de:or apprciach to·
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:iJ?}. t�:1};x>i)it1��r�?)t.:/:;ft0'·;:)1t};/:i\;�· .
. ;}>!.c. Rap1,dly,changing dat_? 1s unreadable '!/ > - · ·
}>,; piffitult to.19cate iqct.i�dual ct°a·t� items it:
. \? · · pref�ntedJn}lisfo! t�.ble. : :,:( ' : · ·
Bar charts/analogue Easy to check whefner data is within: M ovement can potenUally dis tract operators.
iin,lti.' ·,'- .. . " . . .
-dlals "
S lo w re ad time .
P o s s l b l e to mark alarm limits .

I naccurat e if n u m e r i c a l v a lue has to b e
Displays rate of change well: d erived.
· Easily compared to other similarly
presented data. ·
Provides at a glan_ce appreciation of
operating conditions
· · . ' V ,. . -
, :.·, � ...,_ � · './··,,,.,1- . ,. · , / . , ,,.-,:,...,},,: .. · --:· :�·,:=:· .. " � ·
·J deal
, '
for·showing·
. ·.. · ,
p la nt
.
conncuranons;
. , , , ,
· ,; , ope rator 's rnenia! mo d el of the p lant may
diff er fr om he mim ic:
t ' .
ti� be v�ry\!ifficult t� le_'arn. ":
T rend i ays
d spl, Id eal foj p r e s e n ti ng conlinu�usly I naccurate if nu merical v al u e ha s to be
c ha n gi n g i nf ormatio n. d erived.
Presents rate of c h ange in an ea si l y O nly f our parameters can b e d s i pla y ed
understood formal ·
r G ood f or co m parin g data p lot s
, Pr ovides histori�al d ata over' t i me . .

, , .
The various graphic screens that are available are:
•:• Free form graphic screens
' .
This is where the screen format can be created by the users, using whatever layout and
symbols they can create. These are best constructed by the operators (with assistance
from the engineer). They offer the designer complete flexibility in the layout of the
information.
•:• Operating group displays
Here a standard set of symbols is used to create displays as required. These provide
the data in a standard presentation format.
•:• Trend displays
These displays occupy part or the entire screen d e p e n d i n g on the configuration. They
provide trends on the data of analog values.
•:• Alarm displays
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These log the current alarms for the system. It has been shown that operators consult
and use overview type schematics at least ten times more often than secondary and
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tertiary schematics. ltis thus imperative that as much effort as possible goes into the
correct d e s i g n of such displays. The operators s h o u l d be consulted as much as possible
in the design of these screens to make them-as useful as possible. J

,r
Overview displays have to cover a large a m o u n t of the system and it is t h u s important to
eliminate any part of the display, which does not convey information to the operator.
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This would mean that equipment outlines a nd flow lines are not put into overview
schematics.
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Secondary and tertiary displays are consulted less and probably require more
information than that of the live updates. Outlines of e q u i p me n t and text messages J
s h o u l d b e de-emphasized by using low intensity colors.
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An icon should be designed to, indicate clearly the area associated with a given
schematic or operation. This allows the operator to quickly work out which area the
current display is referring to. J
•!• D e s i g n of screens
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There are generally two conflicting dema nd s made, on the design of screens:
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� Reduce the complexity of the· screen
� Try and keep a l l the displays associated with a given function to a m i n i m u m . J
There are a n u m b e r of effective ways in which to design appropriate operator screens.

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A few techniques to bear in m i n d are:
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•!• S i g n a l _to n o i s e ratio
If the s i g n a l (on any display) is defined as the information the operator is looking for and J
noise is information the operator does not require, it is clear that the purpose of a
particular screen s h o u l d be carefully defined so as to maximize live data relating to the

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current function, and minimization of irrelevant data (and detailed graphic layouts of
s h ape of vessels and p i p i n g etc).
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•!• Color and symbols
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Color chart g u i d e l i n e s s h o u l d be followed where possible. Composite symbols a nd flags
should be devised for devices with different states such as on/off/tripped/unavailable
etc, for a p u m p . Flow lines and tanks should be dark b l u e when inactive and red (for J
example) when active.

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/.,,,,,.,- -··---._,
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Red inverse when Yellow inverse when
1· x ] '··,\ Red CLOSED.
trip occurs, unavailable or ) ·

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l -, \ ) Green OPEN
[>: ·--:·�-- /
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"""------/'
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--/--=,,.,,,.-�=
VALVE � Liquid Flow
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or
Liquid Flow �
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Green ON
Orange OFF
Composite pump symbol
Patterns should be used where possible to reduce the complexity and clutter of the
display. Do not exceed 1 0 0 mm by 1 0 0 mm areas with patterns, as it is difficult for the
operator to comprehend areas larger than this on one screen. H i g h priority areas on t h e
screen s h o u l d be h i g h l i g h t e d with h i g h intensity a n d bright colors.
D u l l unattractive colors s h o u l d be used for u n i m p o rt a n t items. Alternatively, u n i m p o rt a n t
items should be left off the screen. Outlines of equipment items should be simple; a life
r like representation is not needed and may in fact clutter the screen unnecessarily .
. l
O u t l i n e s s h o u l d be clearly differentiated from each other; even if this requires a certain
amount of exaggeration. Do not fill outlines up unless absolutely necessary (and then
only with d u l l colors). · ·
•:• A l a r m i n g and reporting p h i l o s o p h i e s
· Alarm processing is an important part of the operator station. Error codes identifying the
faults are normally i n c l u d e d w i t h the description of the failed device. No other part of the
operator display has as much impact on the health of the plant (and that of the
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operator). The alarm function should be viewed as an integral part of the operator
interface and not as a stand-alone feature. Figure below gives a view on the actions that
r occur on an alarm being activated.

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Alarm J
Occurrence
Pt.C l
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__..j-Buzzer -·! ,.J Silence i.r Buzzer .. !
----1-- r
-
�ounds :_!S!t_J . I auiet I
LOW FUEL I
...1".tl.t ' !-Alarm I
I Printout I
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-"j� Rsdo ;
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r Alarm l
Yrr0nmiitt�ii --·-!_Window i
n;,.;;;;�;;;··11"'":--!--------'=.
i..,------··--------�
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Alarm i
Historical File I
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f---·----1 Alarm [.,.J Ack [.J Colour Change I
�ummaryJ ; __ · K e y __ ___J Lon_Alarm_ Summary_:
l ••·-------------·---•-••m-••m---·--•-•mm- •---------•-,m••-
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i ! Colour Change in ;
r-··-Jli'j Schematics, Groups etc'!
, ,_..,[ Annunciator I
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i Panel Flashes I
----------'
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Alarm actions in an operator display
Another approach as opposed to the pure screen listing of alarms is to have an

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associated enunciator panel (situated next to. the operator display) with illuminated
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pushbuttons. Each pushbutton would indicate the area from which the alarms originate
J
and also when depressed would cause the appropriate schematic to appear on the
operator d i s p l a y .
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O n l y four alarm priorities s h o u l d be implemented. These are:
J
H i g h priority
Alarms that warn of dangerous conditions that could cause a shutdown of a major J
activity.
M e d i u m priority
Alarms that s h o u l d be acted on as q u i c k l y as possible; but will not cause a shutdown. I
--1
Low priority
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Alarms that s h o u l d be dealt with when time permits.
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Event only
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' '
Statistical or technical information. No enunciator sounds for these. The limiting of the
number of types of alarms is to keep the system straightforward and with easy
r interpretation of the alarms. H i g h e r priority alarms s h o u l d be louder; lower pitched a n d

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· have a h i g h e r pulse frequency than the lower priority alarms.
� '
r . Alarms are classified as unacknowledged (and flashing on the screen) until the operator
l
acknowledges them via the keyboard. They then · become a n . accepted alarm. One·
weakness in many alarm systems is the occurrence of trivial alarms, which irritate and
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confuse the operator.
Typical trivial alarms are summarized in the table below:
T'ype o f · Sy111ptom Remedy

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fd�rm'/. ·,.'.
r . . � I--'---'---,-,----'--------'---+-'--�---'-----'---'----�
I Consequential Repetitive alarms caused by a lnhibi:t the alarm until the
condttion that the operator is · condition is remedied
aware of
Out of service Alarms are caused by Inhibit the alarms
· equipment notin service
Noaciion_. · . Operator unable to· rectify the Delete the aJarm from the
ailarms.·.· . · · problem · system
Equipment ·. Regular equipment Ensure the alarms are
changes: ' ' maintenance etc ca uses . suppressed for lli i s period by
alarms. added alarm loaic
�inorevent Operator constantly being: Delete alarm and replace
notified about trivi�! events with event recordino ·
Muiltiple Many alarms triggered by one Use first u:p a larrniing to

�- . ; . -.
fau:11 reduce the alarm information
byt;ting . r . ·• •· Signa� dose to alarm level Expand llie range· of signal,

r .. moves the alarm in and out of before movi!ng into alarm
alarm condition
r lnstrumt�fil.drift: . : Drift of instrument causes Ensure lliere is tig!hJ control

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alarm on the calibration of'

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instruments
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It is important to continuously audit, m a i n t a i n , and improve on the alarm system through
analysis a n d review with the operators on the performance of the system.
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For every alarm the following s h o u l d be documented :
•!• Type of alarm

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. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ···--·····.

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•!• Alarmed tag
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•!• Description of tag
•!• Reasons for alarm

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•!• Relationship to related alarms ( consequential relationships)

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•!• Description of the l o g i c in the generation of the alarm
•!• Possible causes of the alarm
•!• Action steps to take to remedy the alarm situation J
Alarms should be able to be disabled provided the operator has the relevant key.
Suggested colors for alarms could be:

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J
· · LOW
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U N I T 5 : SCADA I N -on, & GAS P I P E L I N E S
Introduction
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•!• In the industry supply chain, pipeline operations is an integral p a rt of the.
t r a n s p o rt a t i o n between exploration and production (E&P) and distribution
•!• The "upstream end" precedes it and the "downstream end" follows it.
•!• Pipeline operations 'evolved from being prescriptive (i.e., defined by mandatory
requirements) to its current stance of being p e rf o r m a n c e - b a s e d driven by risk
management principles. · ·
A General Transmission System
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Receipt KS
from
gathering·
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The Need
•!• The pipeline facilities are mature to the point that many of them have exceeded
r their originally intended design life of approximately 25 years at the time of

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conception.
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•!• Today, most of these facilities continue to operate, p a rt l y for economic reasons
as they are too costly to replace and also partly because these facilities still
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remain worthy of continued use
Area of Focus
· \ ·

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Consequently, pipeline operation has been transformed toward the following areas of J
focus.
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a. M a k i n g effective choices among risk-reduction measures.
b. S u p p o rt i n g specific operating and maintenance practices for pipeline subject to J

integrity threats. �
C; Assigning priorities among inspection, monitoring, detection, and maintenance
activities.
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d . S u p p o rt i n g decisions associated with modifications to pipelines, such as rehabilitation
or changes 1n service.
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The Approach
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•!• Combined, these elements form the basis for directing a prevention, detection,
a n d mitigation strategy for their system.
•!• Not o n l y must operators be aware of them but they must also be well versed in
their application, - improve them continuously, and incorporate them into a
comprehensive and systematic integrity management p l a n . -

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These focus points require that pipeline operations activities include the following
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elements:
1 . B a s e l i n e assessment and hazard identification J
2 . Integrity assessment and management t h r o u g h : ·

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a. I n - l i n e inspection
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b. Hydrostatic testing
c. Direct assessment
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d . Defect management and fitness for service

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e. Information management and data integration
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f. Risk management
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3. Operating procedures, i n c l u d i n g h a n d l i n g abnormal operating conditions
4. C h a n g e management
J
5 . Operating excellence/ Efficiency improvement
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SCADA & Automation
l •!• Automation has become an increasingly important aspect of gas processing and
distribution. ·
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•!• The amount of specific types of automation is a major decision now in the
construction of new plants.

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•:• With many existing plants having debottlenecked and improved process
efficiency through mechanical means, automation is now a focus for further

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improvements.
•!• Automation provides the means for fully utilizing the mechanical capabilities of
the equipment at a l l times and to run the process at its most efficient points in a
stable a nd reliable fashion. ·
•!• If the system is· pertorminq both monitoring and control of a process or facility, it
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is referred to as a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
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Applications
•:• Data Historians
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•!• Asset and Performance Management
•!• Statistical Process Control
· •!• Advanced Regulatory Control
•!• Multi-Variable Predictive Control
•!• Optimization
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Pipeline Control Console _

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Pipeline Control Syst� J
SCAOA 8 COIAPUIIR
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1 . Data Historians
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•!• The ability to collect and store . a large amount of data on a disk is a key
advantage of microprocessor-based automation platforms.
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•!• Even so, several vendors have specialized in developing historians to store and
analyze data more efficiently and effectively.

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•!• Data compression techniques are used _ to store a maximum amount of
information in a m i n i m u m space while maintaining resolution of data.

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•!• These historian packages come with tools to assist in mining data, graphing,
t a b u l a t i n g , and analyzing statistically. J
•!• The historical database can be manipulated to automatically generate reports as

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well.
2. Asset and Performance Management J
•!• These solutions i n c l u d e the following.

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� Computerized maintenance management
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� Work order generation
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1 1 8 1 Page Indian School of Petroleumee Energy
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� Predictive maintenance
� Control loop performance and t u n i n g
� O n l i n e e q u i p m e n t health monitoring .
� Process performance monitoring
•!• Asset management focuses on maintaining the plant e q u i p m e n t .
•!• Inventory management, . work order generation, predictive maintenance
programs, and turnaround p l a n n i n g can be accomplished with these tools.
3. Statistical Process Control
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•!• Data from the automation system can be interfaced to statistical process control
packages.
•!• This software is used to generate run charts, process capability analyses,
process characterization, experimental de s ign , and cause-and-effect diagrams.
•!• This type of information is quite valuable to determine the causes of plant
instability and off-specification products.
•!• It is also an excellent tool when base-lining the plant performance and
determining the benefits of improved control.
•!• Statistical process control concepts form a foundation for many of the Six S i g m a
and other quality initiatives when applied to continuous processes.
4. Advanced Regulatory Control
•!• Advanced regulatory control was made much easier with the advent of
microprocessor-based controllers.
•!• This control methodology basically turns s i n g l e input, s i n g l e output control into
multiple input, single output control through the use of cascading controllers,
selectors, feed forwards, ratios, etc.

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•!• Although not impossible .with s i n g l e loop pneumatic and electronic controllers, the
software configuration approach with microprocessor-based controllers
superseded the t u b i n g runs, wiring, and other devices necessary to accomplish
these strategies with earlier controller forms.

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5. Multivariable Predictive Control
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,-

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•!• Multivariable predictive process control provides a structured approach to J

managing process constraints, such as limits on valves and rates of change of
temperature and pressures.

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•!• A model for long-range prediction is used to ensure that the constraints upon
these variables are not violated. J
•!• T h i s enables the maintenance of an operating envelope within which the process
is constrained. · J
•!• In order to determine the optimal set points and constraint values for the
J
controller, an outer optimization can be performed.
•!• This optimization can be described as a linear programming technique that is J

combined with a steady-state model and a cost function, determining the
optimum operating point to be derived from a strategy based on m l n i m u m energy

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usage, maximum t h r o u g h p u t , or a balance between these or other objectives.
Impact of Advanced Controls
Benefits i n c l u d e operation closer to constraint and reduced variant

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•!• In order to determine the optimal set points and constraint values for the
1
controller, an outer optimization. can be performed,
.....J
•!• This optimization can be described as a linear programming technique that is
combined with a steady-state model and a cost function, determining the J

optimum operating point to be derived from a strategy based on m i n i m u m energy
u s a g e , maximum throughput, or a balance between these or other objectives.
Original.
ariability
CONSTRAINT
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New Setpoint New
WithAPC Variability
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,,,,.,....;,-.,_-;,,,--......-...;,-----...---,... Old Setpoint

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Without
APC
6. Optimization

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r •:• For s i m p l e r optimization problems, linear programming ( L P ) techniques can be
employed.
j .
•:• Nonlinear techniques may be warranted for more complex optimization
opportunities where linear methods would miss significant benefits .
.. •:• With the advances in computing power and optimization mathematics, online,
rigorous optimization has become a re ality.· ·
•:• Optimization systems must rely on a multivariable predictive control system. As
t h e · robustness of the multivariable predictive control system improves, so does
the effectiveness of the optimization system.
Transmission System Components
•:• Pipeline
•:• Valves
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•:• Compressors: flow and . pressure · control loops, surge control· loops, station
recycle control loops, and gas temperature control loops.
•:• Storage
SCADA in City Gas Distribution
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, •:• Gas transmission a nd distribution (T&D) companies depend on the reliable
operation of facilities over a widespread geographic area. ·
•:• These systems are used for, controlling facilities, including regulating valves to
control the supply from a l o n g - h a u l transmission pipeline to a local distribution_
system; starting and stopping compressors along the system; and controlling
valves at major customer installations and city gates.
•:• To avoid the .cost of staffing all of these locations, as well as building and
maintaining associated facilities, most organizations rely on automated data
gathering a nd recording systems.
•:• Reliable operations of SCADA systems depends on proper configuration, cyber
security measures, and other factors.
•:• District Regulatory Stations (D R S)
•:• Metering and Regulating Stations (MRS)
r
•:• CP Stations
....•.

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•:• City gate station (CGS)
J
•:• C N G stations.
•:• For safe and reliable operation of the entire natural gas pipeline network along J
with the C N G and P N G stations, implementation of SCADA plays a vital role.
Prevention and Mitigation Measures are taken at

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•:• District Regulatory Stations (DRS) J·
•:• Metering a n d Regulating Stations ( M R S )
J
•:• CP Stations
•:• City gate station (CGS)
•:• C N G stations. J
•:• For safe and reliable operation of the entire natural gas p i p e l i n e n e t w o r k along
with the C N G and P N G stations, implementation of SCADA plays a vital role.

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CP M O N I T O R I N G BY SCADA
J
•:• 'Real Time' parameters (of CP locations) at SCADA Master Station:
J
· � Pipe to Soil Potential ( P S P ) .
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� Target Pipe to Soil Potential. .·
� Battery Bank Voltage. J
� Status I Alarm A n n o u n c i a t i o n s (from CP l o c a t i o n s ) :

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� Pipeline Under protected (Alarm)
J
� P i p e l i n e Over protected (Alarm)
� Power availability (Status) J
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······--······· ············--··-·-······--·

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I SCADA Master StaJion
Billing I CIS
I Voice Grade
· Communication
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Distribution
LAN/WAN
Substation
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CPRS
SCADA, Energy
Management, Outage
I Gas Meter Management Systems
(with or w/o AMR) . and/or Other Platforms

Cpl STATION
Service
ToHome .
·. t,c; . ·" ,.'.... �,;. .
PIPELINES
!: SCADA in S e i s m i c Zone for Natural Gas P i p e l i n e
r . •!• Pipelines often cross seismic zone

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•!• Buried pipelines often subjected to geological events in the seismic zone
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•!• Any shift in the soil encasing the p i p e l i n e transmit strain to the p i p e l i n e itself
•!• If sufficient strain is suffered by the p i p e l i n e , it will rupture

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A Typi:cal P i p e l i n e l_nstallation
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Block Schematic for O r i g i n a t i n g Pump Station J"

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F CV .
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--��1��
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TO � I f----"--IXl----l
NEXT STATION
MAINLINE
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PUMPS
Block Schematic for Intermediate Pump Station

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FRO:MPREV. ·
STATION
p.:::v·
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TO NERT ST.J,.TlON ,
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PUMPS
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Block Schematic tor Terminal Station
Typical MCS Configuration

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OUALREDUNDA!tTCOtffROL sec OPERATOR ENGINEERING STATION-IN-CHARGE
'NORK3TATION5 TERMINAL
TERMINAL
LASERJET
PRINTER
DYNAMIC
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DUALIIO LAN '
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Typical sec Configuration
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DU!,!. REDUNDANT OPERATOR :iTATION-lN-CHARGE
WORKSTATION TERIIINAL
CO..OOR
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D:SK:5 PRJ�TER
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U N I T 6 : LEAK D E T E C T I O N THROUGH SCADA
Introduction
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•!• Due to the p i p e l i n e · damage the pipeline product will escape from the pipeline,
which rs known as p i p e l i n e leak.
•!• P i p e l i n e Leak is an unwanted product escape from the p i p e l i n e .
•!• The leak leads to environmental pollution and product loss to the pipeline
company
C a u s e s of leaks
•!• Due to the pipeline damage the pipeline product will escape from the pipeline,
which is known as p i p e l i n e leak.
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•!• P i p e l i n e Leak is an unwanted product escape from the p i p e l i n e .
r •!• The leak leads to environmental po l l u ti o n and product loss to the pipeline
. c o rn p a n y
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. Need for leak detection system
•!• If the leak is not identified timely, it will lead to severe unwanted consequences
both to environment a nd the p i p e l i n e .
r •!• Because of Leak Loss of life and property, Direct cost of lost product a nd line
down t i m e , environmental cleanup costs a n d Possible fines and legal suits.
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•!• The need for a system that satisfactorily will detect leaks in a pipeline as well as
· determine the location of the leak for uninterrupted,. efficient operations of
pipelines.
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SCADA System for P i p e l i n e s
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Leak Detection Methods

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•!• Internal Systems: Software based systems that use operating data retrieved by
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the SCADA system are classified as internal systems.
•!• External Systems: These systems use sensors that may or may not be J
physically connected to the p i p e .
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E x . : Fiber optics, vapor detectors. etc.
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Internal Systems
Parameter deviation
•!• Rate of change

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•!• Line Balance Methods (Line Balance, Volume Balance)

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•!• Real-Time Transient Modeling
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•!• Statistical Analysis
External systems J

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.: •!• Acoustic emission
•!•· Electrical cable sensors

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•!• Fiber optic sensors
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•!• Vapor a n d soil monitoring
Parameter Deviation
Temperature c h a n g e
l •!• · Some leaks can be detected by temperature changes in the s o i l .
•!• Temperature sensors such as an optical time d o m a i n reflecto- meter are used to
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•!• C h a n g e s of temperature in the immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s of a leak.
· Flow or pressure change
•!• If the flow or pressure rate of change at the inlet or outlet is higher than a
predefined figure within a specific time period, then a leak alarm is generated.
•!• This system depends on the accuracy of the flow meter a n d the pressure g a u g e
reading. ·
•!• The n u m b e r of false alarm is h i g h for this system.
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Leak detection by volume balance method
•!• This method is based on the p rinc ip le "What goes in must come out".
r •!• Requires accurate flow measurements at both e n d s .

