Underground Works • Large aquifers can be exploited with

minimal economical expenditure.

Topic 1
However, we have to cast out the negative
Introduction consequences related to the construction and
The populations around the world follow two use of these spaces:
mains criteria to decide the best place to be: the
• Landscape impacts related to excavated
climate and the urbanization.
material storage; toxicity of possible
additive presented in the material.
Hence, the use of underground environments
• Vibration induced by excavation using
has been spread up to several fields as: large
traditional methods; disturbances to
technological infrastructures, transport, civil
existing structures on the surface,
and military structures, and last, underground
negative effects on the stability of the
mining spaces.
slopes and on the hydrogeological
characteristics of the materials.
Moreover, these spreads have borne a diversity
• Tendency of the cavity to become
of benefits:
draining element.
• The external environment is visually,
• Pollutions caused by collapses, cavity
acoustically and thermally insulated.
instability damage and others.
• Low impact transport system even in
• Energy spent on the construction.
unfavorable context.
• Pollution connected with the
• Tunnels offered a shorter route and
preventive investigations to the
allows a reduction in energy
realization of the work.
consumption, global pollution due to
• Pollution related to the constructions.
the transport system.
• Impact related to the auxiliary works.
• The subsoil constitutes a potential
• Pollution of groundwater and
reserve of space to preserve outdoor
waterways caused by vehicles in transit.
spaces.
• Intersection during underground
• The underground installation of
excavation of archaeological assets.
structures allows to limit the
interventions related to stabilization
works of slopes and others.
We can assess which construction is
economical:

Figure 1: R vs b/B

As it’s been observed in the previous figure, if

we know the Land Cost per m2, we can
evaluate whether the underground structures
are better or not. Our input data would be b/B
and R, if the interception point is above the
Land Cost per m line, the aboveground
structure is more suitable than the
underground structure.

The economic assessment of the

environmental benefits of an underground
works can be developed according to two
different criteria:
• Surrogate market method: it takes into
account the influence of environmental
benefits on the price of land, houses,
reduction of care costs, etc.
• The fictitious market method: consists
in attributing value to environmental
benefits, asking the population,
through questionnaires: “how much
 they would be willing to pay for a Safety:
certain benefit”. • Reduce the risk of fire and implement
fire resistant works.
Organization of interior spaces: • Provide alarm system.
• Easy to follow, allowing better • Escape protected routes and ventilated
orientation and quick exits. shelters.
• Provide a visual link to the external
environment. Topic 2
• Arrange to increase sense of Types of excavation
spaciousness. • Gallery: the cavern rock’s stability must
• Facilitate the entry of sunlight. be checked; lines and bolts are used.
• Natural plants in halls. • Excavation: this refers to Cut & Cover
• Multistory atriums. Method.

Internal elements and systems: In the Excavation method we have:

• Ensure adequate fresh air replacements
and the thermal comfort.
• Use mirrors to transfer sunlight into
depth and to increase the feeling of
spaciousness.
• Create ventilation such as to induce a
perceptible air flow.
Lighting:
- Excavation without lateral
reinforcement.
For small excavations, it can be used for
pedestrian facilities. The angle of the slope
depends upon the soil’s properties. The
scheme of the excavation is a truncated
pyramid. Can be assessed with the Limit
Equilibrium Method, where Fs is between 1.3
to 1.5.

• Ensure adequate lighting to facilitate

any activity. The volume by one-meter depth is:

• Provide natural light whenever ℎ'

𝑉 = #𝑏ℎ + , 1 𝑚0
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
possible.
The total volume of the excavation can be
• Simulate sunlight.
evaluated as:
• Natural light in depth.
1 2ℎ ' 𝐿𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝐿' 𝐿
𝑉 = 2𝐿 + 5 2 + ℎ5 − 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼5
3 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 2 3 2
 Topic 3
As beforementioned, the slope stability must
Water table evaluation
be guaranteed.
We have 3 approaches:
Limited Equilibrium Method doesn’t consider
• Dupuit’s Parabola
the deformation in both sides, the minimum
value is Fs=1 and this can be met if there is a • Strack and Asgian Diagram

reduction in the soil’s parameters (80% of the • Bakker diagram

value by using a semi probabilistic approach).
- Bishop’s method: Dupuit’s Parabola: assuming that the water
moves horizontally and using Darcy’s Law.
𝑑ℎ
𝑣 = −𝐾. 𝑖 = −𝐾
𝑑𝑥
Assuming a constant flow:
𝑑ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑣ℎ = −𝐾ℎ
𝑑𝑥
Where it follows:
𝑞𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾ℎ𝑑ℎ
- Equilibrium of moments around the
Strack and Asgian Diagram: with the height,
center of the circle.
the distance to the toe of the slope and the
- Mohr-Coulomb Criteria to assess S.
point where the water reaches a constant
∑(𝑐𝐴 + 𝑁𝑡𝑎𝑛ø)
𝐹𝑠 = height, and the slope angle, we can assess the
∑ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
interception length.
By vertical equilibrium
𝑊 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑐𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑊− 𝐹𝑠 − 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑁=
𝑡𝑎𝑛ø𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝐹𝑠
Substituting in the first equation:
𝑐𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑊− 𝐹𝑠 − 𝑈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛øF
∑ E𝑐𝐴 +
𝑡𝑎𝑛ø𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝐹𝑠
𝐹𝑠 =
∑ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

We encounter an iterative process with this

approach. Fs = 1, then repeat until the
convergence (around 4 or 5 repetitions).
 - Partial Coefficients: method which goal
is to have Fs=1, the parameters of the
used elements are reduced, and the
actions are increased.

- Janbu: theses charts allow us to

calculate the location of the critical
center of rotation.

Bakker’s diagram: this is used with the

previous diagram to assess the value of the total
flow by using the output data as input (l/L). o X vs Y; knowing the friction
angle and the slope’s angle.
o Tension crack location with
b/B ratio and both
beforementioned angles.

Other approaches:
- STB software: yields the results of the
critical center of rotation of the slide.
Note: if the angle of the slope is too
low, we can conclude that the material
needed to be removed is considerable;
hence, we can use other elements
(Partial Coefficients – Concrete
members)
Topic 4 𝛼: factor of increment of bulb diameter
with respect to the hole’s diameter.
Excavation with lateral
Dhole: hole’s diameter
reinforcement
The limit shear stress can be evaluated
When the soil doesn’t provide enough stability
using the Bustamante-Doix charts, which
by itself. The use of bolt depends on the
relates the τlimit with the strength of the
applied forces.
bulb. Their development was achieved by
The simplest case is without any bolt, the
using Standard Proctor Test (SPT) results,
retaining wall must be able to resist the stresses
defining the type of soil. The input of the
by mean of the interlocking length.
chart is the number of hits by means of the
𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑎
𝐹𝑠 = SPT.
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡
If we place a tendon, we take the value of the The upper curve represents a repeated
interlocking length by means of equilibrium of grouting process, the lower curve stands
moment and assess the force applied by the for a unique grouting; and as expected, by
rows of bolts due to horizontal equilibrium. repeating the process, the contact between
The Safety Factor in these cases varies from 1.2 concrete’s material increases the shear
to 1.3 stress, therefore improve the behavior.
Design of the bolt
The design ends by evaluating the total
First, we assess the value shear stress around
length of the bulb, knowing that the
the bulb:
subsidence zone of the soil is within a
𝜏OPQPR
𝐹𝑠 = ‚
range inside 45° − ' , with respect to the
𝜏STT
Between 1.8 (temporary) to 2.0 (permanent) vertical.
(From Bustamante-Doix) We can calculate the length by locating the
Then, we evaluate the length of the bulb: bolt:
𝐹𝑡 = 𝜏STT 𝜋𝐷W 𝐿𝑏 𝜑
𝐿WZOR = 𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛 …45° − ‡ + 1 𝑚 + 𝐿WXOW
2
And, manipulating the expression we obtain Lb
Where:
as:
l: length between the center of rotation of
𝐹𝑡 𝐹𝑠𝐹𝑡
𝐿WXOW = = the wall and the bolt.
𝜏STT 𝜋𝐷W 𝜏OPQPR 𝜋𝛼𝐷YZOS
Where:
Note that the 1 meter is to guarantee that
the bulb won’t be close to the subsidence
zone.