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•!• "Flow i n " is reconciled with "Flow out" considering p i p e l i n e inventory to calculate
flow i m b a l a n c e .
•!• V (leak) = V (inlet) - V ( outlet) - V ( c h a n g e in inventory)
•!• Leak detection is if flow imbalance exceeds predefined l i m i t .
Leak d�tection by transient m o d e l i n g enveloping volume balance method
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•!• It employs mathematical model of the pipeline (equation of mass, momentum,

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energy, state)
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•!•· Pipeline model requires flow, pressure, temperature, density ( p r o p e rt y ) inputs
•!• Predicted values are compared with field values and alarm is generated if J
weighted deviation exceeds predefined imbalance limits
•!• Leak location is done by finding the best location where the simulated pipeline
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state matches with current state
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Gradient intersection method to detect the leak a n d its location
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<; , No. Leak
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Leak '· ..., I , . Gradient for End to start Analy�s J

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leak
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Din __ Gout
Internal Methods
Pressure Point Analysis (PPA)

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•:• PPA is based on the assumption that the pressure in the pipeline gets drop, d u e
to a leak.
•:• An appropriate decrease · in the mean value of a pressure measurement
generates a leak alarm.
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•!• This method is used in gradient intersection system to detect the leak and its
. location.
Dynamic Model Based System
•!• This technique attempts to mathematically model the fluid flow within a p i p e l i n e .
•!• The method requires flow, pressure, temperature measurements at the inlet and
outlet of a p i p e l i n e , ideally also pressure/temperature measurements at several

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points along the p i p e l i n e .
•!• This type of methods is based on software simulation.Which depends on the
accuracy of the flow meter, pressure gauge and other measuring devices.
r Leak Detection Module Performance Indices
• Measure of leak detection system to render accurate decisions
about occurrence of leak in the p i p e l i n e w h i l e operating within
operational envelope for which it is d e s i g n e d .
• Measure of size of leak that the system can detect and the time
required to issue an alarm when leak of that size occurs.
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• Measure of error in the estimate of leak location
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• Measure of the size of the operational envelope and the system
ability to
• C o n t i n u e to function when data is lost or suspect, for c h a n g i n g
conditions of the p i p e l i n e ·
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External Methods of Leak Detection
Acoustic E m i s s i o n
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•!• This sensor senses the noise generated by the product when it escapes from the
pipeline.
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•!• D u e to the limitation of the detection range, it is u s u a l l y necessary to install many
acoustic sensors along the l i n e . J
•!• For hot tapped product theft Acoustic signal generation will be less hence
detecting the theft is not possible.

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Electrical Cable sensors

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•!• When a leak occurs, the hydrocarbons form the leak contact the cables, changes
the properties of the chemical coating. J
•!• It effects the electrical resistance of the cable, indicating a leak.

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F i b e r Optic Sensors·
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Three technologies are there for leak detection:
•!• Depends on temp change of fiber optic because of leak of product.'

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•!• Depends on the escaping l i q u i d to induce very s m a l l curvatures in the, fiber. l

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•!• Chemical changes in the fiber optic cable caused by the presence of
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., hydrocarbons.
Vapor and S o i l Monitoring

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•!• If the product inside a p i p e l i n e is h i g h l y volatile, a vapor monitoring system can
be used to detect the level of hydrocarbon vapor in the pipeline s u r r o u n d i n g s . · J
. •!• The system may be vapor or liquid sensing cables.
•!• The response time of the detection system is u s u a l l y from. several hours to days.
Hence the u s a q e . i s l i m i t e d . J
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Benefits of u s i n g SCADA i n . Leak Detection, It is costly but h a v i n g · various advantages
like: l
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•!• Less manpower required
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•!• Increase in profitability
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· · · · - - · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · · · - · · · · · · · · ' · · · - ' " .

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•:• Reduce product loss
•!• Reduce time for finding a leak
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•!• Maintainability
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U N I T 7 : PLC BASICs J
Introduction
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Before the advent of solid-state logic circuits, logical control systems were designed and
built exclusively around electromechanical relays. A relay control panel is comprised of
a single to thousands of relays. Relays are far from obsolete in modern d e s i g n , but have J
been replaced in many of their former roles as logic level control devices, relegated
most often to those applications d e m a n d i n g h i g h current and/or h i g h voltage switching . .
Systems and processes requiring "on/off' control abound in modern commerce and
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industry, but such control systems are rarely built from either electromechanical relays
or discrete logic gates. Instead, digital computers fill the need, which may be �J.
programmed to do a variety of logical functions.
Controllers
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What type of task might a control system have? It might be required to control a
sequence of events or maintain some variable constant or follow some prescribed
change. For example, the control system for an automatic drilling machine (Figure
7 . 1 (a)) might be required to start lowering the drill when the workpiece is in position,
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start drilling when the drill reaches the workpiece, stop drilling when the drill has �
produced the required depth of hole, retract the d r i l l a n d then switch off and wait for the
next workpiece to be put in position before repeating the operation. Another control
system (Figure 7 . 1 (b)) m i g h t be used to ·control the n u m b e r of items moving along a J

conveyor belt and direct them into a packing case. The inputs to such control systems
might be from switches being closed or o p e n e d , e.g. the presence of the -workpiece j
m i g h t be indicated by it moving against a switch and closing it, or other sensors such as
those used for temperature or flow rates. The controller m i g h t be required t o - r u n a motor
to move an object_ to some position, or to tum a valve, or perhaps a heater, on or off. J

Photoelectric
Items moving
along
Cl
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conveyor
Sv..itch contacts opened· when drill
---e reaches the surface of the workpiece

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Drill -e Sv..itch contacts opened when drill
reaches required depth in workpiece
Workpiece T Switch contacts close when

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workpiece in posttion
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(a) (b)
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Figure 7 . 1 An example of a control task and some input sensors: (a) an automatic drilling machine,
(b) a packing system .

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What form might a controller have? For the automatic drilling machine, we could wire
· up electrical circuits in which the closing or o p e n i n g of switches would result in motors

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being switched on or valves being actuated. Thus we might have the closing of a switch
activating a relay which, in turn, switches on the current to a motor and causes the d r i l l to
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rotate (Figure 7 . 2 ) . Another switch might be used to activate a relay and switch on the __J
current to a pneumatic or hydraulic valve which results in pressure being switched to
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. ··--.--------··------- ···············-. ··----· ·-··-··- ····-----·- .......•.. , ..,_ -· ---··-··-

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drive a piston in a cylinder and so results in the workpiece being pushed into the required
. position. Such electrical circuits would have to be specific to the automatic drilling
machine. For controlling the n u m b e r of items packed into a packing case we could
likewise wire up electrical circuits involving sensors and motors. However, the controller
circuits we devised for these two situations would be different. I n the 'traditional' form of
control system, the rules governing the control system and when actions are initiated are
determined by the wiring. When the rules used for the control actions are changed, the�
wiring has to be changed.
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�)Motor
Switch . \
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· . . ) R e l a y to
switch o n
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(�;;e c u rr e n t
Low
·�motor
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Figure 7.2 A control circuit
Microprocessor controlled system

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Instead of hardwiring each control circuit for each control situation we can use the same
· basic system for a ll situations if we use a microprocessor-based system and write a
. program to instruct the microprocessor how to react to each i n p u t · signal from, say,
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switches and give the required outputs to, say, motors a n d valves. Thus we might have a
program of the form: ·

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If switch A doses
Output to motor circuit

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l If switch B closes
Output to valve circuit
By changing the instructions in the program we can use the same microprocessor
system to control a wide variety of situations.

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As an illustration, the modern domestic washing machine uses a microprocessor system.
Inputs to it arise from the dials used to select the required wash .cycle, a switch to
determine that the machine door is closed, a temperature sensor to determine the
temperature of the water and a switch to detect the level of the water. On the basis of
these inputs the microprocessor is programmed to give outputs which switch on the
r drum motor and control its speed, open or close cold a n d hot water valves, switch on the
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drain pump, control the water heater and control -the door lock so that the m ac h i n e
cannot be opened until the washing cycle is completed.

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The programmable logic controller
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is . a special form of microprocessor-based

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controller that uses a proqrarnrnable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control
machines and processes (Figure 7.3) and are designed to be operated by engineers j
. with perhaps a limited knowledge of computers and computing languages. They are not
designed so that only computer programmers can set u p or change the programs. T h u s ,
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the designers of the PLC have pre-programmed it so that the control program· can be
entered using a simple, rather intuitive, form of language. The term logic is used
because programming is primarily concerned with implementing logic and switching

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operations,
e . g . · if A or B occurs switch on C, if A and B occurs switch on D. I n p u t devices, e.g.
sensors such a s . switches; and output devices in the system being controlled, e.g. J
motors, valves, etc., are connected to the PLC. The operator then enters a sequence of
instructions, i.e. a program, the memory of the PLC. The controller then monitors
into
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the inputs and outputs according to this program and carries out the control rules for
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which it has been programmed. -
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Program
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lnpu Outp
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P.b:C __J
Figure 7 . 3 A programmable logic controller J
PLCs have the great advantage that the same basic controller can be used with a wide
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range of control systems. To modify a control system and the rules that are to be u s e d . .
a l l that is necessary is for an operatorto key in a different set of instructions .. There is no
. need to rewire. The result is a flexible, cost effective, system which can be used with J
control systems which vary quite widely in their nature a n d complexity.
PLCs are s i m i l a r to computers but whereas computers are optimisedfor-calcufatlon and
display tasks, PLCs are optimised for control tasks and the- industrial environment. Thus
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PLCs are:
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1 Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity a n d noise.
2 Have interfacing for inputs a n d outputs already i n s i d e the controller.
3 Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language J

which is primarily concerned with logic and switching operations.
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The first PLC was developed in 1 9 6 9 . They are now widely used and extend from s m a l l
self-contained units for use with perhaps 20 digital inputs/outputs to modular systems J
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which can be used for large numbers of inputs/outputs, handle digital or analoque
inputs/outputs, and also carry out proportional-integral-derivative control modes. ·

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Hardware
Typically a PLC system has the basic f u n c t i o n a l components of processor unit, memory,
power supply unit, input/output interface section, communications interface and the
programming device. Figure 7.4 shows the basic a r r a n g e m e n t .
Programming
r device
Input Output
inter inter
face · Processor face
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-------t Power supply
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Figure 7.4 The PLC system
1 The processor · unit or central proces.._sing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the
microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and carries out the control
actions, according to the program stored in its memory, communicating the
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decisions as action s i g n a l s to t h e outputs.
,.---, 2 The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to the low d.c.
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voltage (5 V) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and output
interface modules.
3 The programming device ·is used to enter the required program into the memory of
the processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred to the
r memory u n i t of the PLC.
r 4 The memory unit is where the program is stored that is to be used for the control
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actions to be exercised by the microprocessor and data stored from the input for
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processing and for the output for o u t p u tt i n g .
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5 The input and output sections are where the processor receives information from
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external devices and communicates information to external devices. The inputs
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might thus be from switches, as illustrated in Figure 1 . 1 (a) with the automatic drill, or
r other sensors such as photo-electric cells, as in the counter mechanism in Figure
1 . 1 (b ),. temperature sensors, or flow sensors, etc. The outputs might be to motor
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137 I Page · Indian School of Petroleum Energy

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starter coils, solenoid valves, etc . . I n pu t and output interfaces are discussed in
Chapter 2 . I n p u t and output devices can be classified as giving s i g n a l s which are
discrete, digital or analogue (Figure 7 . 5 ) . Devices giving discrete or digital signals J

are ones where the 'slqnals are either off or o n . Thus a switch is a device giving a
discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage. Digital devices can be considered to

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be essentially discrete devices which give a sequence of on Doff s i g n a l s . Analogue
devices give s ign al s whose size is proportional to the size of the variable being
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monitored. For example, a temperature se n s or. may give a voltage proportional to
the temperature.
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Cl)
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m . Cl) I
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0
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>
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(a) li m e
Time
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t LL _
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(c) Time
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Figure 7.5 Signals: (a) discrete, (b) digital, (c) anaiogue
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6 The communications interface is used to receive and · transmit data on
communication networks from or to other remote PLCs (Figure 7 . 6 ) . It is concerned

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with such actions as device verification, data acquisition, synchronisation between
user applications and connection management.
Supervisory
system
Communications
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network:
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PLC 1 PLC 2
Machine/
Machine/
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plant plant
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Figure 1 . 6 Basic communications model
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Internal architecture _J
Figure 7. 7 shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of a central
processing u n i t ( C P U ) containing the system microprocessor, memory, and input/output

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circuitry. The CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It is
supplied with a clock with a frequency of typically between 1 and 8 M H z . T h i s frequency
r determines the operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing and synchronisation .
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for all elements in the system. The information within the PLC is carried by means of
digital s i g n a l s . The internal paths -along which digital s i g n a l s flow are called buses. In
.the physical sense, a bus is just a number of conductors along which electrical si g na l s
can flow. It might be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires in a ribbon cable. The
C P U . uses the data bus for sending data between the constituent elements, the address
b us to send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data and -the control bus for
signals relating to internal control actions. The system bus is used for communications
between the input/output ports an d the input/output u n i t .
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Program p a n e l
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User System Data Input/

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CPU o
progr.am 0
ROM RAM output
RAM 0 unit
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Output c h a n n e l s
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Figure 7.7 Architecture of a PLC
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1 The C P U
r The internal structure of the CPU depends on the microprocessor concerned. I n

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general they have:
1 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) · which is responsible for data
manipulation and carrying out arithmetic operations of addition and
subtraction and logic operations of A N D , OR, NOT and EXCLUSIVE-OR. ·
2 Memory, termed registers, _ located within the microprocessor and used to
store information involved in program execution.

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3 A control unit which is used to control the timing of operations. J
The buses
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The buses are the paths used for communication within the PLC. The information is
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transmitted in binary form, i . e . as a group of bits with a bit being a b i n a ry digitof 1 or 0,
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i.e. on/off states. The term word is used for the group of bits constituting some
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information. Thus an B-bit word might be the b i n a ry n u m b e r 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 . Each of the bits
is communicated s i m u l t a n e o u s l y along its own parallel wire. The system has four buses: l
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1 The data bus carries the data used in the processing carried out by the C P U . A
microprocessor termed as being 8-bit has an internal data bus which can h a n d l e 8-bit 'I
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numbers. It can thus perform operations between 8-bit numbers and deliver results as
8-bit values. )
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2 The address bus is used to carry the addresses of memory locations. So that
each word can be located in the memory; every memory l�cation is given a unique j
address. Just like houses I n a town are each given a distinct address so that they can
be located, so each word location is given anaddress so that data stored at a particular
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location can be accessed by the C P U either to read data located there or put,
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i . e . write, data there. It is the address b u s which carries the information indicating which ,_J
address is to be accessed. If the address bus consists of 8 lines, the number of 8-bit
words, and hence number of distinct addresses, is 28 = 256. With 1 6 address l i n e s , 65

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536 addresses are possible.
3 The control bus carries the s i g n a l s used by the CPU for control, e.g. to inform J
rnemory devices whether they are to receive data from an i n p u t or output data and to
carry t i m i n g s i g n a l s used to synchronise actions.
· 4 The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and
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the input/output unit.
Memory
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There are several memory elements in a PLC system:
1 System read-only-memory (ROM) to give permanent storage for the o p eratin g·
system and fixed data used by the C P U .
2 R a nd om-access me m ory (R A M) for the user ' s p ro g ram.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . -, - ..

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. 3 Random-access m e m o ry (RAM) for data. This is where information is stored on
the status of input and output devices and the values of timers and coun_ters a n d other
internal devices: The data RAM is sometimes referred to as a data table or register
table. P a rt of this m e m o ry , i . e . a block of addresses; will be set aside for input and
output addresses and the states of those inputs a n d . outputs. P a rt will be set aside for
preset data and p a rt for storing counter values, timer values, etc.
4 Possibly, . as a · bolt-on extra m o d u l e , erasable and programmable read-only
m e m o ry ( E P R O M ) for ROMs that can be programmed and then the program made
permanent.
The programs and data in RAM can be ·changed by the user. All PLCs will have some
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( · amount of RAM to store programs that have been developed by the user and program
data. However, to prevent the loss of programs when the power s u p p l y is switched off, a
r battery ts used in the PLC to maintain the RAM contents for a period of t i m e . After a
program has been developed in RAM it may be loaded into an E P R O M m � m o ry c h i p ,
often a bolt-on module to the PLC, and so made permanent. In addition there are
r temporary buffer stores for the i n p u t/ o u t p u t c h a n n e l s .
· The storage capacity of a memory unit is determined by the number of b i n a ry words that
it can store. T h u s , if a memory size is 2-56 words then it can store 256 D 0 8 = 2048 bits
if 8-bit words are used and 256 D D 1 6 = 4096 bits if 16-bit words are used. Memory
sizes are often specified in terms of the number of storage locations available with 1 K
representing the n u m b e r 2 1 0 , i . e . 1 0 2 4 . Manufacturers s u p p l y memory c h i p s with the
storage locations grouped in groups of 1 , 4 and 8 bits. A 4K % 1 memory has 4 % 1 %
1 0 2 4 bit locations. A 4K % 8 memory has 4 °(o 8 % 1024 bit locations. The term byte is
used for a word of length 8 bits. T h u s the 4K % 8 memory can store 4096 bytes. With a
16-bit address bus we can have 2 1 6 different addresses and so; with 8-bit words stored
at each address, we can have 2 1 6 % 8 storage locations a n d so use a memory of size
2 1 6 % 8 / 2 1 0 = 64K % 8 which we mignt be as four 1 6 K % 8 bit m e m o ry chips.
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[ I n p u t/ o u t p u t unit
T h e i n p u t/ o u t p u t unit provides the i n te rf ace be tw een the system and the outside world,
allo w ing for connections to be made through i n p u t/ o u t p u t c h a n n e l s to i n p u t devices
s u c h . as sensors and output devices such as motors and solenoids. I t is also thro ug h the
inp u t/o utput u n i t that programs are entered from a program panel. Every i n p u t/ o u t p u t
p oi n t ha s a u n i q u e address which can be used by the C P U . I t is like a row of houses
along a road, number 1 0 mi ght be the ' house ' to be used for an inp u t from a p a rt i c u l a r
se n sor w h i l e n u m b e r '4 5 ' might be the ' house ' to be used for the outp u t to a p a rt i c u l a r
,...-,
motor.
I :
r
1 4 1 1 Page Indian 'School of Petroleum & Energy
r
1
.
J
The input/output channels provide isolation and signal conditioning functions so that J
sensors and actuators can often be directly connected to them without the ·need for
other circuitry. Electrical isolation from the external world is usually by means· of
. J .
· optoisolators (the term optocoupler is also often used). Figure 7.8. shows the principle of
an optoisolator. When a digital pulse passes through the light-emitting d i o d e , a pulse of

j
infrared radiation is produced. This pulse is detected by the phototransistor and gives
. . ,
rise to a voltage in that circuit. The gap · between the light-emitting diode and the 1
phototranslstor gives electrical isolation but the arrangement still allows for a digital
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p u l s e in one circuit to give rise to a digital p u l s e in another circuit.

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Infrared radiation
.
r - - - - - - - - - - J
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·
n ��'
- -
L i g ht - : ',
emitting I . _
_.-:::, : P h ot o - ,J
di d : _,,..-
7 , · transistor
10 0 I 'I I
. I
I I
- - - - - - - - -.- .J
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Figure 1 . 8 · Optoisolator
The digital signal that is generally compatible with the microprocessor in the PLC is 5 V
J
d.c. However, signal conditioning in the input c h a n n e l , with isolation, enables a wide
range of inp ut signals to be supplied to it. A range of inputs might be available with a
J
larger P L C , e . g . 5 V, 24 V, 1 1 0 V and 240 V digital/discrete, i . e . on-off, s i gn a ls (Figure
7 . 9 ) . A small PLC is likely to have just one form of input, e . g . 24 V.

.J
To inpuV
5 V
_J
o ut p u t unit
I n p ut s : 24V
5 V
Input
. digital signal l e ve l s
110 V
channel
Digital
240V J
signal level
J
Figure 7.9 Input levels
J
The term sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to
a specified physical input. For example, a thermoccuple is a sensor which converts a I
_J
temperature difference into an electrical output. The term transducer is generally used
for a device that converts a signal from one form to a different physical form. Thus
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.................... ,

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I , sensors are often transducers, but also other devices can be transducers, e . g . a motor
which converts an electrical input into rotation.

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r Sensors which give digital/discrete, Le. on-off, outputs can be easily connected to t h e ·
input ports of PLCs. Sensors which give analogue signals have to be converted to
(,
digital signals before inputting them to PLC ports: The following are some of the more
common terms used to define the performance of sensors.
r >- Accuracy is the e'xtent to which the value indicated by a measurement system or
element might be wrong .. For example, a temperature sensor might have an

r
'
accuracy of ± 0 . 1 oC. The error of a measurement is the difference between the result
of the measurement and the true value of the quantity being measured errors can
r
i arise in a n u m b e r of ways, e . g . the term non-linearity error is used for the error that
occurs as a result of assuming a linear relationship between the input and output
over the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to
give a straight line. Few systems or elements, · however, have a truly linear·
relationship and thus errors occur as a result of the assumption of linearity (Figure
r
I ,
7.10(a)). The term hysteresis error (Figure 7.10(b)) is used for the difference in
outputs gi.ven from the same value of quantity being measured according to whether
r that value has been reached by a continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change. Thus, you m i g h t obtain a different value from a thermometer
used to measure the same temperature of a liquid if it is reached by the liquid
'
l '
warming u p to the measured temperature or it is reached by the l i q u i d cooling down
to the measured temperature.
Assumed Decreasing
"S
. � relationship I c..
� \ µctual -
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0
' i· \ /"
i....;
t '
relationship 0
Ill
c
Cl)
fil /""y\ Non-linearity (/)
::§: .,,./ error

,..,.._.
r True value
Value being measured
(a) (b)
r Figure 7 . 1 0 Some sources of error: (a) non-linearity, (b) hysteresis
r >- The range of variabie of system is the limits between which the input can vary.
\ '
For example, a resistance temperature sensor m igh t be q u o t e d . as having a
range of 0200 to +800oC.

1·
l
>- When the input value to a sensor changes, it will take some time to reach a n d
settle down to the steady-state value (Figure 7 . 1 1 ). The response time is the time

r
r
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l
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which elapses after the input to a system or element is abruptly increased from _)
zero to a constant value up to the point at which the system or element gives an
output corresponding to some specified percentage, e . g . 9 5 % , of the value of the

J
i n p u t . The rise time is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the time taken
J
for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the
steady-state value. The settling time is the time taken for the output to settle to
within some percentage, e . g . 2 % , of the steady-state value.