Topic 5
Retaining Wall: rectangular section
The design process, as we are aware, needs to
define the material properties, the stress – y = a x2
strain relationship. The area can be evaluated as:
Using Reinforced Concrete, we assumed there is 1 1
𝐴 = 𝐴‰SŠR‹Œ•OS = 𝛿•,Q‹• 𝐷
total adhesion between concrete and steel bars 3 3
and the plane remains plane after deformation Where:
(Navier-Stokes). (𝐻’ + 𝐻“ ) 1.5𝐻’
𝐷= 𝜑 = 𝜑
The applied bending moment and axial force tan (45º + 2 ) tan (45º + 2 )
have to be verified by using the Interaction The value of a in the parabola equation can be
Domain of the element. evaluated with:
The thickness varies from 40 cm to 150 cm, 3𝐴
𝑎=
and length between 2 and 6 meters, they are 𝐷0
panels casted monolithically. The goal is to have a critical slope lower than
1/1000

The lateral displacement of the wall must be The derivative of the equation must be

assessed in order to prevent cracks, fissures, compared with the following values:

differential settlements or even worst, 6𝐴𝑥Q‹•

𝑦– = 0
1.5𝐻’
instability of the structure. 𝜑
tan …45º + 2 ‡

The next scheme depicts the subsidence of the

wall and the soil. The area represented with
blue and orange lines are equal. Where the
curved line follows a parabola equation:
1. The onset of problems starts with a
derivative greater than 1/750.
2. If y’ > 1/500, fissures will appear on
the walls.
3. If y’ > 1/300, cracks appear in the
structural elements.
 4. If y’ > 1/250, the inclination of the
building will be notable.
5. If y’ > 1/150, the structure becomes
unstable.
In certain cases, the thickness of the wall
must be increased in order to reduce the
lateral displacement.
Numerical Method
This is used to verify the solution.
To get accurate results, the elements defining
the problem should be reduce, the study
boundary should be created carefully in order
to guarantee that it won’t influence the
excavation.
Steps:
1. Definition of the model
2. Boundaries conditions
3. Horizontal load
4. Definition of the mesh
5. Definition of the initial stresses
6. Mechanical properties
a. Elastic: Young’s modulus,
Poisson’s ratio
b. Strain (Mohr-Coulomb):
cohesion and friction angle.
Elastoplastic: Dilatancy (from
0 to the friction angle), if 0,
minimum plastic range can be
used. Note that this state can
just modify the volume of the
voids.
The excavation is simulated by steps to avoid a
crash/dynamic shock in the software. We can
input the tendons when the position has been
reached, these are studied in the elastic range.
The output is the Stresses in the Y direction
(vertical), therefore we can assess the axial
force and the bending moment:
𝑁 = 𝜎™QS‹Œ 𝐴
Where:
𝜎ymean: is the value with respect to ½ of the
wall’s thickness.
A: 1 m depth multiply by the wall’s
thickness
𝑀 = ∆𝜎𝑊 = •𝜎™Q‹• − 𝜎™QS‹Œ ž𝑊
Where:
W: resistance moment.
𝐼 (1)𝑡 '
𝑊= =
1 6
2𝑡
Where:
tw: is the wall thickness
I: inertia with respect to the depth.
M and N must be evaluated with the
Interaction Domain.
The machines used to build this panels are
the Hydro shield and the Kelly Grab, they
will be explained in the next lecture.
Retaining Wall: piles and micropiles
This is an alternative solution when the process
of construction of the beforementioned walls
are too expensive or too difficult to perform.
In other words, the site’s location or the soils (i) of less than 50 cm. They are also provided
conditions require other techniques. with a steel tube which have an external radius