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§
g.
,
� I \ 1
r\
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,,......_
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0 Time
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Figure 7 . 1 1 Response of a sensor or measurement system to a sudd�n input. You can easily see such a response
· when the current in an electrical circuit is suddenly switched on and an ammeter reading observed. J
� The sensitivity indicates how much the output of an instrument system or system
J
element changes when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount,
i . e . the ratio ouput/input. For example, a thermocouple mi g ht have a sensitivity of
20 DV/oC and so give an output of 20 DV for each 1 ° C change in temperature. J

� The stability of a system is its ability to give the same output when used to
1
measure a constant input over a period of time. The term drift is often used to __J
describe the change in output that occurs over time. The drift may be expressed
as a percentage of the full range output. The term zero drift is used for the
J
changes that occur in output when there is zero i n p u t .
� The term repeatability is used for the ability of a measurement system to give the
J·
same value for repeated measurements of the same value of a variable.
Common cause of lack of repeatability are random fluctuations in the
environment, e.g. changes in temperature and h umid i t y . The error arising from J
repeatability is u s u a l l y expressed as a percentage of the full range output. For
example, a pressure sensor m i g ht be quoted as having a repeatability of ± 0 . 1 %

J
of full range. Thus with a range of 20 _kPa this would be an error of ±20 Pa.
� The reliability of a measurement system, or element in such a system, is defined

J
as being the probability that it will operate to an agreed level of performance, for
a specified period, subject to specified environmental conditions. The agreed

J
144 I Page . Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

J
J
level of performance might be that the measurement system gives a particular
accuracy.
)' The following are examples of some of the commonly used PLC input devices and
their sensors.
Mechanical switches
A mechanical switch generates an o n - o ff signal or s i qn a l s as a result of some
mechanical input causing the switch to open or close. Such a switch might be used to
indicate the presence of a workpiece on a machining table, the workpiece pressing
against the switch and so closing it. The absence of the workpiece is indicated by the
switch being open and its presence by it being closed. Thus, with the arrangement
shown in Figure 7.13(a), the input signals to a single input channel of the PLC are thus
the logic levels:
r
I
Workpiece not present O
Workpiece present 1
r
(
The 1 level might correspond to a 24 V d . c . input, the O t o a O V i n p u t .
Supply- . . Supply voltage
voltage
PLC
r
t
. 1 _ ->oi-·---'!-ii :L:p� . o Input
r-°" c I , channel channel
r
\ . •
(a) (b)
r=
1
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Figure 7 . 1 3 Switch sensors
With the arrangement shown in Figure 7 . 1 3 ( b ), when the switch is open the supply
voltage is applied to the PLC input, when the switch is closed the input voltage drops to
a low value. The logic levels are thus:

r:
I
Workpiece not present 1
Workpiece present O .
r
'
Switches are available with normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts or can
be configured as either by choice of the relevant contacts. An NO switch has its
r. contacts open in the absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is used to
close the switch. An NC switch has its contacts closed in the absence of a mechanical
input and the mechanical input is used to open the switch.
The term limit switch is used for a switch which is used to detect the presence or
passage of a moving p a rt . It can be actuated by a cam, roller or lever. Figure 7 . 1 4 ·
,�
(

J
shows some examples. The cam (Figure 7 . 1 4 ( c ) ) can be rotated at a constant rate an d J
so switch the switch on and off for pa rti cu l a r time intervals.
t
-
Lever pushed down by
contact
t • f Roller pushed down
J
� by contact
Button to
ru-1 �-,---•, operate J

I 5-k Button to �Button to Rotating cam switch
operate . operate (c)
(a) switch
(b)
switch
J
Figure 2.4 Limit switches actuated by: (a) lever, (b) roller, (c) cam
J
Proximity switches
J
· Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making contact
with it. There are a number of forms of such switches, some being o n l y · suitable for )
.._J
metallic objects. The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil which is energised
by a constant alternating current and produces a constant alternating magnetic field.

J
'
When, a metallic object is close to it, eddy currents are induced in it (Figure 7.15(a)).
The magnetic field d u e to these eddy currents induces an e . m . f . back inthe coil with the
result that the voltage amplit ude needed to maintain the constant coil current c h a n g e s . J
The voltage amplitude is thus a measure of the proximity of metallic objects. The
voltage can b e . used to activate an electronic switch circuit, basically a transistor which l
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has its output switched from low to high by the voltage change, and so give a n o n D o ff
device. The range over which such objects can be detected is typically about 0 . 5 to 20
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mm.
Constant Sensor head

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alternating
Springy J J,, Magnet
current Metal object
strips L_::J
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Object
--"'- J
]JrtIJ ' Eddy current I

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Alternating Blvelope The two plates
Contacts
(a) magnetic field (b) (c) of the capacitor
Figure 7 . 1 5 Proximity switches: (a) eddy current, (b) reed switch, (c) capacitive
. Another type is the reed switch. This consists of two overlapping, but not touching, J
strips of a springy ferromagnetic material sealed in a glass or plastic envelope (Figure
I
7.15(b)). When a magnet or current-carrying coil is brought close to the switch, the
�
strips become magnetised and attract each other. The contacts then close. The magnet
closes the contacts when it is typically about 1 mm from the switch. Such a switch is
J
widely used with burglar alarms to detect when a door is opened; the magnet being in

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J
r
i
{ the door and the reed switch in the frame of the door. When the door opens the switch
opens.
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l
A proximity switch that can be used with metallic and non-metallic objects is the
capacitive proximity switch. The capacitance of a pair of plates separated by some
r distance depends on the separation, the smaller the separation the higher the
capacitance. The sensor of the capacitive proximity switch is just one of the plates of
r the capacitor, the other plate being the metal object whose proximity is to be. detected
i
. (Figure 7.15(c)). Thus the proximity of the object is detected. by a change in
capacitance. The sensor can also be used to detect non-metallic objects since the
capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric between its plates. In this case the
plates are the sensor and the earth and the non-metallic object is the dielectric. The
change in capacitance can be used to activate an electronic switch· circuit and so give
, an on-off device. Capacitive proximity switches c a n . b e used to detect objects when they
r-- .
I
. / ; are typically between 4 a n d . 6 0 mm from the sensor head.
Another type, the inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound round a ferrous
r
l
· metallic core. When one end of this core is placed near to a ferrous metal object there is
effectively a change in the amount of metallic core associated with t h e · coil and so a
r....,
I .
change in its inductance. This change in inductance can be monitored u s i n g a resonant
circuit, the presence of the ferrous metal object thus changing the current in that circuit.
r The current can be used to activate an electronic switch

L
circuit and so give an on-off
device. The range over which such objects can be detected is typically about 2 to 15 ·
mm.
· Encoders
r
(
The term encoder is used for a device that provides a digital output as a result of
a n g u l a r or l i n e a r displacement. An increment encoder detects changes in a n g u l a r or

r
1.
linear displacement from some datum position, while an absolute encoder gives the
actual a n g u l a r or linear position.

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I
Figure 7. 1 6 shows the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of
a ngula r displacement. A beam of light, from perhaps a light-emitting diode (LED),

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I
passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a light sensor, e.g. a photodiode or
. phototransistor. When the disc rotates, the light beam is alternately transmitted and
stopped and so a pulsed output is produced from the light sensor. The n u m b e r of pulses
is proportional to the angle through which the disc has rotated, the resolution being
r
(
proportional to the n u m b e r of slots on a disc. With 60 slots then, since one rev�lution is
a rotation of 3600, a movement from one slot to the next is a rotation of 60. By using
r offset slots it is possible to have over a thousand slots for one revolution and so much
(
higher resolution.
r
l
l
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Light
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Single
a p e rt u r e · Fixed
Rotating d i s c
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x disc ---�------ �-
l<S D (
) Apertures
1D\
( � CJ
\ .
l )
\ o o <:> J
'
\ '--- __/
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Figure 7 . 1 6 Basic form of an incremental encoder
The- absolute encoder differs from the incremental encoder in having a pattern of slots
J
which u n i q u e l y defines each angular position. With the form shown in Figure 7 . 1 7 , the
rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots a nd four sensors to detect the l i g ht
pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the
sensors is a n u m b e r in the binary code, each such n u m b e r corresponding to a particular l

.__)
a n g u l a r position. With 4 tracks there will be 4 bits a nd so the n u m b e r of positions that
can be detected is 24 = 1 6 , i . e . a resolution of 360/16 = 2 2 . S o . Typical encoders tend to

J
have up to 1 0 or 1 2 tracks. The n u m b e r of bits in the binary n u m b e r will be e q u a l to the
number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of
positions that can be detected is 2 1 0 , i . e . 1 0 2 4 , a resolution of 360/1024 = 0 . 3 5 o.

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Apertures through
which l i g h t B a n k of J
. 1 1 1 1 0000
can p a s s Light four detectors
10
J
�
T h e output
1100
0011 J
from the 4
detectors
0100
1011 d e p e n d s on J
the position
o f the d i s c
J
E a c h arc
has a u n i q u e
1000 0111
set o f a p e rt u r e s I
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Figure 7 . 1 7 The rotating wheel of the absolute encoder. Note that though the normal form of binary code is
l
shown in the figure, in practice a modifiedform of binary code called the Gray code is generally used. This code, __)
unlike normal binary, has only one bit changing in moving from one number to the next. Thus we have the
. .
sequence 0000, 0001, 0011, 0010, 0011, 0111, OJ OJ, OJ 00, 1100, 11 OJ, 1 1 1 1 .
,J

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J
Output devices
The output from the input/output u n i t will be digital with a level of 5 V. However, after
r s i g n a l conditioning with relays, transistors or triacs, the output from the output channel
might be a 24 V, 1 0 0 mA switching s i g n a l , a d . c . voltage of 1 1 0 V, 1 A or perhaps 240
V, 1 A a . c . i. o r 240 V, 2 A a . c . , from a triac output channel (Figure 7 . 1 8 ) . With a small
_ PLC, a l l the outputs might be of one type, e.g. 240 V a . c . , 1 A. With m o d u l a r PLCs,
r�
{ ,
however, a range of outputs can be accommodated by selection of the modules to be
used.
.-------, 24 V, 100 mA
r
l
From 1 1 0 V, 1 A, d.c.
O ut p u t s
i n p ut / O ut p u t
r: 240 , 1 A, a.c,
( output channel S \l\li t c h i n g
5 V
unit 240 V , 2 A, a.c.

digital
r
i
r
(
Figure 7 . 1 8 Output levels
Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor type or triac type:
1 With the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and
r is able to switch currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. The relay
not only allows s m a l l currents to switch much larger currents but also isolates the PLC -
r
(
from the external circuit. Relays are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs
are suitable for a . c . and d.c. switching. They can withstand high surge currents and
voltage transients.
2 The transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current through the
r external Circuit. This gives a considerably faster switching action. It is, however, strictly
(
for· d.c. switching and is destroyed by overcurrent and high reverse voltage. As a
protection, either a fuse or built-in electronic protection are used. Optoisolators are used
to provide isolation.
r
' 3 Triac outputs, with optoisolators for isolation, can be used to control external
loads which are connected to the a . c . power s u p p l y . It is strictly for a . c . operation a n d is
very easily destroyed by overcurrent. Fuses are virtually always included to protect such
r
outputs,
r The output ports of a PLC- are of the relay type or optoisolator with transistor or triac
l
types d e p e n d i n g on the devices connected to them which are to be switched on or off.
r
I ,
_ ,
l
Generally, the digital signal from an output channel of a PLC is used to control an J
actuator: which in turn controls some process. The term actuator is used for the device
which transforms the electrical s i g n a l into some more powerful action which then results
J
in the control of the process. The following are some examples.
Relay J
Solenoids form the basis of a number of output control actuators. When a current
passes through a solenoid a magnetic field is produced and t h i s can then attract ferrous
metal components in its vicinity. One example of such an actuator is the relay, the term
contactor being used when large currents are involved. When the output from the PLC
J
is switched o n , the solenoid magnetic field is produced and p u l l s on the contacts and so
closes a switch or switches (Figure 7 . 1 9 ) . The result is that much larger currents can be J
switched o n . Thus the relay m i g h t be used to switch on the current to a motor.
0-5 V input ---_ -�"'---.+-l�"�"I J

1
0
From PLC Relay ' � I S'!Alit ch ed . l

____)
J - - - "'
, R
f
i output
J
Figure 7 . 1 9 Relay used as an output device
J
Sourcing a n d S i n k i n g
The terms sourcing and s i n k i n g are used to describe the way in which d . c . devices, are J
connected to a PLC. With sourcing, using the conventional current flow direction as
from positive to negative, an input device receives current from the input module, i.e.
J
the i n p u t module is the source of the current (Figure 7 . 1 1 (a)). If the current flows from
the output module to an output load then the output module is referred to as sourcing
J
(Figure 7 . 1 1 (b )). With sinking, using the conventional current flow direction as from
positive to negative, an input device supplies current to the. input m o d u l e , i . e . the inp ut
module is the s i n k for the current (Figure 7.12(a)). If the current flows to the output J
module from an output load then the output module is referred to as sinking (Figure
7.12(b)).
_J
J
.:
r
(
+ ----l
I n p ut Input
r
(
module module
r>.
\____F -
Input
Output load
(a)-: device (b)
r
(
Figure 7. l l Sourcing
r
t
+
Input Input Input
device module module
r
i
\_)�+
Output load
(a) (b),,
Figure 7 . 1 2 Sinking
r Input/output units
(
r Input signals from sensors a n ti the outputs required for actuating devices can be:
1 . Analogue, i.e. a signal whose size is related to the size of the quantity being
sensed.
2. Discrete, Le. essentially just an on-off signal.
3. Digital, Le. a sequence of pulses.
The C P U , however, must have an input of digital signals of a p a rt i c u l a r size, normally O
to 5 V. The output from the CPU is digital, normally O to 5 V. Thus there is generally a ·
need to manipulate input and output signals so that they are in the required form.
The i n p u t/ o u t p u t ( l / 0 ) units of PLCs are designed so that a range of i n p u ts i q n a l s can be
changed into 5 V digital signals and so that a range of outputs are available to drive
external devices. It is this in-built facility to enable a range of inputs and outputs to be
handled which makes PLCs so easy to use. The following is a brief indication of the
basic circuits used for input and output units. In the case of rack instruments they are
mounted on cards which can be plugged into the racks and so the i n p u t/ o u t p u t
characteristics of the PLC can thus be changed by changing the cards - . A single box
form of PLC has i n p u t/ o u t p u t units incorporated by the manufacturer.
r:
( ,
Input units
Figures 1 7 . 1 3 and 1 7 . 1 4 show the basic input unit circuits for discrete and digital d.c.
and discrete a.c. inputs. Optoisolators are used to provide protection. With the a.c. input
unit, a rectifier bridge network is used to rectify the a.c. so that the resultinq.d.c. signal
can provide the signal for use by the optoisolator to give the input signals to the CPU of
the PLC. Individual status lights are provided for each input to indicate when the input
device is providing a signal.
151 I Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy .
I ,
J
LED indicator +V J
PLC
of input signal Optolsolator
Internal PLC voltage
It
Input . Signal tp
J
to PLC PLC CPU
J
Protection
diode
Voltage
divider circuit
I
__;
Figure 1 7 . 1 3 D.C. input unit
. Live PLC
· +V Internal J
Optoisolator PLC
voltage
· � . Signal to
Input ,.,;,- .
1
to PLC /T � �CCPU
d?> s�,g-n-a-
l ------+�
Indicator
Neutral
· I
J
-•·----'
J
Figure 1 7 . 1 4 A.C. input unit
. Output units can be relay, transistor or triac . . Figure 7 . 1 5 shows the basic form of a relay
J
output u n i t , Figure 7 . 1 6 that of a transistor output unit a n d Figure 7 . 1 7 that of a triac
I
output u n i t . _J
PLC
Output signal LED
Fuse
J
+v
From
--,,.. J
PLC
0
CPU
L -V J
Optoisolator Relay
J
Figure 7 . 1 5 Relay output unit

J
J
r
Optocoupler
+
r----------
Output
r
,
J]- ....::,,
,
Ii
I
...._-,---t9-........-........-0-,t,-��
I_ - - - - - - - - - ,
r
i
(a)
r Optocoupler
l +
,----------
r---
: Output
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1 . _.:,, :
...,::,, I Fuse
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......__,1�----1---..c>-1-......,_-i: Load
r
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I_ - - . - - - - - - ,
PLC
(b)
..--
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Figure 7 . 1 6 Basic forms of transistor output: (a) current sinking, (b) current sourcing
r
Triac
r
(
From
PLC
r CPU
Optoisolator Output
r · load
LED
-V
Figure 7 . 1 7 Triac output unit

r
(
PLC systems
r There are two common types of mechanical design for PLC systems; a s i n g l e box, and
the modular/rack types. The single box type (or, as sometimes termed, brick) is
.: commonly used for small programmable controllers and is supplied as an integral
compact package complete with power supply, processor, memory, and input/output
r units. Typically such a PLC might have �· 8 , 1 2 or 24 inputs and 4, 8 or 1 6 outputs and
l ,
a memory which can store some 300 to 1000 instructions. Figure 7. 1 8 shows .the
Mitsubishi MELSEC FX3U compact, i.e. brick, PLC and Table 7.1 gives details of
r models in that Mitsubishi range.
r
r
I
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. ,.
l
.,_)
__)
\
Figure 7 . 1 8 Mitsubishi Compact PLC - MELSEC FX3 U (By permission ofMitsubishi Electric Europe) ._J
Table 7 .1 Mitsubishi Compact PLC - MELSEC FX3 U Product range (By permission ofMitsubishi
l
Electric Europe) ,__)
Type FX3U-16MR FX3U 32MR

0
FX3U-48MR FX3U-64MR FX3U-80MR
J
Power supply 100-240V AC
Inputs 8 16 24 32 40 l
_J
Outputs 8 16 24 32 40
Digital outputs Relay
Program cycle period

0.065 µs
per logical instruction .J
User memory 64k steps (standard), FLROM cassettes (optional)
Dimensions in mm
1 3 0 x 9 0 x 86 150 x 140 x 86 182 x 90 x 86 220 x 90 x 86 285 x 90 x 86
(WxHxD)
J
Some brick systems have the capacity to be extended to cope with more inputs and
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outputs by linking i n p u t/ o u t p u t boxes to them. Figure 7 . 1 4 shows such an arrangement
with the OMRON C P M 1 A PLC. The base i n p u t/ o u t p u t brick, depending on the model
concerned, has 1 0 , 20, 30 or 40 inputs/outputs (1/0). The 1 O 1/0 brick has 6 d.c. input
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points and four outputs, the 20 1/0 brick has 12 d.c, input points and 8 outputs, the 30
1/0 brick has 1 8 d.c. input points and 1 2 outputs. and the 40 1/0 brick has 24 d.c. input
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points and 1 6 outputs. However, the 30 and 40 1/0 models can be extended to a
maximum of 1 0 0 inputs/outputs by linking expansion units to the original brick. For 1

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example a 20 1/0 expansion module might be added, it having 1 2 inputs and 8 outputs,
the outputs being relays, sinking transistors or sourcing transistors. Up to three
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expansion modules can be added. The outputs can be relay or transistor outputs . .
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Peripheral port Connecting cable
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CPM 1-CIF01/CIF11 Serial
Communications Adapter
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AC and DC power supply models: Expansion 110 Unit Expansion 1/0 unit Expansion 1/0 Unit
��i::�c::ue;in��i��;=�u
maximum of 3 Units.
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Figure 7 . 1 4 Basic configuration of the OMRON CPMJA PLC (By permission o
f Omron Electronics LLC)
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Systems with larger numbers of inputs and outputs are likely to be modular and
designed to fit in racks. The modular type consists of separate modules for power
supply, processor, etc., which are often mounted on rails within a metal cabinet. The
rack type can be used for all sizes of programmable controllers and . has t he various
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functional units packaged in i n d i v i d u a l modules which can be plugged into sockets in a
base rack. The mix of modules required for a particular purpose isdecided by the user
an d the appropriate ones then plugged into the rack. Thus it is comparatively easy to
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expand the n u m b e r of input/output (1/0) connections by just adding

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more input/output
modules or to expand the memory by a d d i n g more memory units.
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An example of such a mo dular system is provided by the Allen-Bradley PLC-5 PLC of
Rockwell automation (Figure 7.15). PLC-5 processors are available in a range of 1/0
capacity and memory size, and can be configured for a variety of communication
networks. They are single-slot mo d ul e s that are placed in the left-most slot of a 1 7 7 1 1/0
chassis. Some 1771 1/0 chassis are built for back-panel mounting a nd .s o me are built
for rack mounting and are available in sizes of 4, 8, 12, or 16 1/0 module slots. The
1771 1/0 modules are available in densities of 8 , 16, or 32 1/0 per module. A PLC-5
processor can communicate with 1/0 across a DeviceNet or Universal Remote 1/0 l i n k .
A large selection of 1 7 7 1 input/output modules, both digital and a n a l o g u e , are available
for use in the local chassis, and an even larger selection available for use at locations
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i remote from the-processor. Digital 1/0 mo d ul e s have d i g i t a l 1/0 circuits that interface to
on/off sensors such as pushbutton a nd limit switches; and on/off actuators such as
motor starters, pilot lights, and annunciators. Analogue 1/0 mo d ul e s perform the
required AID and D/A conversions using up to 1 6 - b i t resolution. Analogue 1/0 can be
user-configured for the desired fault-response state in the event that 1/0 communication
is disrupted. This feature provides a safe reaction/response in case of a fault, limits the
extent of faults, and provides a predictable fault response. 1771 1/0 modules include
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optical c o u p l i n g and filter circuitry for s i g n a l noise reduction.
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U U U U U U U U -U -U -U LI
- - - - - - - - - - - J
Pow er supply . . The basic brm ofa rack into which
t, rthe system components of a PLC s)l'Slem can be slotted
Pos:sibl e elements to slot into the rad< system J
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Processor Communication module ti r VO adapter module for connecting 110 modules to provide the means
m:i dule communication to computers the backplane to a processor at to con >.ert in put signals to backplane
1,0 adapters and other PLC another location le >.els and backplane signals to
processors output <ircu� levels �J

A possible assembled system
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Power
supply
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Figure 7 . 1 5 A possible arrangement of a rack system, e.g. the Rockwell Automation, Allen-Bradley PLC-5
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Digital 1/0 modules cover electrical ranges from 5 . . . 276V a . c . or d . c . and relay contact
output m o d u l e s are available for ranges from 0 . . . 276 V ac or 0 . . . 1 7 5 V d e . A range of

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analogue signal levels can be accomodated, including standard analogue inputs and
outputs and direct thermocouple and RTD temperature inputs.
...__j

..._..,l
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U N I T 8 : PLC P r o g r a m m i n g
Programs for microprocessor-based systems have to be loaded into them in machine
code, this being a sequence of binary code numbers to represent the program
instructions. However, assembly language based on the use of mnemonics c a n . be

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u s e d , e . q . L O is used to indicate the operation required to load the data that follows the
LO, and a computer program called an assembler is used to translate the mnemonics
into machine code. Programming can be made even easier by the use of the so-called
high level languages, e.g. C, .BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL. These use pre
packaged functions, represented by s i m p l e words or symbols descriptive of the function .

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concerned. For example, with C language the symbol & is · used for the logic AND
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operation. However, the use of these methods to write programs. requires some s k i l l in
programming and PLCs are intended to be used by engineers without any great
r knowledge of programming. As a 'consequence, ladder programming was developed.
This is a 'means of writing programs which can then be converted into machine code by
some software for use by the PLC microprocessor. ·
This method of writing programs became adopted by . most PLC manufacturers,
however each tended to have developed their own versions and so an international
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standard has been adopted for ladder programming and indeed a l l the methods used
for programming PLCs. The standard, published in 1993, is IEC 1131-3 (International
Electrotechnical Commission). The IEC 1131-3 programming languages are ladder·
diagrams (LAD), instruction list (IL), sequential function charts (SFC), structured text
(ST), and function block diagrams ( F B D ) .
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· Programming devices can be a hand-held device, a desktop console or a computer.
O n l y when the program has been desiqned on the programming device and is ready is
it transferred to the memory unit of the PLC.
1 Hand-held programming devices will normally contain enough m e m o ry to allow
the u n i t to retain programs while being carried from one place to another.
2 · Desktop consoles are likely to have a visual d i s p l a y unit with a full keyboard a n d
screen display.
3 · Personal computers are widely configured as program development work
stations. Some PL Cs only require the computer to have appropriate software; others.
require special communication cards to interface with the PLC. A major advantage of
u s i n g a computer is that the program can be stored on the hard d i s k or a CO and copies
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easily made.
PLC manufacturers have programming software for their PLCs. For example, M i t s u b i s h i .
have MELSOFT. Their GX Developer supports all MELSEC controllers from the
compact PLCs of the M E L S E C . FX series to the modular PLCs including MELSEC
System Q and uses a Windows based environment. It supports the programming

r methods· (see Chapter 4) of instruction list (IL), ladder diagram (LO) and sequential
function chart (SFC) l a n g u a g e s . You can switch back a n d forth between I L and LO at
r will while you are working. You can program your own function blocks and a wide range
of utilities are available tor configuring special function modules for the MELSEC .
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1 5 7 1 Page . Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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System Q - there is no need to program special function modules, you just configure J
them. The package includes powerful editors and diagnostics functions for configuring
MELSEC networks and hardware, and extensive testing and monitoring functions to
help get applications up and r u n n i n g quickly a n d efficiently. It offers off-line simulation

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for all PLC types and thus enables simulation of all devices and application responses
for realistic testing.