Piles of 13 to 22 cm with a thickness of less than 1

The retaining wall constituted by piles is design cm. To link these structural elements, a

by interleaving a set of piles, primary piles and concrete beam is cast at the top of the

secondary piles, without any use of bentonite, micropiles.

where: Analysis of the flexural stiffness of a micropile:

- Primary piles: does not have any rebar. EŠ πr ¬ 𝑅S¬ − 𝑅P¬

EIQ“ = + (𝐸’ − 𝐸Š )π
4 4
- Secondary piles: do have rebar.
In the same way, we can analyze the flexural
The distance between the primary’s axis and
stiffness of the wall:
secondary’s axis is i.
1
Analysis of a single pile: 𝐸𝐼’Q“ = 𝐸𝐼Q“
𝑖
Flexural Stiffness (EI): The bending moment applied in one pile can
§¨ ©ª« be obtain by:
EI“ = ¬

Analysis of the flexural stiffness of one-meter 𝑀∗ = 𝑀𝑖

wall. When this solution is verified, the steel tube is

1 the only element that is taken into account to

𝐸𝐼’“ = 𝐸𝐼“ check the admissible stress.
𝑖
The bending moment applied in one pile can 𝑀∗ 𝑁
𝜎Q‹• = +
be obtain by: 𝑤 𝐴
∗
𝑀 𝑁
𝑀∗ = 𝑀𝑖∗ 𝜎Q‹• = +
𝐼 𝜋(𝑅S' − 𝑅P' )
Where: 𝑅S
i*= is the spacing between secondary piles Where, this value has to be lower than the
Micropiles admissible stress which is around 160 to 190

These types of wall are specifically required due MPa. If it is greater, we can increase the
to the process of construction which allows diameter or decrease the spacing.