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As another illustration, Siemens have SIMATIC STEP 7. This fully complies with the
international standard IEC 61131-3 for PLC programming languages. With STEP 7,
programmers can select between different programming languages. Besides ladder J

diagram (LAD) and function block diagram (FBD), STEP 7 Basis also includes the
· instruction List (STL) programming l a n g u a g e . Other additional options are available for 1
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I E C 6 1 1 3 1 - 3 programming languages such as Structured Text (ST) called SIMATIC 8 7 -
SCL or a S e q u e n t i a l Function C h a rt (SFC) called SIMATIC 87-Graph which provides an
efficient way to describe sequential control systems graphically. Features of the whole J
engineering system include system diagnostic capabilities, process diagnostic tools,
· -PLC simulation, remote maintenance, and plant documentation. 87-PLCSIM is an
optional package for STEP 7 that allows simulation of a SIMATIC 87 control platform
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a n d testing of a user program on a P C , e n a b l i n g testing and refining prior to physical
hardware installation. By testing early in a project's develo p m ent, overall project ualit y
q
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can be improved. Installation and commissioning can thus be quicker and less
expensive as program faults can be detected and corrected early on during
development.
Likewise , R oc k el l A u tomation have R S Log ix for t he Allen-Bradley PLC- 5 family of PL Cs,
O MRON has C X-:O ne a n d Telemecanique have ProWo rx 32 for its Modicon range of
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PL Cs.
Ladder Diagrams J
As an introduction to ladder diagrams, consider the simple wmng diagram for an
electrical circuit in Figure 8 . 1 (a). The diagram shows the circuit for switching on. or off an
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electric motor. We can redraw this diagram in a different way, u s i n g two vertical l i n e s to
represent the input power rails and stringing the rest of the circuit between them. Figure
8 . 1 (b) 'shows the result. Both circuits have the switch in series with the motor and
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supplied with electrical power when the switch is closed. The circuit shown in Figure
8 . 1 (b) is termed a ladder diagram. · ·

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Svvitch
L1 L2
L1r- 0
I
___)
.
d . c . input f �J ch---4Motor
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\ I
Power rails --------
(a) (b)
Figure 8 . 1 Ways ofdrawing the same electrical circuit

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Semi-graphic form Full graphic form
A horizontal link along which
power can flow

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---+---
=t-
Interconnection of horizontal
and vertical power flows ---+

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Left-hand power connection

r of a ladder rung
I
+----
�
1
Right-hand power connection

I
of a ladder rung
----+
�
f
Normally open contact

---1 1--- � �
Normally closed contact

---111--- --jl
Output coil: if the power flow ( ) - _ _ ---( \
to it is on then the coil state is on \. ' �
Figure 8.4 shows standard IEC 1131-3 symbols that are used for input and output
devices. Some s l i g h t variations occur between the symbols when used in semi-graphic
form and when in full graphic. Note that inputs are represented by different symbols
representing normally open or normally closed contacts. The action of the input is
r equivalent to o p e n i n g or closing a switch, Output coils are represented by just one form
of symbol.
To illustrate the drawing of the rung of a ladder diagram, consider a situation where the
r energising of an output device, e . g . a motor, d e p e n d s on a normally open start switch
b e i n g activated by being closed. The i n p u t is thus the switch and the output the motor.
Figure 8 . 5 ( a ) shows the ladder diagram.
Input
r
(a)
HT-t� Output
Input Input
om}i
r --1/ · Output . I
I
(b)
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Figure 8.5 A ladder rung
Starting with the input, we have the normally open symbol I I for the i n p u t contacts.
There are no. other i n p u t devices and the l i n e terminates with the output, denoted by the
symbol ( ). When the switch is closed, i . e . there is an input, the output of the motor is
activated. O n l y while there is an i n p u t to the contacts is there an output. If there had
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1 6 1 1 Page Indian, School of Petroleum & Energy
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been a normally closed switch Ill with the output (Figure 8 . 5 ( b ) ) , then there would have J
been an output unt i l that switch was opened. Only while there is no i n p u t to the contacts
is there an output. I
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I n drawing ladder diagrams the names of the associated variable- or addresses of each
element are appended to its symbol. Thus Figure 8 . 6 shows how the ladder diagram of J
Figure 8.5(a) would appear u s in g (a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c) Allen-Bradley, (d)
T e l e m e c a n i q u e notations for the addresses. Thus Figure 5 . 6 ( a ) indicates that this rung
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of the ladder program has an input from address X400 and an output to address Y430.
When wiring u p the inputs and outputs to the PLC, the relevant ones must be connected
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to the i n put and output terminals with these addresses.
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Input Output Input · Output
I 1 , 0 � 1 /0 1 0,01�1 I O,O 00�0
L__( J
(c)n Kn (d)
H . i \.. - .
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Figure 5.6 Notation: (a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c) Allen-Bradley, (d) Telemecanique
Logic Functions
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There are many control situations requiring actions to be initiated when a certain
combination of conditions is realised. Thus, for an automatic d r i l l i n g machine, there J

m i gh t be the condition that the drill motor is to be activated when the l i m i t switches are
activated that indicate the presence of the workpiece and the drill position as being at
the surface of the workpiece. Such a situation involves the AND logic function, condition
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A and condition - B having both to be realised for an output to occur. T h i s section is a
consideration of such logic functions.

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AND
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Figure 8 . 7 ( a ) shows a situation where an output is not energised unless two, normally
open, switches are both closed . . Switch A and switch B have both to be closed, which
thus gives an AND logic situation. We can think of this as representing a control system
with two inputs A and B (Figure 8 . 7 ( b ) ) . Only when A and B are both on is there an
output. Thus if we use 1 to indicate an on s i g n a l an d O to represent an off s i g n a l , then ·

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for there to be a 1 output we must have A and B both 1 . Such an operation is said to be
controlled by a logic gate and the relationship between the inputs to alogic gate and the
outputs is tabulated in a form known as a truth table. Thus for the AND gate we have: J
1 6 2 1 Page · Indian School of Petroleum & Energy
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.
With such a diagram the power s u p p l y for the circuits is always shown as two vertical
lines with the rest of the circuit as horizontal l i n e s . The power l i n e s , or rails as they are
often termed, are like the vertical sides of a ladder with the horizontal circuit l i n es like
the rungs of the ladder. The horizontal r u n g s show o n l y the control portion of the circuit,
in the case of Figure 8 . 1 it is just the switch i n series with the motor. Circuit diagrams
often show the relative physical location of the _circuit components and how they are
. ,.
actually wired. With ladder diagrams no attempt is made to show the actual physical
.: locations and the emphasis is on clearly showing how the control is exercised.
F i g u r e · 8 . 2 shows an example of a ladder diagram for a circuit that is used to start and
stop a motor using push buttons. I n the normal state, push button 1 is open and push
button 2 closed. When button 1 is pressed, the motor circuit is completed and the motor
.: starts. Also, the holding contacts w i r e d . in parallel with the motor clos.e and remain
closed as long as the motor is r u n n i n g . Thus when the push button 1 is released, the
r h ol d in g contacts maintain the circuit and hence the power to the motor. To stop the
motor, button 2 is pressed. This disconnects the power to the motor an d -the holding
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contacts o p e n . Thus when push button 2 is released, there is still no power to the motor.
T h u s we have a motor which is started by pressing button 1 and stopped by pressing
button 2 .
r
L1 L2
r
(
r
I
r
(
r Holding switch
Figure 5.2 Stop-start switch

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PLC Ladder Programming
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the use of ladder
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diagrams. Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching circuit. The
ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are
connected as horizontal l i n e s , i . e . .the runqs of the ladder, between these two verticals.
I n drawing a ladder d i a g r a m , certain conventions are adopted:
1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits
are connected. The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand vertical across a
rung.
2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
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3. A ladder d i a g r a m is read from left to right and from top to bottom, Figure 8.3 J
showing the scanning motion employed by the PLC. The top rung is read from
left to right. Then the second rung down is read from left to right and so o n : .When
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. the PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the entire ladder program to the e n d ,
the end rung of the program being clearly denoted, and then promptly resumes at
the start. This procedure of g o i n g through a l l the rungs of the program is termed J
a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with the word E N D or RET
for return, since the program promptly returns to its b e g i n n i n g .
Power flow
Left power rail

... Right power rail
- '
J
��:==:;;;;;;;2!�Ru�g3
J
�=:::=:=:=:=:::!�Rung4
1---�I END ,__I____,I End rung

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Figure 5.3 Scanning the ladder program
4. Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one J
output. The term input is used for a control action, such as closing the contacts of
a switch, used as an input to the PLC. The term output is used for a device
J
connected to the output of a P L C . e . g . a motor.
5: Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch which is
normally open until some object closes it, is shown as open on the ladder
d i a g r a m . A switch that is n o r m a l l y closed is shown closed.
6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For example,
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we m i g h t have a relay which switches on one or more devices. The same letters
and/or numbers are used to label the device in each situation. ,
7. The inputs and outputs are all identified by t h e i r addresses, the notation used J.
d e p e n d i n g on the PLC manufacturer. This is the address of the i n p u t or output in
the memory of the PLq _

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r
Inputs Output
.A
B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
r
r
A B
O ut p u t
. Logic gate
r.".
control AND
Applied voltage
(a) (b)
Figure 8.7 (a) AND circuit, (b) AND logic gate
r
OR
. \
Figure 8.8(a) Figure 5.9(a) shows an electrical circuit where an output is energised
. .
when switch A or B , both normally o p e n , are closed. This describes an OR logic gate
(Figure 8 . 8 ( b ) ) in that i n p u t A or i n p u t B must be on for there to be an output. The truth
table is:
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Inputs Output
A B
r
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
O u t p ut
r Logic gate
:]
i
control OR
r (b)
(a) Applied voltage
r:
( Figure 8.8(a) OR electrical circuit, (b) OR logic gate
NOT
r:
l
Figure 8 . 9 ( a ) shows an electrical circuit controlled by a switch that is normally closed.
r When there is an i n p u t to the switch, it opens a n d there is then no current in the circuit.
l
This illustrates a NOT gate in that there is an output when there is no i n p u t and no

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{
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output when there is an input (Figure 8 . 9 ( c ) ) . The qate is sometimes referred to as an J

inverter. The truth table is:
J
· Input
Output
0 1 J
1' 0
I
A
__)
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(a) Applied voltage
I n p ut A
J
output � C.
(c) -
- -�--�---
Figure 8.9 (a) NOT circuit, (b) NOT logic with a ladder rung, (c) high output when no input to A
Latching J
There are often sit uat ions. where it i s · necessary to hold an output energised, even
when the i n p u t ceases. A simple example of such a s i t u a t i o n . is a motor which is J

started by pressing a push button switch. Though the switch contacts do not remain
'closed, the motor is required to continue running until a stop push button switch is
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· pressed. The term latch circuit is used for the circuit used to carry out such an ·
operation. It is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being energised, it maintains that
state until another input is received. J
An example of a latch circuit is shown in F i g u r e 8 . 1 0 . When the i n p u t A contacts close,
there is an output. However, when there is an output, another set of contacts associated
with the output closes. These contacts form an OR logic gate system with the in p u t
contacts. Thus, even if the input A opens, the circuit will still maintain the output
J
energised. The only way to release the output is by operating the normally closed
contact B .
l
_)
I n p ut A Input B. Output
Output l
c...J
l
___)
Figure 8 . 1 0 Latched circuit
1 6 4 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy l
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l
r-,
As an illustration of the application of a latching circuit, consider a motor controlled by
stop and start push button switches and for which one s i g n a l l i g h t must be illumi na te d
when the power is applied to the motor and another when it is not a p p l i e d . Figure 8 . 1 1
shows the ladder diagram with M i t s u b i s h i notation for the addresses.
Start stop Motor output
X400 X401 Y430
K )
Output
contacts
Y430
L a m p for power
Output contacts not applied
Y430 . Y431
<.
· r
( L a m p for power
Output contacts
applied
Y430
Y432
--c
Figure 8 . 1 1 Motor on-off, with signal lamps, ladder diagram. Note that the stop contacts X401 are shown as
being programmed as open. lfthe stop switch used is normally closed then X401 receives a start-up signal to
close. This gives a safer operation than programming X401 as normally closed.
X401 is closed when the program is started. When X400 is momentarily closed, Y430 is
energised and its· contacts close. This results in latching and also the switching off of
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Y431 and the switching on of Y432. To switch the motor off, X401 is pressed and
opens. Y430 contacts open in the top rung and third r u ng , but close in the second r u n g .
Thus Y431 comes on and Y432 off. Latching is widely used with start-ups so that the
i n i t i a l switch on of an application becomes latched o n .
Multiple outptus
With ladder diagrams, there can be more than one output connected to a contact.
r Figure 8.12 shows a ladder program with two output coils. When the input contacts
(
close both the coils give outputs.
Input A
Output A
Input A
\.. I n p ut B
Output B
Output A
r
t
'
K'
Input B
Output B
Figure 8 . 1 2 Ladder rung with two outputs .

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For the ladder rung shown in Figure 8 . 1 3 , output A occurs when input A occurs. Output J
B only occurs when both input A and i n p u t B occur. ·
Input A Output A
Input A
J
Input B
Output B J
Output A
�(
Input B
Output B
J
D
Figure 8 . 1 3 . Ladder rung with two inputs and two outputs

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Such an arrangement enables a sequence of outputs to be produced, the. sequence
being in the sequence with which contacts are 'closed. Figure 8.14 illustrates this with
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the same ladder program in Mitsubishi and Siemens notations. Outputs A, B and C are
switched on as the contacts in the sequence given by the contacts A, B a n d C are being
I
closed. Until i n p u t A is closed, none of the other outputs can be switched on. When ._)
i n p u t A is closed, output A is switched on: Then, when i n p u t B is dosed, output B is
switched o n . Finally, when input C is closed, output C is switched o n .

Input A Output A lnputA · Output A
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X400 Y430 10.0 02.0
Input 8 Inputs Outputs

Output 8 " J
X401 . Y431 . · 10.1 02.1
1----,�-:(
\_ '
.)
Input C· Output C Input C Output C
X402 Y432 10.2 02.2 J

K K)
(a)
Input A ·
J
Input's
Input C
J
Output A
Output S J
Output C
I
Figure 8 . 1 4 Sequenced outputs __J
Location of STOP switch
The location of stop switches with many applications has to be very carefully considered J
in order to ensure a safe system. A stop switch is not safe if it is normally closed and
has to be opened to give the stop action. If the switch malfunctions and remains closed
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then the system cannot be stopped. Figure 8 . 1 5 ( a ) illustrates this. A better arrangement
is to program the stop switch in the ladder program as open in Figure 8 . 1 5 ( b ) and use a
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stop switch that is normally closed and operating opens it. Thus there Is an i n p u t s i g n a l .___)
to the system which closes the contacts in the program when it starts u p .
166 l Page Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

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Start Stop Motor
c
Motor
( a ) A n unsafe stop switch
Start Stop . Mo t or
K
Motor
(b) A safe stop switch
r Figure 8 . 1 5 Motor stop switch location

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Figure 8 . 1 6 shows where we can safely locate an emergency stop switch. If it is in the
r input to the PLC (Figure 8 . 1 6 ( a)) then if the PLC malfunctions it may not be possible to
stop the motor. However, if the emergency stop switch is in the output, operating it will ·
stop the motor and also cause the start switch to become unlatched if the arrangement
shown in Figure 8.16(b) is being used . . The motor will thus not restart when the
emergency stop button is released.
r �-� Emergency
. S t a rt t,:,- Startt:-u-.
Stop . Stop �-
PLC
Emergency . -er
--0
stop T
r� v
operated
(a) Unsafe _arrangement (b) Safe arrangement
by coil by coil
_ r ·
I . Figure 8 . 1 6 Location of emergency stop switch
A ladder matrix represents all the possible locations where a contact symbol instruction
can be placed. The programming device usually displays allot these possible locations
r on the screen, allowing the user to place contact symbols in the desired locations.
However, according to the maker of the PLC, certain rules apply to contact placement.
One rule, which is present in almost all PLCs, prevents reverse ( i . e . , right-to-left) power
r flow in a ladder rung (see Figure 9 - 1 3 ) . PLC logic does not allow reverse power to a v o i d .
sneak paths. Sneak paths occur when power flows in a reverse direction through an
undesired field device, thus completing a continuity path. If a P L C ' s . logic requires
r reverse power flow, the user must reprogram the rung with forward power flow to all
r
r
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contact e l e m e n t s . · The next example illustrates the solution to the reverse power flow __)
rung in Figure 9 - 1 7 .
A B c y
J
__)
Figure 9 . 1 6 Reverse power flow at contact D.

J
Example 8-1
Solve the logic rung shown in Figure 9-17 so that no reverse power flow condition
exists. The reverse condition is not part of the required logic for the output to be J
energized.
Solution
"The forward power flow of the logic determines output Y. Let's im pl e m e n t it u s in g l o g i c ·

I
concepts. The output Y is defined, us i n g forward paths only, as: _J
1st line 2 n d line 3rd l i n e

. ,-----,"-,.
· y = ( A • B • C) + ( A • D • E) + (F • E) J
which can be m i n i m i z e d , using Boolean algebra's distributed rule
J
Y. = A • (B • C + D • £) + . (F • £)
Figure 8-18 shows the implementation of this logic gate, while Figure 8-19 gives the J
ladder-equivalent s o l u t i o n .
A��-
J
B-E,.,.
c :·,·1-------1
(B • C + D • E)
D-=
E J--,--:....,
y
J
Figure 8 . 1 8 Logic solution for Example 8 - 1 .

J
I .
.......J

1
._J
J
y
D E
r+-
�I
I
Figure 8 . 1 9 Ladder diagram implementation for Example 8-1
Example s-i .
Solve the ladder logic shown in Figure 9-17 so that no reverse power flow exists . .
Assume that the reverse path logic through contact D and then forward through
contacts B and C is required in the PLC logic so)ution to energize the output. · ·
r
(
Solution ·
Following the same procedure as in Example 9-1, we can obtain the desired logic for
r output Y using Boolean logic expressions. Therefore, output Y, including the reverse
I
power flow logic, is represented by:
r
( 1st line 2nd line 3rd l i n e Reverse path
� ..-----"'----. �
Y = (A • B • C) + (A • D • E) + (F • E ) + (F • D • B • C)
r
I
= A • (B• C + D • E ) + F(E + D • B • C )
The term F • D • B • C implements the reverse power flow sequence that output Y
requires. Figure 8-20 shows the· ladder diagram of this solution.
A B C y
I H r-1
r
i
A D E
I H r- 1 .
F E
D B C
r
\
r- l H
Figure 8 . 2 0 Ladder diagram implementation for Example 8-2.
r
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Internal relays
In PLCs there are elements that are used to hold data, i.e. bits, and behave like relays,
J
being able to be switched on or off and switch other devices on or off. Hence the term
internal relay. Such internal· relays do not exist as real-world switching devices but are
merely bits in the storage memory that behave in the same way as relays. For J
programming, they can. be treated in the same way as an external relay output and,
input. Thus inputs to external switches can be used to give an output from an internal
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__J
relay. This then results in the internal relay contacts being used, in conjunction with
other external input switches to give an output, e.g. activate a motor. Thus we might
have (Figure 8.21 ):

J
On one rung of the program:
Inputs to external inputs activate the internal relay output.

J
, On a later rung of the program:
As a consequence of the internal relay output:

J
internal relay contacts are activated and so controlsome output.
Intern al relay coi I

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f \
� \.___ j
Energising the
J
coil activates
Internal relay
contacts
J
Figure 8.21 Internal relay
J
In using an internal relay, it has to be activated on one rung of a program and then its
output used to operate switching contacts on another rung, or rungs, of the program.
Internal relays can be programmed with as many sets of associated contacts as

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desired.
To distinguish internal relay outputs from external relay outputs, they are given different
types of addresses. Different manufacturers tend to use different terms for internal
.relays and different ways of expressing their addresses. For example, Mitsubishi uses
the term auxiliary relay or marker and the notation M100, M 1 0 1 , etc. Siemens uses the
J
term flag and notation FO.O, F 0 . 1 , etc. Telemecanique uses the term bit and notation
BO, 8 1 , etc. Toshiba uses the term internal relay and notation ROOO, R001, etc. Allen
Bradley uses the term bit storage and notation in the PLC-5 of the form 83/001, 83/002, J
etc.
Programs with multiple input conditions
J
As an illustration of the use that can be made of internal relays, consider the following
situation. A system is to be activated when two different sets of input conditions are
realised. We might just program this as an AND logic gate system; however, if a number _J
of inputs have to be checked in order that each of the input conditions can be realised, it
may be simpler to use an internal relay. The first input conditions then are used to give

J
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r
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r
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an output to an internal relay. This has associated contacts which t h e n become part of
the i n put conditions with the second input. .
Figure 8 . 2 2 shows a ladder program for such a task. For the first r u n g : when input 1 or
·t
. input 3 is closed and input 2 closed, then internal relay I R 1 is activated. This results in
the contacts I R 1 closing. If input 4 is then activated, there is an output from output 1 .
Such a task might be involved in the automatic lifting of a barrier when someone
approaches from either side. Input 1 and inpu t 3 are inputs from photoelectric sensors
r=: that detect the presence of a person, approaching or leaving from either side of the
I .
barrier, i np u t 1 being activated from one side of it and input 3 from the other. I n p u t 2 is
an e n a b l i n g switch to e n a b l e the system to be closed down. Thus w h e n . i n p u t 1 or i n p u t
3 , and i nput 2, are activated, there is an output from the internal relay 1 . This will close
the internal relay contacts. If i n p u t 4, perhaps a l i m i t switch, detects that the barrier is
closed then it is activated and closes. The result is then an output from Out 1 , a motor
r
( which lifts the barrier. If the limit switch detects that the barrier is already o p e n , the
person having passed t hrough it, then it opens and so output 1 is no longer energised
and a counterweight mig ht then close the barrier. The internal relay has enabled two
parts of the program to be linked, one part being the detection of the presence of a
person and the second part the detection of-whether thebarrier is already up or down.
-
r
I n p u t I n p u t Intern al re lay
(
I n 1 I n 2 I R 1
r
! . . H K ;
I n p u t
r
I
I n 3
Internal r e l a y l n p u t Output
I R 1 · I n 4 O u t 1
r
l H K
r Figure 8.22 Internal relay
(
Figure 8 . 23(a) shows how Figure 8.22 would appear in Mitsubishi notation and Figure
· 8 . 2 3 ( b ) in Siemens notation.
I n p ut 1 Input 2 Internal relay
I n p ut 1 Input 2 Internal relay
X400 X401 M 100 10.0 10.1 F0.1
. m K)
LO X400"
A 10.0
n
lp
ut
µ r-i-� K j OR
AND
X402
X401
0 10.2
X402 lo�;·� A 10.1
r I .
OUT M100
F0.1
t LO. M100
A F0.1
AND .X403
Internal relay Input 5 Output A 10.3
Internal relaylnput 3 Output
OUT Y430
· ..- �
02.0
l M10�40�30
F0.1 10.3 . 02.0 =
(
(a)
(b)
H
r-
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( Figure 8.23 Figure 7.2 in: (a) Mitsubishi notation, (b) Siemens notation
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Latching Programs J
Another use of internal relays is for resetting a latch circuit. Figure 8.24 shows an
example of such a ladder program. J

I n p ut 1
I n t e rn a l relay 1
In 1 IR 1
Rung with first internal relay IR 1

J
I n p ut 2
In 2
J
I nt e r n a l
I n p ut 3 I n p ut 4 relay 2
In 3 In 4 IR 2
Rung with second internal relay IR 2

J
H K )-
lnternal relay 1 Output
l
IR 1
Out 1
.....J
r:
Output Out 1 c o nt r o l l e d by the two
internal relays
I nt e r n a l 1
relay 2 �..J
I R 2
Figure 8.24 Use o

f two internal relays
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__J
When the in put 1 contacts are momentarily closed, there is an output at Out 1. This
closes the contacts for Out 1 and so m a i n t a i n s the output, even when i n p ut 1 opens.
J
When input 2 is closed, the internal relay IR 1 is energised and so opens the IR 1
contacts, which are normally closed. T h u s the output Out 1 is switched off and so the
output is u n l a t c h e d .
J
Input 1 Internal r e l ay 1 o u t p ut 1 J
I n ' IR 1 Out 1
r: -\
J
�,,'- .:
O ut p u t 1
Out 1 J
J
Input 2 Internal r e l ay 1
I n 2 IR 1
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r: '
--'- _,,/
I - 1
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Figure 8.25 Resetting latch
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Consider a situation requiring latch circuits where there is an automatic machine that ....J
can be started or stopped using push-button switches. A latch circuit is used to start and
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stop the power being applied to the machine. The machine has several outputs which
can be turned on if the power has been turned on and are off if the power is off: It would
be possible to devise a ladder diagram which has individually latched controls for
each such output. However, a simpler method is to use an internal relay. Figure 8.26
shows such a ladder diagram. The first rung has the latch for keeping the internal relay
IR 1 on when the start switch gives a momentary input. T h e second rung will then
switch the power o n . The third rung will also switch on a n d . g_ive output Out 2 if i n p u t 2
r--. contacts are closed. The third rung will also switch on and give output Out 3 if i n p u t 3
I
I
contacts are closed. Thus all the outputs can be switched on when the start push button
is activated. All the outputs will be switched off if the stop switch is opened. Thus all the
r-,
I outputs are latched by I R 1 .
l
Internal relay
Start Stop IR 1
r
l ( '
�
Internal relay
IR 1
Output 1
.: lntemal relay
IR 1
Out
1
,
......... ------.() Power on-off
· . Internal relay Output 2

Input for output 2 · · IR Out
1 2
t: output 2
!
I I K )
Internal relay Output 3
r Input for output 3 IR 1 · out 3

Output 3
r-, I I K )
and so on for further inputs
r+:
I Figure 8.26 Starting of multiple outputs
l
Retentive Relays
If the power s u p p l y is cut off from a PLC while it is being used, al l the output relays and
internal relays will be turned off. Thus when the power is restored, all the contacts
associated with those relays will be set differently from when the power was o n . T h u s , if
the PLC was in the m i d d l e of some sequence of control actions, it would resume at a
different point in the sequence. To overcome this problem, some internal relays have.
,--.,·
I battery back-up so that they can be used in circuits to ensure a safe shutdown of plant
(
in the event of a power failure and so e n a b l e it to restart in an appropriate manner. Such ·
battery-backed relays retain their state of activation, even when the power supply is off.
r
( The relay is said to have been made retentive.
.--,
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-{M)--.
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Figure 8.27 Retentive memory coil

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The term retentive memory coil is frequently used for such elements. Figure 8 . 2 7 shows
the IEC 1131-3 standard symbol for such elements. With Mitsubishi PLC,s, battery
backed internal relay· circuits use M300 to M377 as addresses for such relays. Other
J
manufacturers use different addresses and methods of achieving retentive memory.
The Allen-Bradley PLC-5 uses latch a n d unlatch r u n g s . If the relay is latched, it remains
J
latched if power is lost a n d is unlatched when the unlatch relay is activated.
As an example of the use of such a relay, Figure 8 . 2 8 shows a ladder diagram for a
'
system designed to cope with a power failure. IR 1 is a battery-backed internal relay. _J
When inp u t 1 contacts close, output I R 1 is energised. This closes the IR 1 contacts,
latching so that I R 1 remains on even if i n p u t 1 opens. The result is an output from Out
1. If there is a power failure, IR 1 still remains energised and so the IR 1 contacts
remain closed and there is an output from Out 1

)
. Input · I n t e rn a l relay
_J
In 1 IR 1
Internal relay
IR 1
_J
Internal relay
IR 1 . Out 1
J
-I -CJ
J
Figure 8.28 Battery-backed relay program
. O n e S h o t O p e r a t i o n
j
One of the functions provided by some PLC manufacturers is the ability to program an
internal relay so that its contacts are activated for just one cycle, i . e . one scan through
the ladder program. Hence it provides a fixed duration pu l s e at its contacts when
J
operated. This function is often termed one-shot. While some PLCs have such a
function· as an entity as part of their programs, such a function can easily be developed
J
with just two rungs of a ladder program. Figure 8 . 2 9 shows such a pair of rungs. When
the trigger input occurs, it gives a trigger output in rung 1. In rung 2 it gives a cycle
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control output on an internal relay. Because rung 2 occurs after rung 1 , the effect of the
cycle control is�ot feit until· the next cycle of the PLC program when it opens the cycle
control contacts in rung 1 and stops the trigger output. The trigger output then remains
off, despite there being a trigger i n p u t . The trigger output can o n l y occur a ga in when the
trigger output is switched off and then switched on a g a i n .

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.__J
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Trigger Cycle Trigger

Trigger Trigger
Trigger
input control output
Input I
,.....
I
Hl1--( � Trigger
output O .
H�H�s}--t�
T�gger
r
, t Cycle control
... �
(b)
Trigger Trigger output

One cycle
2 ·�1f-----(
of PLC program
,-,-.
I
.
I
(a)
(c)
�rH::� '.
r Figure 8.29 One-shot (a) program, (b) facility in an Allen-Bradley PLC, (c) facility in a Mitsubishi PLC
,
Set a n d Reset ·
Another function which is often available is the ability to set a n d reset an internal relay . .
The set instruction causes the relay to self-hold, i.e. latch. It then remains in that
condition until the reset instruction . i s received. The term flip-flop .ls often used. Figure
8 . 3 0 shows the. l E G 1 1 3 1 - 3 standards for such coils. The SET coil is switched on when
power is s u p p l i e d to it and remains set u n t i l . it is RESET. The R E S E T coil is reset to the
r+: off state when power is supplied to it and remains off until it is SET.
Input ·
0
r
!
.
�rK;:H· Coil
(a)
Input
1 · 0
r+-
�rK:� Coil =i
_____. _
(b)
1
Figure 8.30 (a) SET and (b) RESET coils
Figure 8 . 3 1 shows an example of a ladder diagram involving such a function. Activation
of the first input, X400, causes the output Y430 to be turned on and set, i.e. latched.
rr=
T h u s if the first i n p u t is turned off, the output remains o n . Activation of the second input,
!
· . X401, causes the output Y430 to be reset, . i . e . turned off and latched off. Thus the
output Y430 is on for the time between X400 being momentarily switched on a n d X401
r b e i n g momentarily switched on .. Between the two rungs indicated for the set and reset
operations, there could be other rungs for other activities to be carried out, the set rung
switching on an output at the b e g i n n i n g of the sequence a n d off at the e n d .
Input .
On
__
___......._ Off X400
�-r1 I s:TF:,:r I D
I Input. I D On X401
I
X401 . RESETt coil Y4301
-------- Off
On Y430
r�
l
H rEB--i -------Off
Figure 8 . 3 1 SET and RESET
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.
,�
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With an Allen Bradley PLC, the term set and reset is used. Figure 8.32 shows the ladder .J
diagram.
l
I n p ut SET
_J
10,01-00
.)
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Input RESET.-
I0,1f--(:o
,· l
_J
Figure 8.32 SET and RESET
Program examples
An example of the basic elements of a s i m p l e program for use with a fire alarm system
_j
is shown in Figure 8 . 3 3 . Fire sensors provide inputs to a SET-RESET function block so
that if one of the sensors is activated the alarm is set and remains set until it is cleared
by being reset. When set it sets of the alarm.

.J
Sensor 1 SET/RESET
Sr�o=2-
r -�
.· --
--<- �J�r\._
A l
a r-
�
j
Sensor 3
J
Clear alarm switch
__J
Figure 8.33 Alarm system
Another program showing the basic elements of a program is shown in Figure 8.34. J
This could be used with a system designed to detect when a workpiece has been·
. '
loaded into the correct position for some further operation. When the start contacts are _J
. closed then the output causes the workpiece to move. This continues until a light beam
is interrupted and resets, causing the output to cease. A stop button is available to stop
the movement at a n y t i m e . J
Work:plece m o ve m e nt
Start loading SET/RESET
I
s
I
Motion
Light sensor
I
R
J
I
Sto p
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Timers
I n many control tasks there is a need to control time. For example, a motor or a pump
might need to be controlled to operate for a particular interval of time, or perhaps be
switched on after some time interval. PL.Cs thus have timers as built-in devices. Timers
l
count fractions of seconds or seconds u s i n g the internal CPU clock.
_J
PLC manufacturers differ on 'how timers s h o u l d be programmed and hence how they ·
can be considered. A common approach is to consider timers to behave like relays with
l
_)

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r·�
coils which when energised result in the closure or opening of contacts after some
preset time. The timer is thus treated as an output for a rung with control being
exercised over pairs of contacts elsewhere (Figure 8.35(a)). This is the predominant
approach used in this book. Some treat a timer as a delay block which when inserted in
a rung delays s i g n a l s in that rung reaching the output (Figure 8 . 3 5 ( b ) ) .
Timer coil
r-; Timer corltoc..{ J

H
(
1-�.,ay
,--. before activated
(a)
l
H �... · . �
.
lime �elay before Input
(b) signal reaches output
Figure 8.35 Treatment o

f timers
There are a number of different forms of timers that can be found with PLCs. With small
PLCs there is likely to be just one form, t h e · on-delay timers. These are timers which
come on after a particular time delay (Figure 8.36(a)). Off-delay timers are on for a fixed
period of time before turning off (Figure 8 . 3 6 ( b ) ) . Another type of timer that occurs is the
pulse timer. This timer switches on or off for a fixed period of time (Figure 8.36(c)).
Figure 8 . 3 7 shows the I E C 1 1 3 1 - 3 standard symbols for timers.
Input Input Input
Timer Tl m e r li m e r
outp� ___, ......,__

output---�--'---
output ---CJ-�----
(a) On-delay timer (a) Off-delay t i m e r (c) Pulse timer
Figure 8.36 Timers: (a) on-delay, (b) off-delay, (c) pulse
TON roF W
BObL IN Q BOOL BOOL IN Q BOOL BOOL IN Q BOOL
PT E TIME PT ET TIME PT E TIME

TIME TIME TIME
On-delay t i m e r Off-delay timer Pulse timer
Figure 8.37 !EC I 1 3 1 - I standards. BOOL indicates a Boolean input/output, i.e. on/off IN is the input. Q is the
output: ET is the elapsed time output. PT is the input used to specify the time.
The time duration for which a timer has been set· is termed the preset an d is set in
multiples of the time base used. Some time bases are typically 1 0 ms, 1 9 0 ms, 1 s, 1 0 s ·
an d 1 0 0 s. T h u s a preset value of 5 with a time base of 1 0 0 ms is a time of 500 ms. For
convenience, where timers are involved in this text, a time base of 1 s has been used.
Programming timers
All PLCs generally have delay-on timers, small PLCs possibly having
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only this type of timer. Figure 9.4(a) shows a ladder rung diagram involving a delay-on J
timer. Figure 8 . 3 8 ( a ) is typical of Mitsubishi. The timer is like a relay with a coil which is
energised when the i n p u t I n 1 occurs (rung t). It then closes, after some preset time
J
delay, its contacts on rung 2 . Thus the output occurs some preset time after the i n p u t I n
1 occurs. Figure 8 . 3 8 ( b ) shows the timer to be a delay item in a r u n g , rather than as a
relay, the example being for Siemens. When the s i g n a l at the timer's.start i n pu t changes _J
from O to 1 , the timer starts and runs for the programmed duration, giving its output then
to the output coil. The time value (TV) output can be used to ascertain the amount of
time remaining at any instant. A signal input of 1 at the reset input resets the timer
whether it is r u n n i n g or not. Techniques for the entry of preset time values vary. Often it
requires the entry of a constant K command.followed by the time interval i n multiples of

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the time base used. Figure 8 . 3 8 ( c ) , (d) and (e) shows l a d d e r d i a g r a m s Telemecanique,
Toshiba and Allen-Bradley.
S is Boolean start input
Input I n 1 Timer
lV is duration of time
T450 K5
X400
LO specification. .
X400 .
�01
0.0 TON
ro A 10.0
� \ R is Boolean reset.
\. J OUT
;450 � s Q
LKT 5.2
Bl is current time value
K
.J
Timer Output
SR TO
T450 Y430
LO
OUT
T450 KT5.2 rv Bl
�'1 A TO
· in
BCD
binary
is
word.
current time
Y430 R BCD
02.0
K
value in BCD word
Q is Boolean output,
(b)
(a) in di cati ng state of- timer.
_J
H'�'·}i.
X001 . Y020
H � }i
I � - - 1 (d) J
(c)
Input
1 : 0 1 2 /0 1
}
Input
TON
The enbable 'bit EN is set to 1
__J
TI M E R ON
wh e n there is a logic path to
Time
TIMER T4:0 EN
the time. The done bit ON
TIME BASE 1 :0 EN
indicates the status of the
Time
J
PRESET 5
timer and is set to 1 wh e n the
ON
Timer .._ __, Output
accumulated value equals
T4.0 0 : 0 1 2 1 1 0
Time
the preset value.
-11----)
(e)
J
Figure 8 . 3 8 Timers: (a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c)Telemecanique, (d) Toshiba, (e) Allen-Bradley
'_J
Sequ encin g .
As an illustration of the use of a timer, consider the ladder diagram shown in Figure
8.39(a). When the input In 1 is on, the output Out 1 is switched on. The contacts J
associated with this output then start the timer. The contacts of the timer will close after
the preset time delay, in this case 5 . 5 s . When this happens, output Out 2 is switched
J
o n . T h u s , following the i n p u t I n 1 , Out 1 is switched on and followed 5 . 5 s later by Out 2.
This illustrates how timed sequence of outputs c a n - b e achieved. Figure 8 . 3 9 ( b ) shows
the same operation where the format used by the PLC manufacturer is for the timer to J
institute a signal delay.

J
..
r
\ .
r: In 1 Out 1 In 1 Out 1
\
r
\
K ,) I
Timer
C J
Out 1 Timer
Preset
Out 1· Out 2
TON
(
to 5.5
Q
�( IN
-;
Timer· Oat 2
r.
l
�(} Preset to 5 . 5 s .
(a) (b)
Figure 8.39 Sequenced outputs
r
l
Figure 8.40 shows two versions of how timers can be used to start three outputs, e.g.
three motors, in sequence following a single start button being pressed. I n . (a) the timers
r
I are programmed as coils, whereas in (b) - they are programmed as delays. When the
start push button is pressed there is an output from internal relay I R t . This latches the
start input. It also starts both the timers, T1 and T2, and motor 1 . When the preset time
for timer 1 has elapsed then its contacts close and motor 2 starts. When the preset time
for timer 2 has elapsed then its contacts close and motor 3 starts. The three motors are
all stopped by pressing the stop push button. Since. this is seen as a complete program,
the end instruction has been used.

Start Stop IR1
r
:,��,��
(
� H Start O
r IR1� .
\
T1
IR1 T1
T2
I
IR1�-t
D
IR1
Moto_r 1
IR1 T2 IR3 1
IR1 Motor 2
, }i::3-i" 1
I
T1 Motor 3
D
I ( '
IR2 Motor 2
I
T2 Stop
I C '
IR3 Motor3
I
Timing diagram
I C
r -------t END
1---------1 END
(a) (b)
(
Figure 8.40 Motor sequence
r
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Off-delay timers
Figure 8.41 shows how a on-delay timer c a n - b e used to produce an off-delay timer.
With such an arrangement, when there is a momentary i n p u t to I n 1 , both the output Out
I
c.....l
. 1 and the timer are switched. o n . Because the i n p u t is latched by the Out 1 contacts, the
output remains on. After the preset timer time delay, the timer contacts, which are
normally closed, open and switch off the output. Thus the output starts as on and
J
remains on until the time delay has elapsed. ,,.
ln 1 Timer Out 1
In 1
1
a c.....l
Time
Out 1
Out 1
J
Time
. Timer
I
J
Time
Figure 8.41 Off-delay timer J
Some PLCs have, as well as on-delay timers, built-in off-delay timers and thus there is J
no need to use an on-del.ay timer to produce an off-delay timer. As an illustration of the
use of an off-delay timer, consider the Allen- Bradley program shown in Figure 8.42.
TOF is used to indicate that it i s . an off-delay, rather than on-delay (TON) timer. The J
time base is set to 1 :0 which is 1 s. The pre?et is 1 0 so the ti'}ler is preset to 1 0 s.
1 : 0 1 2/0 1 TOF
1 : 0 1 2/0 1
TIMER OFF DELAY

EN Rung 1 l
c.....l
TIMER T4:1 Time
TIME
PRESET
BASE 1 :O
10 ,rDNj
E N .
n
lime
T4:1 EN
J
0 : 0 1 3 /0 1 DN
J
( \ Rung 2
li m e
T4:1 TT 0 : 0 1 3/0 2
0 : 0 1 3 /0 1
n J
...,
( \ Rung 3
1 4 .
10 s
Time
0 : 0 1 3 /0 2
T4:1 DN 0 : 0 1 3/0 3
{ '
Rung4 .
Time
J
\...
T4:1 DN 0 : 0 1 3 /0 4
0 : 0 1 3 /0 3
I
( Rung 5
Time
J
0:013/04 ·
Time
Figure 8.42 Application of an. off-delay timer J
l n the first r u n g , the output of the timer is taken from the EN (for e na b l e ) contacts. This
means that there is no time delay between an i n p u t to 1 : 0 1 2 / 0 1 a nd the EN output. As a

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result the E N contacts in rung 2 close immediately there is an 1 : 0 1 2 / 0 1 i n p u t . Thus there
is an output from 0:013/01 immediately the input 1:012/01 occurs. The TT (for timer
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t i m i n g ) contacts in rung 3 are energised just while the timer is running. Because the
timer is an off-delay timer, the timer is turned on for 1 0 s before turning off. Thus the TT
contacts will close when the set time of 10 s is running. Hence output 0:'012/02 is J
switched on for this time of 1 0 s. The DN (for done) contacts which are normally closed,

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J
r
\
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\ . open a ft e r t h e 1 0 s a n d so output0:013/03 comes on after 1 0 s. The ON contacts which
are normally o p e n , close after 1 0 s a n d so output 0 : 0 1 3 / 0 4 goes off after 1 0 s. · ·
r P u l s e timers
{
.
Pulse timers are used to produce a fixed duration output from some initiating input.
Figure 8 . 4 3 ( a ) shows a ladder diagram for a system that will give an output from Out 1
for a predetermined fixed length of time when there is an i n p u t to I n 1 , the timer being
one involving a coil. There are two .outputs for the input I n 1 . When there is an input to
I n 1 , there is an output from Out 1 and the timer s t a rt s . When the predetermined time
has elapsed, the timer contacts o p e n . This switches off the output. T h u s the output
remains on for just the time specified by the timer.
In 1 Timer In 1
· 1 li m e
r Timer
I
Timer Out 1
-------. - - - - Closed
contacts I
· . Open
Time
· Out 1
(a)
r Time
!
Internal
In 1 Timer relay.
r
!
TON
r Internal
I
\ '
Out 1
relay
r
I
(b)
r Figure 8.43 Pulse-on timer
Figure 8.43(b) shows an equivalent ladder diagram to Figure 8 . 4 3 ( a ) but employing a
r timer which produces a delay in the time taken for a s i g n a l to reach the output.
In Figure 8 . 4 3 , the pulse timer has an output switched on by an input for a
predetermined t i m e , . then · switching off. Figure 8.44 shows another pulse timer that
switches an output on for a predetermined time after the i n p u t ceases. T h i s uses a timer
and two internal relays. When there is an input to I n 1 , the internal relay I R 1, is
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energised. The timer does not s t a rt at this point because the normally closed I n 1
contacts are o p e n . The closing of the I R 1 contacts means that the internal relay I R 2 is
energised. There i s , however, no output from Out 1 at this stage because, for the
bottom r u n g , we have I n 1 contacts open. When the i n p u t to I n ,1 ceases, both the
internal relays r e rri a i n energised and the timer is s t a rt e d . After the set time, the timer
contacts, which are normally closed, open and switch off I R 2. This in turn switches off
I R 1 . It also, in the b o tt o m r u n g , switches off the output Out 1 . Thus the output is off for
the duration of the input, then being switched on for a predetermined length of time.
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181 I Page Indian School .of Petroleum & Energy
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In 1 In 1 Timer J
In 1
l
Time .....J
I R 2 IR 1
IR 1
·\ .. Time J
IR.1 I R 2
Timer
I R 2
�: IR Out 1
'Timer
Time
J
In 1 2
c J
Kj Out 1
lime
· J
Time
Figure 8.44 Pulse timer on, when output ceases l

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Counters
Counters are provided as built-in elements in PLCs and allow the number of
occurrences of input signals to be counted. This might be where items have to be

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counted as they pass alo ng a conveyor belt, or the n u m b e r of revolutions of a shaft, or
perhaps the n u m b e r of people passing through a door. A counter is set to some preset
n u m b e r value a n d , when this value of i n p u t p u l s e s has been received, it will operate its
contacts. Thus n o r m a l l y , open contacts would be closed, normally closed contacts
opened. J
There are two types of counter, though PLCs may not i n c l u d e both types. These are
down-counters and up-counters. Down-counters count down from the preset value to _J
zero, i . e . events are subtracted from the set value. When the counter reaches the zero
value, its contacts change state. Most PLC$ offer down c o u nt ing . Up-counters count
from zero up to the preset v a l u e , i.e. events are added u nt il the n u m b e r reaches the J
preset v a l u e . When the counter reaches the set v a l u e , its contacts change state.
Different PLC manufacturers deal with counters in slightly different ways. Some c o u n t .
down (CTD), or up (CTU), and reset and treat the counter as though it is a relay coil and
so a rung output. In this way, counters can be considered to consist of two basic
elements: one relay coil. to count input pulses and one to reset the counter, the
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associated contacts of the counter b e i ng used in other r u n g s . Figure 8.45(a) illustrates
this. M i t s u b i s h i is an example of this type of manufacturer. Others treat the counter as
an intermediate block in a rung from which sig na ls emanate when the count is attained. J
Figure 8.4 5(b) illustrates this. Siemens is an example of this type of manufacturer.
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,, Counter Counter Counter Counter
-fs) -fsr
Counter Counter
-Jcro LO PV
�TU
� J
Cou�/
r Cor:/
�� . .
Activated when Output when zero reached Output when set count
zero reached after counting set count reached after after counting down reached after counting
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1 . QI) down from set value counting up from zero (b) from set value up from zero
Figure 8.45 Forms of representation of counters. In (a) RST is reset. In (b), the !EC 1 1 3 1 - 3 representation, CD is
count down input, LD is for loading the input, PV is for the preset value, CV the current count value, CU is count
up input, and R is for the reset input.
Programming
Figure Figure 8.46 shows· a basic counting circuit. When there is a pulse input to In 1,
the counter is reset. When there is an input to I n 2, the counter starts counting. If the
counter is set for, say, 1 O p u l s e s , then when 1 O p u l s e inputs have been received at I n 2,
the counter's contacts Will close a n d there will be an output from Out 1 . If at any time
, during the counting there is an input to I n 1 , the counter will be reset and start all over
/
I ; a g a i n and count for 1 0 p u l s e s .

In 1 Counter
In 1 Counter
Out 1
r �s) n
In 2
( CTU · ( '\_J
Time
In 2 CoLB1ter cu Q \. Fl
In 2
. In 1
Kcu
n n a n n nn n n n R
CV
Time
Counter Out 1
Out 1
PV
\
r K' Time
Figure 8.46 Basic counter program

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X400 co
10.0 2
LD X400 S_CU·
RESET a .1 CV_BCD iscounl
( value in BCD.
RST C460 cu Q
C460 \.. CV is count v a l u e

LD X401
10.1 CV
in Boolean.
X401 K10 OUT C460
s �J
, S is SET and is used
K 10 CV_BCD
OUT • to activate the
LD C460
1 0 PV c o u nt e r and is set
OUT Y430
Y430
R to �s starting v a l u e ;
C46(,__--.( �'
with count up, this J
(a)
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1 : 0 1 21 0 1
1:012101
CTU
D D O O O D D D D D c s:��eo��afler
C5:1
\._c1:;
Preset 1 O DN / Switched off by.
foi-?\ output --'--------__J'---_.__- 1:012102 input

'.)
C5 1 DN O :013101
cu
: 1-
1 ------1( ) output �D�D�D�D�D�D�D�D�D�D�-
I :01210 2 �:�
1:012102 J
1 '( ]
CTU = count up
CU= output for use with count up counters DN = output which gives an output
Note: CTD = count doVYn

and is termed the count up enable. II gives when the count has reached the
C5:1 is counter address

an output until the count has reached the set v a l u e
d)
( Pres et is the reset
p court num b er preset v a l ue .
Figure 8.47 (a) Mitsubishi program, (b) Siemens program, (c) Toshiba program, (b) Allen-Bradley programs
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Figure 8.47(a) shows how the above program, and its program instruction list, would
appear with a Mitsubishi PLC. The reset and counting elements are combined in a
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s i n g l e box s p a n n i n g the two rungs. You can consider the rectangle to be e n c l o s i n g the
two counter ( ) outputs in Figure 8 . 4 6 . The count value is set by a K program instruction.
Figure 8 . 4 7 ( b ) shows the same program with a Siemens PLC. With this ladder program, J
the counter is considered to be a delay element in the output l i n e (as in Figure 8 . 4 5 ( b ) ) ;
The counter is reset by an i n p u t to 10.1 a nd counts the pulses into i n p u t 1 0 . 0 . The CU
indicates that it is a count-up counter, a CD w o u l d indicate a count-down counter. The

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counter set value is indicated by the LKC number. Figure 8.47(c) is the program for
Toshiba and Figure 8.47(d) for Allen-Bradley.

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Counter a p p l i c a t i o n
As an illustration of the use that can be made of a counter, consider the problem of
items passing along a conveyor belt, the passage of an item past a particular point·
being registered by a l i g h t beam to a photoelectric cell b e ing interrupted, arid after a set
n u m b e r there is to be a s i g n a l sent informing that the set count has been reached and
the conveyor stopped. Figure 8.48(a) shows the basic elements of a Siemens program
that could be u s e d . A reset s i g n a l causes the counter to reset and start counting a g a i n . J
The set signal is used to make the counter active: Figure 8 .48 ( b ) shows the basic
elements of the comparable Allen-Bradley program. When the count reaches the preset
v a l u e , the done bit is set to 1 and so 0 : 0 1 3 / 0 1 occurs a nd the corresponding contacts

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are opened and the conveyor stopped.

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Counter
Output when
Input pulse Counter
finished
S_CD
�p,lses CTU
cu.)
CD Q
C5:1
r
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Preset
counter
o0
s CV
- C5:1 ON 0 : 0 1 3 /0 1
r CV_BC ( _)
I Quantity
PV I
Reset
C5:1
1 : 0 1 2 1 0 :z
r:
�
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�E)
Output C o nv e yo r
0. 0 1 3 / 0 1 C o nv e y o r
(a)
1/1
c )- (b)
Figure 8.48 (a) Siemens, (b) Allen-Bradley counting program

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Up a n d Down C o u n t i n g -
It is possible to program up- and down-counters together. Consider the task of counting
products as they enter a conveyor line and as they leave it, or perhaps cars as they
enter a multi-storage parking lot and as they leave it. An output is to be triggered if the
n u m b e r of items/cars entering is some number greater than the number leaving, i.e. the
ri u m b e r _in the parking lot has reached a. 'saturation' value. The output might be to
illuminate a 'No empty spaces' sign. Suppose we-use the up-counter for items entering
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and the count down for items leaving. Figure 8.49(a) shows the basic form a ladder
program for such an application can take. When an item enters it gives a pulse on input
In 1 . This increases the count . by one. Thus each · item entering increases the
r accumulated count by 1 . When an item leaves it gives an input to In 2. This reduces the
number by 1 . Thus each item leaving reduces the accumulated count by 1 . When the
accumulated value reaches the preset value, the output Out 1 is switched on. Figure
8.49(b) shows the implementation of this program with an A l l e n - B r a d l e y program.
In 1 Up-counter
�cu
r t-C \
1
:012TI110·
c- � . u I ; J
In 2 D o wn- c o u n t e r
r t-C \ --{o0
t 1 : 0 1 2 / 1 1
In 3 Reset
t-e · \ H�co·
.-.
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l . Counter Out 1
. . LJ-(o�)
K) C5:0 ON 0 : 0 1 3 / 1 0
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I C _)
(a)
1 : 0 1 3 / 1 0
I �ES
(b)
Figure 8.49 (a) Using up- and down-counters, (b) Allen-Bradley program
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Up-down counters are available as single entities. Figure 8.50 shows the IEC 1 1 3 1 - 3
standard symbol. The counter has two inputs CU and CD and counts up the number of
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pulses detected at the input CU and counts down the number of pulses detected at
· input CD. If the counter input reaches zero, the QD output is set on and the counting
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down stops. If the count reaches the maximum value PV, the QU output is set on and __ J
the counting up stops. CV is the count value. LO can be used to preset the counter
output CV with the value PV. The reset R clears the counter i n p u t to zero. ·
1
CTUD ,._]
CU. QU
CD QD
J
R
LD
\
.......)
PV CV
Figure 8.50 !EC J 131-3standard symbol for up- down counter
J
Figure 8.51 shows how the above. system might appear for a Siemens PLC and the
associated program instruction list. CU is the count up i n p u t and CD the count down. R
is the reset. The set accumulator value is loaded via F O . O , this being an internal relay. J
co 02.0
1 0 . 0
( \ Each input pulse to CU
cu OU
increments the count by 1

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Each input pulse to CD
1 0 . 1
decrements the count by 1
CD
The count is set to

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FO.O
the preset value PV
s when the set (load) input
is 1 . As long as i
t is 1
J
inputs to CU and CD have
PV
1 0 . 2
no effect.
J
The count is reset to zero
R
when the reset R is 1 .
Figure 8 . 5 1 Up and down counting with a Siemens PLC
A typical timer can count up to 1 6 binary bits of data, this corresponding to 32 767 base
J
time u n i t s . T h u s , if we have a time base of 1 s then the maximum time that can be dealt
with by a timer is just over 546 minutes or 9 . 1 hours. If the time base is to be 0 . 1 s then
the m a x i m u m time is 54.6 minutes or just short of an hour. By combining a t i m e r with a J

counter, longer times can be counted. Figure 8 . 5 2 illustrates this with an Allen-Bradley
program. If the timer has a time base of 1 s and a preset value of 3600, then it can
countfor up to 1 hour. W h e n input 1 : 0 1 2 / 0 1 is activated, the timer starts to time in one
second increments. When the time reaches the preset value of 1 h o u r , the ON bit is set
to 1 a n d the counter increments by 1 . The ON bit setting to 1 also reset the timer and J
the t i m e r starts to time a g a i n . When it next reaches its preset time of 1 h o u r , the ON bit
is a g a i n set to 1 a n d the counter increments by 1 . With the counter set to a preset value
_}
of 24, the counter ON bit is set to 1 when the count reaches 24 and the output 0 : 0 1 3 / 0 1
is turned o n . We thus have a timer which is able to count the seconds for the duration of
a day and would be able to switch on some device after 24· hours.
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1 : 0 1 2 /0 1 T4:0 ON
TON
r
Time b ase 1 . 0
(
Preset 3 6 0 0
Accurn O
r T4:0
Ccunter C fi . Il
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ON
CTU
�c�
r �--
Preset24 �
(
AccumO � ,
�-�-\0�
r- C5.0
ON1-l----------o--1,(3101
1-
Figure 8.52 Using a counter to extend the.range o

f a timer
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unit 9 PLC Start u p and Maintenance
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
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CHAPTER The design of programmable controllers includes a number of rugged .
HIGHLIGHTS features that allow PLCs to be installed in almost any industrial environ
l
ment. Although programmable controllers are tough machines; a little fore __J
sight during their installation will ensure proper system operation. In this
unit, we will explore PLC installation, explaining the specifications for
proper PLC component placement and environment. We will also explain

J
other factors that affect PLC operation, such as noise, heat, and voltage. In
addition, we will discuss wiring guidelines and safety precautions. Although
proper PLC installation leads to good system operation, no programmable J

controller system is without faults. Therefore.we will investigate proactive.
maintenance techniques, as well as reactive troubleshooting processes. When
you finish this unit, you will understand the fundamentals of PLC start-up J
and operation.
9-1 PLC S Y S T E M L A Y O U T
. System layout is the conscientious approach to placing and interconnecting J

components not only to satisfy the application, but also to ensure that the
controller will operate trouble free in its environment. In addition to program

/J
mable controller equipment, the system layout also encompasses the other
. components that form the total system. These components include isolation
transformers, auxiliary power supplies, safety control relays, and incoming
line noise suppressors, In a carefully constructed layout, these components J

are easy to access and maintain.
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PLCs are designed to work on a factory floor; thus, they can withstand harsh
· environments. Nevertheless, careful installation planning can increase sys

J
tem productivity and decrease maintenance problems. The best location for
a programmable controller is near the machine or process that it will control,
as long as temperature, humidity, and electrical noise are not problems.

J
Placing the controller near the equipment and using remote 1/0 where
possible will minimize wire runs and simplify start-up and maintenance.
Figure 9-1 shows a programmable controller installation and its wiring

J
connections.
PLCs are generally placed in a NEMA-12 panel enclosure or another type
of NEMA enclosure, depending on the application. A panel enclosure holds J

the PLC hardware, protecting it from environmental hazards. Table 9-1
describes the different types of NEMA enclosures. The enclosure size
depends on the total space required. Mounting the controller components in
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PLC Start-Up I u
and Maintenance . 9NIT
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j�urtesyof
�Siemens,
,--.
• Alpharetta. GA,
I and Phoenix
t
Contact,·
Harrisburg, PA·
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Figure 9-1. Installation of a PLC-based system using modular 1/0 terminal blocks.
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an enclosure is not always required, but it is recommended for most applica
tions to protect the components from atmospheric contaminants, such as

r conductive dust, moisture, and other corrosive and harmful airborne sub
\
stances. Metal enclosures also help minimize the effects of electromagnetic
radiation, which may be generated by surrounding equipment.

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. The enclosure layout should conform to NEMA standards, and component
placement and wiring should take into consideration the effects of heat,
electrical noise, vibration, maintenance, and safety. Figure 9-2 illustrates a
. typical enclosure layout, which can be used for reference during the following
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layout guideline discussion.
,.
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PLC Start-Up UNIT

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and Maintenance 9
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NEMA Panel Enclosures
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Type 1 (Surface mount)
For indoor use to protect against contact with the enclosed equipment in
applications where unusual service conditions do not exist
Type 1 (Flush mount)
Used for the same types of applications as Type 1 surface-mounted
enclosures in situations where installation in a machine frame or plaster wall
is desired
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Type3 __J
For outdoor use to protect against windblown dust, rain, sleet, and external
ice formation
Type3R
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For outdoor use to protect against falling rain, 'sleet, and external ice
· formation ·
Type 3R, 7, and 9 (Unilock enclosure for hazardous locations)'
Used for the same types of applications as Type 3R, 7, and 9 enclosures
but provides a· copper-free aluminum, bronze-chromated housing

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Type4
For indoor or outdoor use to protect against windblown dust and rain,
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splashing water, and hose-directed water
Type 4X (Nonmetallic, corrosion-resistant, fiberglass-reinforced polyester)

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For indoor and outdoor use to protect against corrosion, windblown dust and
rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water
Type6P
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For indoor and outdoor use to protect against the entry of water during
prolonged submersion at a limited depth
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Type 7 (Hazardous gas locations bolted enclosure)
For indoor use in applications using hazardous gases; capable of
withstanding an internal explosion of specified gases and containing such an

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explosion to prevent the ignition of the surrounding atmosphere
Type 9 (Hazardous dust locations)

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For indoor use in applications where hazardous dust is present; designed to
prohibit the entry of dust as well as prevent the ignition of dust by enclosed
heat-generating devices
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._)
Type 12
For indoor use to protect against dust, falling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive
liquids
Type 13
For indoor use to protect against dust, spraying of water, oil, and J
noncorrosive coolants
1
._)
Table 9-1. NEMA panel enclosure descriptions.
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
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CT
Po 'r>.
Wi "l..J 40Amp
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Disconnect
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Auxiliary
PowerSu ly
. 110 Rack·
, (AC Outputs
2KVA
Isolation
DC irin Transformer
,.....__
Figure 9-2.
Enclosure
layout.
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Auxiliary
! PowerSuj oly
' Out ut
W i n g
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PLC
r PowerSup ly
Inp t
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Terminal Block (AC Inputs)
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
____;
General. The following recommendations address preliminary consider
ations for the location and physical aspects of a PLC enclosure:

1
,_..)
The enclosure should be located so that the doors can fully open for
easy access when testing or troubleshooting wiring and components.
�J
The enclosure depth should provide adequate clearance between the
closed enclosure door (including any print pockets mounted on the

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door) and the enclosed components and related cables. -..)
The enclosure's back panel should be removable to facilitate mount
ing of the components and other assemblies . J
. The cabinet should contain an emergency .disconnect device installed
in an easily accessible location. �J
The enclosure should include accessories, such as AC power outlets,

\
interior lighting, and a gasketed, clear acrylic viewing window, for .....J
installation and maintenance convenience.
____;
Environmental. The effects of temperature, humidity, electrical noise, and
vibration are important when designing the system layout. These factors
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influence the actual placement of the controller, the inside layout of the
____;
enclosure, and the need for other special equipment. The following consider
ations help to ensure favorable environmental conditions for the controller:
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The temperature inside the enclosure must not exceed the maximum
operating temperature of the controller (typically 60°C).

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If the environment contains "hot spots," such as those generated by
power supplies or other electrical equipment, a fan or blower should

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._)
be installed to help dissipate the heat.
If condensation is likely, the enclosure should contain a thermostat
controlled heater.
The enclosure should be placed well away from equipment that
generates excessive electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio

J
frequency interference (RFI). Examples of such equipment include
welding machines, induction heating equipment, and large motor
starters.
In cases where the PLC enclosure must be mounted on the controlled
equipment, the vibrations caused by that equipment should not exceed
the PLC's vibration specifications.

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.:»
Placement of PLC Components. The placement of the major components
of a specific controller depends on the number of system components and

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the physical design or modularity of each component (see Figure 9-3).
.....J
____)
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PLC Start-Up
· and Maintenance
'
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r Courtes)' of Allen
Bradley, Highland
Heights, OH
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Figure 9-3. Placement of PLC components.
Although different controllers have different mounting and spacing require
ments, the following considerations and precautions apply when placing any
PLC inside an enclosure: '
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To allow maximum convection cooling, all controller components
should be mounted in a vertical (upright) position. Some mamifactur

t:
\ ers may specify that the controller components can be mounted
horizontally. However, in most cases, components mounted horizon
tally will obstruct air flow.
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The power supply (main or auxiliary) has a higher heat dissipation
than any other system component; therefore, it should not be mounted
directly underneath any other equipment. The power supply should be
installed at the top of the enclosure above all other equipment, with
[ · adequate spacing (at least ten inches) between the power supply and
the top of the enclosure. The power supply may also be placed
adjacent to other components, but with sufficient spacing.
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• · The CPU should be located at a comfortable working level (e.g., at
sitting or standing eye level) that is either adjacent to or below the
power supply. If the CPU and power supply are contained in a single
PLC unit, then the PLC unit should be-placed toward the top of the
enclosure with no other components directly above it, unless there is
sufficient space. · .
Local I/0 racks (in the same panel enclosure as the CPU) can be
arranged as desired within the distance allowed by the I/0 rack
interconnection cable. Typically, the racks 'are located below or.
adjacentto the CPU, but not directly above the CPU or power supply.
r·
r:
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(
I
J
PLC Start-Up I u
and Maintenance ' _ 9NIT
J
Remote I/0 racks and their auxiliary power supplies are generally
placed inside an enclosure at the remote location, following the same
placement practices as described for local racks. J
Spacing of the controller components (to allow proper heat dissipa
tion) should adhere to the manufacturer's specifications for vertical J

and horizontal spacing between major components.
._)
Placement of Other Components. In general, other equipment inside the
enclosure should be located away from the controller components, to mini
mize the effects of noise and heat generated by these devices. The following
list outlines some common practices for locating other equipment inside the
enclosure:
Incoming line devices, such as isolation and constant voltage trans
formers, local power disconnects, and surge suppressors, should be
located near the top of the enclosure and beside the power supply. This
placement assumes that the incoming power eriters at the top of the
panel. The proper placement of incoming line devices keeps power
wire runs as short as possible, minimizing the transmission of electri J

cal noise to the controller components .
. Magnetic starters, contactors, relays, and other electromechanical
components should be mounted near the top· of the enclosure in an area
segregated from the controller components. A good practice is to
place a six-inch barrier between the magnetic area and the controller
area. Typically, magnetic components are adjacent and opposite to
the power supply and incoming line devices. J
If fans or blowers are used to cool the components inside the _J

enclosure, they should be located close to the heat-generating devices
(generally power supply heat sinks). Wheri using fans, outside air
1
should not be brought inside the enclosure unless a fabric or other
�J
reliable filter is used. Filtration prevents conductive particles and
other harmful contaminants from entering the enclosure.
J
Grouping Common 1/0 Modules.The grouping of l/O'modules allows
signal and power lines to be routed properly through the ducts, thus minimiz
ing crosstalk interference. Following are recommendations concerning the
grouping ofI/0 modules:
J
I/0 modules should be segregated into groups, such as AC input
modules, AC output modules, DC input modules, DC output mod
ules, analog input modules, and analog output modules, whenever
possible. · · ·
If possible, a separate I/0 rack should be reserved for common input J

or output modules. If this is not possible, then the modules should be
I
_ _J
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PLC Start-Up I u
r
separated as much as possible within the rack. Asuitable partitioning
would involve placing all AC modules or all DC modules together
r
I
and, if space permits, allowing an unused slot between the two groups:
Duct and Wiring Layout. The duct and wiring layout defines the physical
r location ofwireways.and the routing of field I/0 signals, power, and
controller interconnections within the enclosure. The enclosure's duct and
r wiring layout depends on the placement of I/0 modules within each I/0 rack.
(
The placement of these modules pccurs during the design stage, when the I/0
assignment takes place. Prior to defining the duct and.wiring layout and
assigning the I/0, the following guidelines should be considered to minimize

r electrical noise caused by crosstalk between I/0 lines: .
r
l
All incoming AC power lines should be kept separate from low-level
DC lines, I/0 power supply cables, and I/0 rack interconnection
cables.
r
Low-level DC I/0 lines, such as TTL and analog, should not be
routed in parallel with AC I/0 lines in the same duct. Whenever
possible, keep AC signals separate from DC signals.
· . • I/0 rack interconnection cables and I/0 power cables can be routed
. together in a common duct not shared by other wiring. Sometimes,
this arrangement is impractical or these cables cannot be separated
r: from all other wiring. In this case, the I/0 cables can either be routed
\
with low-level DC lines or routed externally to all ducts and held in
place using tie wraps or some other fastening method.
r
Ifl/0 wiring must cross AC power lines, it should do so only at right
angles (see Figure 9-4). This routing practice minimizes the possi
bility of electrical noise pickup. I/0 wiring coming from the conduits
should also be at right angles (see Figure 9-5).
r
AC Power Lines
r
\
r I/0 --+
\
Wiring
.:
r
(
.
Figure 9-4. 1/0 wiring must cross AC power lines at a right angle.
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J
Conduit
.-=1
'-J
-,
I/0 Wiring Cable Tie
l
.....)
Figure 9-5. t/0 wiring from a conduit.
J
When designing the duct layout, the separation between the I/0
modules and any wire duct should be at least two inches. If terminal
strips are used, then the terminal strip and wire duct, as well as the J
terminal strip and I/0 modules, should be at least two inches apart.
J
Grounding. Proper grounding is an important safety measure in all electrical
installations. When installing electrical equipment, users should refer to
National Electric Code (NEC) Article 250, which provides data about the size
and types of conductors, color codes, and connections necessary for safe
grounding of electrical components. The code specifies that a grounding path
· must be permanent (no solder), continuous, and able to safely conduct the
J
ground-fault current in the system with minimal impedance. The following
grounding practices have significant impacts on the reduction of noise caused
by electromagnetic induction:
Ground wires should be separated from the power wiring at the point
of entry to the enclosure. To minimize the ground wire length within
the enclosure, the ground reference point should be located as close
as possible to the point of entry of the plant power supply.
All electrical racks/chassis and machine elements should be
grounded to a central ground bus, normally located in the magnetic J

area of the enclosure. Paint and other nonconductive materials should
be scraped away from the area where the chassis makes contact with ' l
_J
the enclosure. In addition to the ground connection made through the
mounting bolt or stud, a one-inch metal braid or size #8 AWG wire (or
the manufacturer's recommended wire size) should be used to con I
_)
nect each chassis to the enclosure at the mounting bolt or stud:
__J
____)
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
r
\ .
The enclosure should be properly grounded to the ground bus, which
should have a good electrical connectiori at the point of contact with
the enclosure. , ·
The machine ground should be connected to the enclosure and to the
earth ground. ·
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(
9-2
.
POWER R E Q U I R E M E N T S A N D SAFETY C I R C U I T R Y
The source for a PLC power supply is generally single-phase and 19 or 240
VAC. If the controller is installed in an enclosure, the two power leads (Ll
hot and L2 common) normally enter the enclosure through the top part of the
r cabinet to minimize interference with other control lines. The power line
i
should be as clean as possible to avoid problems due to line interference in the
controller and I/0 system. ·
Common AC Source. The system power supply and I/0 devices should ·
have a common AC source (see Figure 9-6). This minimizes line interfer
r
I
ence and prevents faulty input signals stemming from a stable AC source to
.the power supply and CPU; but an unstable AC source to the I/0 devices. By
keeping both the power supply and the I/0 devices on the same power source,
the user can take full advantage of the power supply's line monitoring feature.
'
t
=
it_=
= -
-==-
-==-.......,
= c =
-- =
23 =
- -
.......,
= :
-�=
�
·. -
-=�-
-=�-
- =
LI L2
J
(
r
I
Power to 1/0 Common to 1/0

r
field devices field devices
<
Figure 9-6. System power supply and 1/0 devices with a common AC source.
.-
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
. I
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If line conditions fall below the minimum operating level, the power supply
will detect the abnormal condition and signal the processor, which will stop
reading input data and turn off all outputs. J·
Isolation Transformers. Another good practice is to use an isolation
transformer on the AC power line going to the controller. An isolation

J
transformer is especially desirable when heavy equipment is likely to intro
duce noise into the AC line. An isolation transformer can also serve as a
step-down transformer to reduce the incoming line voltage to a desired level.
The transformer should have a sufficient power rating (in units of volt
amperes) to supply the load, so users should consult the manufacturer to
obtain the recommended transformer rating for their particular application.

J
.....J
The PLC system should contain a sufficient number of emergency circuits J

to either partially or totally stop the operation of the controller or the
controlled machine or process (see Figure 9- 7). These circuits should be
routed outside the controller, so that the user can manually and rapidly shut
down the system in the event of total controller failure. Safety devices, like
emergency pull rope switches and end-of-travel limit switches, should bypass
j
the controller to operate motor starters, solenoids, and other devices directly.
These emergency circuits should use simple logic with a minimum nurriber
of highly reliable, preferably electromechanical, components.
__)
=
it_
- ==--==--==---,
=LJ-
:=
_=
· ,__
. -
�=--
�=-
-�=
--:=
- =
-
J
.....J
L1 L2
__)
Start PLC
Stop PLC System Emergency Emergency

CRl
System _L Stop PBl StopPB2
l
,_J
CRI-1
CRI-2
I
Tol/0 To 1/0
....._../
Figure 9-7. Emergency circuits hardwired to the PLC system.
__)
. J
r
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
l ·.
Emergency Stops. The system should have emergency stop circuits for
every machine directly controlled by the PLC. To provide maximum safety,
these circuits should not be wired to the controller, but instead should be left
hardwired. These emergencyswitches should be placed in locations that the
operator can easily access. Emergency stop switches are usually wired into
master control relay or safety control relay circuits, which remove power from
the I/0 system in an emergency.
Master or Safety Control Relays. Master control relay (MCR) and safety
control relay (SCR) circuits provide an easy way to remove power from
the I/0 system during an emergency situation (see Figure 9-8). These
control relay circuits can be de-energized by pushing any emergency stop
LI
L2
§
. L3
r
\
r Fuse
\ '
Li L2
Start PLC
Stop PLC System Emergency Emergency
System CRl
_J_ Stop PBl StopPB2
r
I.
r
\
Enable
Input Power Disable

MCRl
CRl-2 _L Input Power
�l-l
Enable
Output Power Disable.

MCR2
CRl-3 _L Output Power
r � R2 - l .
T T
MCRl-2 . MCRl-3
To.Inputs · To Inputs
r
!
T T
MCR2-2 · MCR2-3
To Outputs To Outputs
Figure 9-8. Master start control for a PLC with MCRs enabling input and output power.
r
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____)
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PLC Start-Up 1.U
and Maintenance _ 9NIT
J
switch connected to the circuit. De-energizing the control relay coil re
moves power to the input and output devices. The CPU, however, continues
to receive power and operate even though all of its inputs and outputs are
J
disabled.
An MCR circuit may be extended by placing a PLC fault relay (closed during J
normal PLC operation) in series with any other emergency stop condition.
This enhancement will cause the MCR circuit to cut the I/0 power in the
case of a PLC failure (memory error, I/0 communications error, etc.). Figure
9-9 illustrates the typical wiring of a master control relay circuit.
J
LI��--��
. L2��---t��--��---
L3
��-+��+---��---
J
J
Main Disconnect
�-
.,
,
--------- J
Fuse (
LI L2
c
· Enable
J
Emergency Disable PLC Fault
Inputs
Stop Inputs Contact MCRI
_J_
al.O aJ..o J
I
MC£] I
____)
Enable
Disable
Outputs
Outputs MCRI MCR2
_J_
ol.o c.I,o
MCJ J
TMCRI TMCR2 1
,..._)
To Inputs To Outputs
J
Figure 9-9. Circuit that enables/disables 1/0 power through MCRs and PLC fault
contact detection.
J
Emergency Power Disconnect. The power circuit feeding the power
supply should use a properly rated emergency power disconnect, thus
providing a way to remove power from the entire programmable controller
system (refer to Figure 9-9). Sometimes, a capacitor (0.47 oc<I> for 19 VAC,
_)
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
0.22 oc<P. for 29 VAC) is placed across the disconnect to protect against an .
outrush condition. Outrush occurs when the power disconnect turns off the
output triacs, causing the energy stored in the inductive loads to seek the
r . nearest path to ground, which is often through the triacs.
r
9-3 N OISE , H EAT , A N D V O L T A G E R EQUJREMENTS
· Implementation of the previously outlined recommendations should provide
favorable operating conditions for most programmable controller applica- .
r-- tions. However, in certain applications, the operating envirortment may have
l extreme conditions that require special attention. These adverse conditions
include excessive noise and heat and nuisance line fluctuations. This section
describes these conditions and provide measures to minimize their effects.
Excessive Noise. Electrical noise seldom damages PLC components,
r · unless extremely high energy or high voltage levels are present. However,
temporary malfunctions due to noise can result in hazardous machine
operation in certain applications. 'Noise may be present only at certain
times, or it may appear at widespread intervals. In some cases, it may exist
_continuously. The first case is the most difficult to isolate and correct.
r:
Noise usually enters a system through input, output, and power supply lines.·
Noise may also be coupled into these lines electrostatically through the
capacitance between them and the noise signal carrier lines. The presence of
high-voltage or long, closely spaced conductors generally produces this
. effect. The coupling of magnetic fields can also occur when control Iines are
located close to lines carrying large currents. Devices that are potential noise
generators include relays, solenoids, motors, and motor starters, especially
when operated by hard contacts, such as push buttons and selector switches.
,-- Analog I/0 and transmitters are very susceptible to noise from electrome-
)
(
. chanical sources, causing jumps in counts during the reading of analog data.
Therefore, motor starters, transformers, and other electromechanical devices
should be kept away from analog signals, interfaces, and transmitters.

r
\
Although the design of solid-state controls provides a reasonable amount of
r noise immunity, the designer must still take special precautions to minimize
noise, especially when the anticipated noise signal has characteristics similar
to the desired control input signals. To increase the operating noise margin,
the controller must be installed away from noise-generating devices, such as
large AC motors and high-frequency welding machines. Also, all inductive
loads must be suppressed. Three-phase motor leads should be grouped .
r
!
together and routed separately from low-level signal leads. Sometimes, if the
noise level situation is critical, all three-phase motor leads must be suppressed
(see Figure 9 - 1 0 ) . Figure 9 - 1 1 illustrates line-filtering configurations
used for removing input power noise to a controller or transmitter.
r
z
,--
I
1
.......)
_)
PLC Start-Up UNIT
and Maintenance 9
J
L1 L2 L3
J
R
c
--��"'+-'��.....
'
I
i--��....,_,�,_,--,.._�-i-��--i J
__)
Figure 9-10. Suppression of a three-phase motor lead.

1
._..)
LI
lj
Controller
L2.
J
(a) Differential mode filter diagram
J
LI
J
· Controller
Ground
L2
,__/
(b) Common mode filter diagram
l
-.--J
J
Courtesy of
Wallow Electric
Co., St. Louis,

i
MO
.....)
(c) Combination differential/common mode filter diagram
J
Note I : Keep line filters 12 inches or less from the controller. Minimize the line
distance where noise can be introduced into the controller.
Note 2: To prevent ground loops, do not tie the common mode line metal case
filters with other metal that is at ground potential. Doing so will reduce
J
the filters' effectiveness.
J
Figure 9-11. Power noise reduction using one of three line-filtering configurations.
._..)
�
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PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
Excessive Heat. Programmable controllers can withstand temperatures
ranging from O t o 60°C. They are normally cooled by convection, meaning
that a vertical column of air, drawn in an upward direction over the surface of
the components, cools the PLC. To keep the temperature within limits, the ·
cooling air at the base of the system must not exceed 60°C.
The PLC components must be properly spaced when they are installed to
avoid excess heat. The manufacturer can provide spacing recommendations,
which are based on typical conditions for most PLC applications. Typical
. conditions are as follows:
60% of the inputs are ON at any one time
30% of the outputs are ON at any one time
the current supplied by all of the modules combined meets manufac
-turer-provided specifications
the air temperature is around 40°C
Situations in which most of the I/0 are ON at the same time and the air
temperature is higher than 40°C are not typical. In these situations, spacing
between components must be larger to provide better convection cooling. If
equipment inside or outside of the enclosure generates substantial amounts of
heat and the I/0 system is ON continuously, the enclosure should contain a
fan that will reduce hot spots near the PLC system by providing good air
circulation. The air being brought in by the fan should first pass through a
filter to prevent dirt or other contaminants from entering the enclosure.
Dust obstructs the components' heat dissipation capacity, as well as harms
heat sinks when thermal conductivity to the surrounding air is lowered. In ·
cases of extreme heat, the enclosure should be fitted with an air-conditioning
unit or cooling control system that utilizes compressed air (see Figures 9-12
r and 9:-13). Leaving enclosure doors open to cool off the system is not a good
practice, since this allows conductive dust to enter the system.
Courtesy of ITW
Vortec,
Cincinnati, OH
r=
l
Figure 9-12. Vortex cooler used in cooling systems.
r
(
PLC Start-Up
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and Maintenance
.
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Basic Cooler
1
Solenoid Valve
.....)
(750 & 790 only)
j
Filter ·
Compressed
air inlet line
.:»
·courtesy of ITW
Vortec,
Cincinnati, OH
J
Adjustable
Thermostat
(759 & 790 only)
Figure 9-13. Compressed air cooling system. J
There are methods available to calculate the temperature rise and heat ._)
dissipation requirements of an enclosure based on its size and equipment
contents. Temperature rise is the temperature difference between the air
inside an enclosure and the outside air temperature (ambient air temperature). J
Hoffman Engineering Co., a manufacturer of control system enclosures, has
developed temperature rise graphs for use with their panels and enclosures.
Figure 9-14 illustrates a temperature rise graph for a NEMA 12-type J

enclosure. The following example illustrates how to calculate temperature
rise and required airflow using the graph.
. I
__)
EXAMPLE 9-1
J
The NEMA 1 2 enclosure shown in Figure 9 - 1 5 contains a program
mable controller with a power supply transformer, power supplies for
an analog transmitter and other equipment, and various electrome
chanical equipment. The combined power dissipation of the e q u i p - ·

J
ment, found by adding each element's power dissipation, is 1 0 1 1
watts. The ambient temperature of the enclosure is 90°F (32.2°C). Find
(a) the temperature rise for this enclosure and (b) the required airflow. J
__J
r
'·
r
1.
PLC Start-Up I u
and Maintenance _ 9NJT
.
r
\
140°F
130°F
19°F
Temi:ierature
t: rise �Ji}JF so-c

above room
tem)iOOORe
so-r
70°F
,------,
60°F
J
'
50°F
Courtesy of
40°F
Hoffman
Engineering Co.,
Anoka, MN
30°F
r:
9op
r l0°F
\
5 1015925 30
•
r Input Power (watts per sq. ft.)
Figure 9-14. Temperature rise graph for a NEMA 1 2 enclosure.
r+-
i
\
Height
72 inches
r\
r=:
1 I . Width
}
�8inches
Figure 9-15. NEMA 12 enclosure.
r
()
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J
PLC Start-Up UNIT
and Maintenance 9
J
SOLUTION
(a) To calculate the temperature rise, first calculate the total area
(square feet) of the exposed sides of the enclosure. Assuming that the
back and bottom sides of the enclosure are not exposed, the area of
each exposed side equals: J
__)
Front area = (Height)(Width)
= (6 ft)(4 ft).
;::; 24 ft2
J
Side area = (Height)(Depth)
= (6 ft)(3 ft)
= 1 8 fu
1
__J
Top a r e a = (Depth)(Width)
:::: (3 ft)(4 ft)
j
= 1 2 ft 2
_J
Therefore, the total area for heat dissipation, taking into account that
there are two sides, is:
(Total a r e a = 24 fh+ 2 1 8 fts) + 1 2
= 7 2 fh
So, 1 0 1 1 watts of total power in the enclosure is distributed over a
total surface area of 72 ft2, resulting in a power dissipation per square
foot of 1 4 . 0 4 watts:
J
J
1 0 1 1 watts
Power dissipation= . fu
72
= 1 4 . 0 4 watts/ft,
J
From the temperature rise curve for a NEMA 1 2 enclosure, we can find
l
that the temperature rise is approximately 32°C or 57.5°F. Therefore, .._)
this system will experience a final temperature ( a m b i e n t + rise) of
approximately 64.2°C (32.2°C + 32°C) or 1 4 7 . 5 ° F (90°F + 57.5°F).
This temperature exceeds the PLC's maximum operating temperature

J
of 60°C, meaning that a malfunction could occur because of the high
temperature inside the enclosure. This system, therefore, requires
proper ventilation or cooling.

J
(b) The required airflow inside the enclosure is based on the maximum
operating temperature of the components ( e . g . , 60°C for a PLC).
J
PLC Start-Up 1· U9NIT
and Maintenance _
r
l
Assuming that all inside components can withstand up to 60°C
(140°F), the permissible temperature rise (.1T) in °<1> of the cooling air
is:
T = Max temp of enclosure Max temp of components
= 1 7 9 . 6 ° F ""'." 1 4 0 ° F
= 39.6°F
The required airflow Oa;, is given by the equation:
.:
I
Q air= ( 3 1 6 0 ) ( KW of e n c l o s u r e ) .
T
r.
where the term 3160 is a constant, KW is the kilowatt heat of the
enclosure (in this case 1.011 KW) and . T is the permissible tempera
r ture. Therefore, the airflow requirement is:
r·
(
. = (3160)(1.011)
Q
air . 39.6
= 80.68 ft 3 / m i n
Thus, a minimum airflow of 8 0 . 6 8 ft3/min is required to dissipate the
r heat in the enclosure.

I
Excessive Line Voltage Variation. The power supply section of a PLC
system can sustain line fluctuations and still allow the system to function
within its operating margin. As long as the incoming voltage is adequate, the
power supply provides all the logic voltages necessary to support the
processor, memory, and 1/0. However, if the voltage drops below the
minimum acceptable level, the power supply will alert the processor, which
will then execute a system shutdown.
In applications that are subject to "soft" AC lines and unusual line variations,
the first step towards a solution is to correct any possible feeder problem
r
(
in the distribution system. If this correction does not solve the problem, then
a constant voltage transformer can be used to prevent the system from -c,
shutting down too often (see Figure 9-16). The constant voltage transformer
stabilizes the input voltage to the power supply and input field devices by
compensating for voltage changes at the primary to maintain a steady voltage
in the secondary. When using a constant voltage transformer, the user should
r
( check that its power rating is sufficient to supply the input devices and the
power supply. Also, the user should connect the output devices in front of the
constant voltage transformer, rather than behind it, so that the transforiner is
r=
r
\
J
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J.
not providing power to the outputs. This arrangement will lessen the load
supported by the transformer, allowing a smaller transformer to be used. The
manufacturer can provide information regarding power rating requirements. J
----------ro AC Source J
Constant Voltage
Transformer
i
-1
Secondary
CPU J
Power· J
Supply
J
,
1
AC Input
o-------iie7il· Module
J
AC Output
/
Module
l
_.)
/ '
J
Figure 9-16. Constant voltage transformer used to stabilize input voltage.
J
9-4 1/0 INSTALLATION, WIRING, AND PRECAUTIONS
J
Input/output installation is perhaps the biggest and most critical job when
installing a programmable controller system. To minimize errors and sim
plify installation, the user should follow predefined guidelines. All of the J
people involved in installing the controller should receive these I/0 system
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
installation guidelines, which should have been prepared during the design
phase. A complete set of documents with precise information regarding I/0
r placement- and connections will ensure that the system is organized properly.
Furthermore, these documents should be constantly updated· during every
stage of the installation. The following considerations will facilitate an
orderly installation.
r . Placement and installation of the I/0 modules is simply a matter of inserting

1.
the correct modules in their proper locations. This procedure involves
verifying the type of module ( 1 1 5 VAC output, 11 5 VDC input, etc.) and the
slot address as defined by the I/0 address assignment docui:nent. Each
terminal in the module is then wired to the field devices that have been
assigned to that termination address. The user should remove power to the
modules (or rack) before installing and wiring any module.
Wire Size. Each I/0 terminal can accept one or more conductors of a
particular wire size. The user should check that the wire is the correct gauge
and that it is the proper size to handle the maximum possible current.
Wire and Terminal Labeling . Each field wire and its termination point
should be labeled using a reliable labeling method. Wires should be labeled
r. with shrink-tubing or tape, while tape or stick-on labels should identify each
terminal block. Color coding of similar signal characteristics (e.g., AC: red,
DC: blue, common: white, etc.) can be used in addition to wire labeling.
Typical labeling nomenclature includes wire numbers, device names or
numbers, and the input or output address assignment. Good wire and terminal
identification simplifies maintenance and troubleshooting.
r
Wire Bundling. Wire b u n d l i n g is a technique commonly usedto simplify
r
\
the connections to each I/0 module. In this method, the wires that will be
connected to a single module are bundled, generally using a tie wrap, and then
routed through the duct with other bundles of wire with the same signal
characteristics. Input, power, and output bundles carrying the same type of
signals should be kept in separate ducts, when possible, to avoid interference.
r
r
Once the I/0 modules 'are in place and their wires have been bundled, the
r wiring to the modules can begin. The following are recommended procedures
<.
for I/0 wiring:
r •
:
I
I
......J
PLC Start-Up
J
and Maintenance
J
Remove and lock out' input power from the controller and I/0 before
any installation and wiring begins.
J
Verify that all modules are in the correct slots. Check module type
. and model number by inspection and on the I/0 wiring diagram.
Check the slot location according to the I/0 address assignment J

document.
"
l
..__)
Loosen all terminal screws on each I/0 module.
Locate the wire bundle corresponding to each module and route it l
__)
through the duct to the module location. Identify each of the wires in
the bundle and check that they correspond to that particular module.
J
Starting with the first module, locate the wire in the bundle that ·
connects to the lowest terminal. At the point where the wire is at a
vertical height equal to the termination point, bend the wire at a right
J
angle towards the terminal.
Cut the wire to a length that extends 1/4 inch past the edge of the J
terminal screw. Strip approximately 3/8 inch of insulation from the
end of the wire. Insert the uninsulated end of the wire under the
pressure plate of the terminal and tighten the screw. J
If two or more modules share the· same power source, jumper the
power wiring from one module to the next.

. J
If shielded cable is being used, connect only one end to ground,

_J
preferably at the rack chassis. This connection will avoid possible
ground loops. A ground loop condition exists when two or more
electrical paths are created in a ground line or when oneor more paths
J
are created in a shield (Section 9- 7 explains how to identify a ground
loop). Leave the other end cut back and unconnected, unless other
wise specified.
J
1
• . Repeat the wiring procedure for each wire in the bundle until the
�
module wiring is complete.
After all of the wires are terminated, check for good terminations by \
__)
gently pulling on each wire. ·
_J
Units 6, 7, and 8 presented typical connection diagrams for the various J

types of I/0 modules. Certain field device wiring connections, however, rriay
need special attention. These connections include leaky inputs, inductive
loads, outputfusing, and shielded cable. J
\
.__J
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
r
Connecting Leaky Inputs. Some field devices have a small leakage current
even when they are in the OFF state. Both triac and transistor outputs exhibit
r
\
this leakage characteristic, although transistor leakage current is much lower.
Most of the time, the leaky input will only cause the module's input indicator
to flicker; but sometimes, the leakage can falsely trigger an input circuit,
r resulting in misoperation. A typical device that exhibits this leakage situation
is a proximity switch. This type of leakage may also occur when an output
r=> module drives an input module when there is no other load,

/ '
Figure 9 - 1 7 illustrates two leakage situations, along with their corrective
actions. A leaky input can be corrected by placing a bleeding (or loading)
resistor across the input. A bleeding resistor introduces resistance into the
circuit, causing the voltage to drop on the line between the leaky field device
LI 12
r
I
Device's
Output Triac
(a)
r LI 12
r
'
r:
Figure 9-17. (a) A connection for a leaky input device and (b) the connection of an
output module to an input module.
r
i
r·
(
r=
l
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J
and the input circuit. This causes a shunt on the input's terminals. Conse
quently, the leakage current is routed through the bleeding resistor, minimiz
ing the amount of current to the input module (or to the output device). This J
prevents the input or output from turning ON when it should be OFF.
Suppression of Inductive Loads. The interruption of current caused by

J
turning an inductive load's output OFF generates a very high voltage spike.
These spikes, which can reach several thousands of volts if not suppressed,
can occur either across the leads that feed power to the device or between both
power leads and the chassis ground.depending on the physical construction
of the device. This high voltage causes erratic operation and, in some cases,
J
may damage the output module. To avoid this situation, a snubber circuit,
typically a resistor/capacitor network (RC) or metal oxide varistor (MOV),
should be installed to limit the voltage spike, as well as control the rate of
J
current change through the inductor (see Figure 9 - 1 8 ) .
+-------19VAC
J
c R
(a) Small load suppression (AC) J
J
-------19 VAC
J
R
J
(b) Large load suppression (AC)
J
�-,------19VDC
D
l
._J
J
(c) DC load suppression
J
Figure 9-18. (a) Small, (b) large, and (c) DC load suppression techniques.
J
r
I
PLC Start-Up
and Mainteriance
.:
Most output modules are designed to drive inductive loads; so they typically
include suppression networks. Nevertheless, under certain loading condi
tions, the triac may be unable to turn OFF as current passes through zero
(commutation), thus requiring additional external suppression in the system.
r
•. An RC snubber circuit placed across the device can provide additional
suppression for small AC devices, such as solenoidscrelays, and motor
starters up to size 1 . Larger contactors (size 2 and above) require an MOV in
addition to the RC network. A free-wheeling diode placed across the load can
provide DC suppression. Figure 9.:.19 presents several examples of inductive
load suppression.
LI
AC Suppressor
Diode
Suppressor
r
(
r
1.
(a) (b)
r
I, LI L2
AC Suppressor
r
(
(c)
r
'· Figure 9-19. Suppression of (a) a load in parallel with a PLC input module, (b) a DC load,
and (c) loads with switches in parallel and series with a PLC output module.
r
\
'
i
J
l
.__)
.
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J
Fusing Outputs. Solid-state outputs normally have fusing on the module, to
protect the triac or transistor from moderate overloads. If the output does not I
have internal fuses, then fuses should be installed externally (normally at the __J
terminal block) during the initial installation. When adding fuses to an output
circuit, the user should adhere to the manufacturer's specifications for the
particular module. Only a properly rated fuse will ensure that the fuse will
open quickly in an overload condition to avoid overheating of the output
switching device.
Shielding. Control lines, such as TTL, analog, thermocouple, and other low
level signals, are normally routed in a separate wireway, to reduce the effects
J
of signal coupling. For further protection, shielded cable should be used for
the control lines, to protect the low-level signals from electrostatic and
magnetic coupling with both lines carrying 60 Hz power and other lines
J
carrying rapidly changing currents. The twisted, shielded cable should have
at least a one-inch lay, or approximately twelve twists per foot, and should be
protected on both ends by shrink-tubing or a similar material. The shield

J
should be connected to control ground at only one point (see Figure 9-9),
and shield continuity must be maintained for the entire length of the cable. The
shielded cable should also be routed away from high noise areas, as well as
J
insulated over its entire length.
Shielded Twisted-Pair Wire J
PC
Interface J
to ground at only J
one point ----• To Control
Ground
J
Figure 9-9. Shielded cable ground connection.
J
9-5 P L C S TART-U P AND C HECKING P ROCEDURES
J
Prior to applying .power to the system, the user should make several final
inspections of the hardware components and interconnections. These in

l
spections will undoubtedly require extra time. However, this invested time .__)
will almost always reduce total start-up time, especially for large systems
with many input/output devices. The following checklist pertains to prestart
up procedures: J
Visually inspect the system to ensure that all PLC hardware compo
J
nents are present. Verify correct model numbers for each component.
J
r
i
PLC Start-Up I u
I
r
l
Inspect all CPU components and I/0 modules to ensure that they are
. installed in the correct slot locations and placed securely in position.
r Check that the incoming power is correctly wired to the power supply
(and transformer) and that the system power is properly routed and
connected to each I/0 rack.
Verify that the I/0 communication cables Iinking the processor to the
individual I/0 racks correspond to the I/0 rack address assignment.
Verify that all I/0 wiring connections at the controller end are in
place and securely terminated. Use the I/0 address assignment
document to verify that each wire is terminated at the correct point.
Check that the output wiring connections are in place and properly
terminated at the field device end.
Ensure that the system memory has been. cleared of previously stored
control programs. If the control program is stored in EPROM, remove
the chips temporarily: · ·
r
A static input wiring check should be performed with power applied to the
controller and input devices. This check will verify that each input deviceis
r
(
connected to the correct input terminal and that the input modules or points
are functioning properly. Since this test is performed before other system
tests, it will also verify that the processor and the programming device are in
r good working condition. Proper input wiring can be verified using the
following procedures:
,---.
!
Place the controller in a mode that will inhibit the PLC from any
automatic operation. This mode will vary depending on the PLC

r model, but it is typically stop, disable, program, etc.
Apply power to the system power supply and input devices. Verify
that all system diagnostic indicators show proper operation. Typical
indicators are AC OK, DC OK, processor OK, memory OK, and 1/0
communication OK.
Verify that the emergencystop circuit will de-energize power to the

r · I/0 devices. ·
{
Manually activate each input device. Monitor the corresponding LED
status indicator on the input module and/or monitor the same address
on the programming device, if used. If properly wired, the indicator
will turn ON. If an indicator other than the expected one turns ON
r
( when the input device is activated, the input device may be wired to
J
__J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J
the wrong input terminal. If no indicator turns ON, then a fault may
exist in either the input device, field wiring, or input module (see
Section 9-4). -
J
Take precautions to avoid injury or damage when activating input ·
devices that are connected in series with loads that are external to
J
the PLC.
A static output wiring check should be performed with power applied to the J
controller and the output devices. A safe practice is to first locally disconnect
all output devices that involve mechanical motion (e.g., motors, solenoids,
. etc.). When performed, the static output wiring check will verify that each J
· output device is connected to the correct terminal address and that the device
- and output module are functioning properly. The following procedures
should be used to verify output wiring: J
• Locally disconnect all output devices that will cause mechanical J

motion.
Apply power to the controller and to the input/output devices. If an J

emergency stop can remove power to the outputs, verify that the
circuit does remove power when activated.
J
Perform the static check of the outputs one at a time. If the output is
a motor or another device that has been locally disconnected, reapply . l
._J
power to that device only prior to checking. The output operation
check can be performed using one of the following methods:
J
Assuming that the controller has a forcing function, test each
output, with the use of the programming device, byforcing the
output ON and setting the corresponding terminal address (point)

J
to 1 . If properly wired, the corresponding LED indicator will turn
ON and the device will· energize. If an indicator other than the
expected one turns ON when the terminal address is forced, then

J
the output device may be wired to the wrong output terminal
(Inadvertent machine operation does not occur because rotating
.and other motion-producing outputs are disconnected). If no

J
indicator turns ON, then a fault may exist in either the output
device, field wiring, or output module (see Section 9-4).

l
__J
Program a dummy rung, which can be used repeatedly for testing

J
· each output, by programming a single rung with a single normally
open contact (e.g., a conveniently Iocated push button) control
ling the output. Place the CPU hi either the RUN, single-scan, or
J
a similar mode, depending on the controller. With the controller
J
r
i
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
,--.,,
. ,
in the RUN mode, depress the push button to perform the test.
With the controller in single-scan mode, depress and maintain the
push button while the controller executes the single-scan. Ob
serve the output device and LED indicator, as described in the first
procedure.
r=
The control program checkout is simply a final review of the control
program. This check can be performed at any time, but it should be done prior
to loading the program into memory for the dynamic system checkout.
A complete documentation package that relates the control program to the.
actual field devices is required to perform the control program checkout.
Documents, such as address assignments and wiring diagrams, should reflect
r any modifications that may have occurred during the static wiring checks.
l.
When performed, this final program review will verify that the. final hardcopy
of the program, which will be loaded into memory, is either free of error or
at least agrees with the original design documents. The following is a
checklist for the final control program checkout
r
/.
Using the 1/0 wiring document printout, verify that every controlled
output device has a programmed output rung of the same address.
r
(
Inspect the hardcopy printout for errors that may have occurred while
entering the program. Verify that all program contacts and internal
outputs have valid address assignments.
Verify that all timer, counter, and other preset values are correct.
r The dynamic system checkout is a procedure that verifies the logic of the
control program to ensure correct operation of the outputs. This checkout
assumes that all static checks have been performed, the wiring is correct, the
hardware components are operational and functioning correctly, and the
software has been thoroughly reviewed.
r
During the dynamic checkout, it is safe to gradually bring the system under
full automatic control. Although small systems may be started all at once, a
large system should be started in sections. Large systems generally use
remote subsystems that control different sections of the machine or process.
Bringing one subsystem at a time on-line allows the total system to start up
with maximum safety and efficiency. Remote subsystems can be temporarily
disabled either by locally removing their.power or by disconnecting their
communications link with the CPU. The following practices outline proce
dures for the dynamic system checkout: ·
r
r
l
J
PLC.Start-Up
J
and Maintenance
. .
J
Load the control program into the PLC memory. ,
Test the control logic using one of the following methods:

J
Switch the controller to the TEST mode, if available, which will
allow the execution and debugging of the control program while
the outputs are disabled. Check each rung by observing the status
J
of the output LED indicators or by monitoring the corresponding
output rung on the programming device.

J
If the controller must be in the RUN mode to update outputs
during the tests, locally disconnect the outputs that are not being J
tested, to avoid damage or harm. If an MCR or similar instruction
is available, use it to bypass execution of the outputs that are not
being tested, so that disconnection of the output devices is not J

necessary.
J
Check each rung for correct logic operation, and modify the logic if
necessary. A useful tool for debugging the control logic is the single
scan. This procedure allows the user to observe each rung as every J
scan is executed.
• When the tests indicate that all of the logic properly controls the
J
outputs, remove all of the temporary rungs that may have been used
(MCRs, etc.). Place the controller in the RUN mode, and test the total
system operation. If all procedures are correct, the full automatic

J
control should operate smoothly.
__J
Immediately document all modifications to the control logic, and
revise the original documentation. Obtain a reproducible copy (e.g.,
3 . 5 " disk, etc.) of the program as soon as possible. J
The start-up recommendations and practices presented in this section are
good procedures that will aid in the safe, orderly start-up of any program J
mable control system. However, some controllers may have specific start-up
-requirements� which are outlined in the manufacturer's product manual. The
user should be aware of these specific requirements before starting up the J

controller. ·
9-6 P L C S YSTEM M AINTENANCE
J
. . .
Programmable controllers are designed to be easy to maintain, to ensure
trouble-free operation. Still, several maintenance aspects should be consid
ered once the system is in place and operational. Certain maintenance

J-
measures, if performed periodically, will minimize the chance of system
malfunction. This section outlines some of the practices that should be )
....J
followed to keep the system in good operating condition.
_J
J
PLC Start-Up ,. U9NIT
and Maintenance· .
r
(
Preventive maintenance of programmable controller systems includes only
a few .basic procedures, which will greatly reduce the failure rate of system
r components. Preventive maintenance for the PLC system should be sched
uled with the regular machine or equipment maintenance, so that the equip- .
ment and controllerare down for a minimum amount of time. However, the
r+:
( .
. schedule for PLC preventive maintenance depends on the controller's envi
ronment=-the harsher the environment, the more frequent the maintenance.
The following are guidelines forpreventive measures:
Periodically clean or replace any filters that have been installed in
enclosures at a frequency dependent on the amount of dust in the area.
Do not wait until the scheduled machine maintenance to check the
filter. This practice will ensure that clean air circulation is present
inside the enclosure. ·
Do not allow dirt and dust to accumulate on the PLC's components;
the central processing unit and 1/0 system are not designed to be
dust proof. If dust builds up on heat sinks and electronic circuitry,' it
can obstruct heat dissipation, causing circuit malfunction. Further
more, if conductive dust reaches the electronic boards, it can cause a
short circuit, resulting in possible permanent damage to the circuit

r
board.
I
r Periodically check the connections to the 1/0 modules to ensure that
all plugs, sockets, terminal strips, and modules have good connec
tions. Also, check that the module is securely installed. Perform this
type of check more often when the PLC system is located in an area
that experiences constant vibrations, which could loosen terminal
connections.
Ensure that heavy, noise-generating equipment is not located too
close to the PLC.
Make sure that unnecessary items are kept away from the equipment
r inside the enclosure. Leaving items, such as drawings, "installation
manuals, or other materials, on top of the CPUrack or other rack
enclosures can obstruct the airflow and create hot spots, which can
r cause system malfunction.

(
If the PLC system enclosure is in an environment that exhibits
. vibration, install a vibration detector that can interface with the PLC
as a preventive measure. This way, the programmable controller can
r: monitor high levels of vibration, which can lead to the loosening of
connections.
J
.
J
PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
J
It is a good idea to keep a stock of replacement parts on hand. This practice
will minimize downtime resulting from component failure. In a failure
situation, having the right spare in stock can mean a shutdown of only J
minutes, instead of hours or days: As a rule of thumb, the amount of a spare
part stocked should be 10% of the number of that part used. If a part is used
infrequently, then less than 10% of that particular part can be stocked. J
Main CPU board components should have one spare each, regardless of J
how many CPUs are being used. Each power supply, whether main or
auxiliary, should also have a backup. Certain applications may require a .
complete CPU rack as a standby spare. This extreme case exists when a J
downed system must be brought into operation immediately, leaving no
time to determine which CPU board has failed.

I
_J
If a module must be replaced, the user should make sure that the replacement
module being installed is the correct type. Some I/0 systems allow modules J
to be replaced while power is still applied, but others may require that power
be removed. If replacing a module solves the problem, but the failure reoccurs
in a relatively short period, the user should check the inductive loads. The J
inductive loads may be generating voltage and current spikes, in which case,
external suppression may be necessary. If the module's fuse blows again after
it is replaced, the problem may be that the module's output current limit is J
being exceeded or that the output device is shorted.
J
;
,
9- 7 T ROUBLESHOOTING THE PLC S YSTEM J
As mentioned earlier, a ground loop condition occurs when two or more
electrical paths exist in a ground line. For example, in Figure 9-21, the
J
transducers and transmitter are connected to .ground at the chassis (or device
enclosure) and connected to an analog input card through a shielded cable.
The shield connects to both chassis grounds, thereby creating a path for
J
current to flow from one ground to another since both grounds have different
potentials. The current flowing through the shield could be as high as several
amperes, which would induce significant magnetic fields in the signal

J
transmission. This could create interference that would result in a possible
misreading of the analog signal. To avoid this problem, the shield should be \
_J
J
· PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
connected to ground on only one side of the chassis, preferably the PLC side.
In the example shown in Figure 9-21, the shield should only be connected
r>
to ground at_ the analog input interface.
(
Shielded
r Cabf
r=:
1'
l
Ground LooR Current
_____ Noise voltage
between the
two grounds
r Figure 9-21. Ground loop created by shielded cable grounded at both ends.
To check for a ground loop, disconnect the ground wire at the ground
termination and measure the resistance from the wire to the termination point
where it is connected (see Figure 9-22). The ineter should read a large ohm
r value. If a low ohm value occurs across this gap, circuit continuity exists,
meaning that the system has at least one ground loop.
Equipment or Device
Equipment or Device
+-- Disconnected
/7;,)t/77
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r
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Figure 9-22. Procedure for identifying ground loops,

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PLC Start-Up I u
J
J
LED status indicators can, provide much information about field devices,
wiring, and 1/0 modules. Most input/output modules have at least a single
indicator-input modules normally have a power indicator, while output

J
. .modules normally have a logic indicator.
For an input module, a lit power LED indicates that the input device is
J
activated and that its signal is present at the module. This indicator alone
l
cannot isolate malfunctions to the module, so some manufacturers provide an
__J
additional diagnostic indicator, a logic indicator. An ON logic LED indicates
that the input signal has been recognized by the logic section of the input
circuit. If the logic and power indicators do not match, then the module is
unable to transfer the incoming signal to the processor correctly. This

J
indicates a module malfunction.
J
An output module's logic indicator functions similarly to an input module's
logic indicator. When it is ON, the logic LED indicates that the module's logic
J
circuitry has recognized a command from the processor to tum ON. In
addition to the logic indicator, some output modules incorporate either a
blown fuse indicator or a power indicator or both. A blown fuse indicator

J
indicates the status of the protective fuse in the output circuit, while a power
indicator shows that power is being applied to the load. Like the power and
logic indicators in an input module, if both LEDs are not ON simultaneously,

J
the output module is malfunctioning.
J
LED indicators greatly assist the troubleshooting process. With both power
and logic indicators, the user can immediately pinpoint a malfunctioning
module or circuit. LED indicators, however, cannot diagnose all possible

J
problems; instead, they serve as preliminary signs of system malfunctions.
J
If the field device connected to an input module does not seem to tum ON, a
problem may exist somewhere between the Ll connection and the terminal
connection to the module. An input module's status indicators can provide

J
information about the field device, the module, and the field device's wiring
to the module that will help pinpoint the problem.
J
The first step in diagnosing the problem is to place the PLC in standby mode,
so that it is not activating the outputs This allows the field device to be
J
manually activated (e.g., a limit switch can be manually closed). When the
field device is-activated, the module's power status indicator should tum ON,
indicating that power continuity exists. If the indicator is ON, then wiring is
J
not the cause of the problem.
J
r
,
l . PLC Start-Up
and Maintenance
r-'
The nextstep is to evaluate the PLC's reading of the input module. This can
beaccomplished using the PLC's test mode, which reads the inputs and
I"""""'
( executes the program but does not activate the outputs. In this mode, the
PLC's display should either show a 1 in the image table bit corresponding to
the activated field device or the contact's reference .instruction should
r become highlighted when the device provides continuity (see Figure 9-23).
If the PLC is reading the device correctly, then the problem is.not located in
the input module. If it does not read the device correctly, then the module
r>
could be faulty. The logic side of the modulemay not be operating correctly,
I
or its optical isolator may be blown. Moreover, one of the module's interfac
ing channels could be faulty. In this case, the module must be replaced.
'
l
Input PLC Monitor.
r
(
r
LSI Status= 1
i
Figure 9-23. Highlighted contact indicating power continuity.

l
If the module does not read the field device's signal, then further tests are
(
required. Bad wiring, a faulty field device, a faulty module, or an improper
voltage between the field device and the module could be causing the
problem. First, dose the field device and measure the voltage to the input
l module. The meter should display the voltage of the signal (e.g., 19 volts
AC). If the proper voltage is present, the input module is faulty because it is
not recognizing the signal. If the measured voltage is 10-15% below the
r proper signal voltage, then the problem lies in the source voltage to the field
device. If no voltage is present, then either the wiring or the field device is the
cause of the problem. Check the wiring connection to the module to ensure
r that the wire is secured at the terminal or terminal blocks.
To further pinpoint the problem, check that voltage is present at the field
r= device. With the device activated, measure the voltage across the device using
I
a voltmeter. If no voltage is present on the load side of the device (the side that
connects to the module), then the input device is faulty. If there is power,
r then the problem lies in the wiring from the input device to the module. In this
{
case, the wiring must be traced to find the problem.
r=
r=-
,"
i
J
J
PLC Start-Up .I u
I
J
PLC output interfaces also contain status indicators that provide useful
troubleshooting information. Like the troubleshooting of PLC inputs, the
first step in troubleshooting outputs is to isolate the problem to either the J

module, the field device, or the wiring.
At the output module, ensure that the source power for switching the output
J
is at the correct level. In a 1 9 VAC system, this value should be within 10%
of the rated value (i.e., between 108 and 132 volts AC). Also, examine the
_J
output module to see ifit has a blown fuse. If it does have.a blown fuse,
check the fuse's rated value. Furthermore, check the output device's current
requirements to determine if the device is pulling too much current.

J
If the output module receives the command to turn ON from the processor
yet the module's output status does not turn ON accordingly, then the output J
module is faulty. If the indicator turns ON but the field device does not
energize, check for voltage at the output terminal to ensure that the switching
device is operational. If no voltage is present; then the module should be
replaced. If voltage is present, then the problem lies in the wiring or the field
device. At this point, make sure that the field wiring to the module's terminal
j
or to the terminal block has a good connection and that no wires are broken.
After checking the module, check that the field device is working properly. J
Measure the voltage coming to the field device while the output module is
ON, making sure that the return line is well connected to the device. If there
is power yet the device does not respond, then the field device is faulty.
Another method for checking the field device is to test it without using the
J
output module. Remove the output wiring and connect the field device
directly to the power source. If the field device does not respond, then it is
faulty. If the field device responds, then the problem lies in the wiring between J_
- the device and the output module. Check the wiring, looking for broken wires
along the wire path. · ·
,J
J
PLCs also provide diagnostic indicators that show the status of the PLC
and the CPU. Such indicators include power OK, memory OK, and communl
. cations OK conditions. First, check that the PLC is receiving enough power
J
from the transformer to supply all the loads. If the PLC is still not working,
I
check for voltage supply drop in the _control circuitor for blown fuses. If the
__J
PLC does not come up even with proper power, then the problem lies in the -
CPU. The diagnostic indicators on the front of the CPU will show a fault in
either memory or communications. If one of these indicators is lit, the CPU
may need to be replaced.

J
__J
J
r-
r
I
.: wire b u n d l i n g
rr>
PLC Start-Up
(
and Maintenance
In conclusion, the best method for diagnosing input/output malfunctions is to
isolate the problem to the module, the field device, or the wiring. If both
'
l
power and logic indicators are available, then module failures become readily
apparent. The first step in solving the problem is to take a voltage measure
ment to determine if the proper voltage level is present at the input or output
terminal. If the voltage is adequate at the terminal and the module is not
I responding, then the module should be replaced. If the replacement module
has no effect, then field wiring may be the problem. A proper voltage level at
the output terminal while the output device is OFF also indicates an error in
l the field wiring. If an output rung is activated but the LED indicator is OFF,
then the module is faulty. If a malfunction cannot be traced to the I/0 module,
then the module connectors should be inspected for poor contact or misalign
l ment. Finally, check for broken wires under connector terminals and cold
solder joints on module terminals.
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Unit 1 · Telemetry & SCAD A Systems : 2

Unit2 Instrumentation & SCADA : '. 24

Unit 3 Maintenance and Condition Monitoring of T & I Equipments & SCADA

r Unit4. Control Room Layout : . . 99

Unit 5 SCAD A in O i l & Gas P i p e l i n e s · 115

Unit6 Leak Detection through SCADA : : . . : 127

Unit 7 PLC Basic 134

Unit 9 PLC startup a n d maintenance .: _. 188

· · · - · · · · · . . ,.,,, ··-·-···········- .. , . ..................................... . ···-·-·····''"'''"""'''''''' · - · · · · · · · · ·

r 1 1 Page Indian School of Petroleum & Enerzv

Telemetry is the mechanism by which information is interchanged w i t h . remotely

pipelines embracing more thousand technological units.

communication protocol, physical communication network, SCADA system (Supervisory

Control and Data Acquisition). J

according to requirements of communication protocol, · puts data ' forward · to

•:• The communication protocol

both understand the data message. - _J

•:• The communication network

operation of a telemetry system and can be a costly aspect of a telemetry system.

•!• The SCADA system

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_ The SCADA system is comprised of one or more computers, providing an - interface to

pipeline for automatic shutdown pipeline gate valves.)

As with most technology, available communication technologies are evolving. The

disciplines such as computer n e tw o r k s , although .there is some overlapping with other

of various communication techniques. (Cable connection, radio channels, optical

a reserve channel is a need which p o s s i b fy requires another kind of medium. ·

r In practice the following tools have been applied:

conventional radios based on U H F or VHF can also be used, f u rt h e r m o r e data-radios

r enabling s p e ci a l m u l t i p o rt structure, or conjugated.

L a ri d l i n e communications were once the dominant communication medium .used in

telemetry. While radio t e l e m e t ry has significantly gained in popularity and reliability,

multi drop telemet ry applications.

co mp lex c o m munication arrangements. O ften sub je ct to f ailure due to l ightning.

ge nerall y ina p propriate in telemet ry systems because of long connection time s. I n

and full duplex arrangements.

Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

theTCP/IP (eg. Modbus/lP) is most widely spread, enables communicatio,n between

There are as many communication techniques as there are different communication

media technologies, each optimized or using clever ways of improving bandwidth, or

a fundamental requirement for different devices on a common communication channel

to be u n i q u e l y identified. This usually takes the form of a device address u n i q u e to that

device an d not used by any other device on the same c h a n n e l .

usually performed by a SCADA system. The centralized controller is responsible for

requesting al l data and interpreting responses from remote devices.

The most common Master-Slave systems permit. o n l y · one remote device to

activities commonly use sequencing based on a polling arrangement. While aliowing

sites, Master -slave communications usually results in inefficient use of communication

Expansion of an installed master-slave system directly impacts on update rates or

requires installation of additional communication ch an n e l s . Some communication

•!• Peer-to-Peer Communication

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Peer-to-pee.r communication varies from the Master-Slave technique by allowing all

r devices on a communication network to initiate communication with other devices.

network must perform its own communication control.

While no centralized communication controller is required, it is very common to have a

communication efficiency is much higher. Importantly: telemetry, peer-topeer · ·

distributed controt systems.

Expansion of peer-lo-peer networks by the connection o f . additional nodes can have

m i n i m a l impact on communication performance.

to varying extents by duplication of critical equipments ( e . q . hot standby radio repeater

systems). D u a l communication channel systems are sometimes arranged in a primary

l i n k and backup l i n k arrangements.