smaller machines. Although, this wall will have
a lower resistance in comparison with the
beforementioned types.
The radius of the micropile are lower than 15
cm and they have a spacing between each other
Jet Grouting Piles
Jet Grouting is a treatment technique which
consist in improved the mechanical properties
of the soil. Exists 3 types of jet grouting: single,
double and triple system:
 • Single system: the injection of cement Topic 6
within the soil material without any
Excavation machines
other additional element.
Hydro shield: machine capable to excavate
• Double system: the cement is injected
the soil in order to place a panel inside it to
surrounded with air which allows it to
prevent the collapse. It has a great
travel faster by reducing the friction.
performance, provided with two cutting wheels
• Triple system: water is injected with air
which rotate in different directions; the
to give cuts to the soil material (air
removed material is extracted by a pump that
lifting effect) and this increases the
pulls out the debris. The cutting tool is inside a
friction between the mortar cement
mud, a small continuous film created by mixing
and soil. The cement is injected by a
bentonite clay (montmorillonite: plates shapes)
nozzle in low pressures in the lower
and water, it allows us to obtain a certain
part of the tube.
pressure that prevent instability and avoid the
The columns can be reinforced with tubular
collapse of the void. Its scope goes further than
steel sections; however, they are not taken into
100 m under the soil. A plant is needed to
account in the flexural stiffness because they
separate the excavated material with the mud,
are close to the Neutral Axis of the element.
this last one has to be recycled.
Inclined columns can be placed in order to
This machine can provide great versatility
function as anchoring elements.
against several problem due to the diversity of
Jet grouting columns can also be used in the
tools (pads). For instance, tungsten material is
surrounding areas of an excavation.
used in the tip of the tooth in order to have a
Analysis of a single jet grouting pile:
great resistance.
Flexural Stiffness (EI):
A software manages the performance of the
§³¨ ©´«
EI²“ = ¬
machine, this mean that the software required
Where: a device that can measure the pressure against
Ejc: 1/2 to 1/3 of Ec (25,000 to 30,000 MPa) the soil to calibrate the applied force done by
Analysis of the flexural stiffness of one-meter the toothed wheels. Also, the orientation is
wall. carried out by the software due to the
1 sensitivity of the results, uncertainty has to be
𝐸𝐼’“ = 𝐸𝐼²“
𝑖 taken into account in all possible ways to avoid
errors.
On the other hand, this machine cannot work
in shallow environment and this bring the
necessity of using other machines like the Kelly
grab. Moreover, it needs an adequate space in
the construction site due to the plant.
Kelly Grab: machines equipped with a big
toothed bucket and it is used to performance
the excavation of the material, the productivity
of this type of machine is low due the time of
each cycle increases with time. It can encounter
problem, i.e. a rock block can be found or a
layer of sedimented soil, other tools have to be
applied like a hammer in order to
destroy/penetrate the obstacle
Placing the panels: panels must be placed
vertically without touching the soil, this can be
guarantee by using concrete cylinders which
provide the cover of the wall, the longitudinal
rebar is around 20 mm and the transversal
rebar is around 18 mm.
Primary panels: those which are placed after
the removal of the material.
Secondary panels: those which are placed
between primary panels.
Concrete is cast out with a low speed in order
to create proper panels, the low speed is
needed to avoid the mixing of this material
with the montmorillonite. The length of the
tube which cast the material, has to be neither
big nor small to avoid the risk of mixing
materials and the entrapped tube.
The top concrete layer has to be removed
without detriment the steel net (cage), this is
required to place a top beam in order to link all
the panels together.
Topic 7
Limit Equilibrium Analysis
Rock Blocks: planar and wedge sliding
Planar sliding
The stability depends on the shear strength
generated along the sliding surface. The
analysis is based in the assumption of a Mohr-
Coulomb material. As the name says: “Limit”
which stands for using a safety factor equal to
1. Following the next scheme, the equation can
be explained with ease:
𝑐𝐴 + (𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓“ − 𝑈 − 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓“ + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜓 · + 𝜓“ ))𝑡𝑎𝑛ø
𝐹𝑠 =
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓“ + 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓“ − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜓 · + 𝜓“ )
Where:
U and V are forces due to the water table.
T is the force applied by the tendon.
Wedge sliding
Method based in the identification of the
wedge form by intercepting two planes on the
stereonet. The stereonet defines the shape of
the wedge. Kinematic analysis is the technical
name and it’s based in identifying the
potentially unstable wedges.
Topic 8
Room and Pillar method
This method seeks the control of the rock mass
b. Inclined shear fractures transecting the
pillar, this is found in height/width
ratio pillars for regularly jointed
orebody rocks.
c. Planes deformation in the interface
between the adjacent rock and the
pillar. This is found in stratiform
orebodies.
Panel Pillar Design
The definition of the tributary area is required
in order to assess the stresses applied in the
pillar, this method is used to define the average
state of stress within the pillar.
Rectangular pillars:

displacement throughout the use of the rock (𝑎 + 𝑐)(𝑏 + 𝑐) 1

𝜎“ = 𝑝¹¹ = 𝑝
𝑎𝑏 1 − 𝑟 ¹¹
mass itself, by designing pillars which can bear
Where:
the upper soil material guaranteeing a stable
a and b are the pillars dimensions, and c is the
structure. This is achieved by designing barrier
space between pillars.
pillars (greatest element that surround the
Square pillars:
mine) and panel pillars (columns all around the
(𝑤Z + 𝑤“ ) 1
mining zone), the design of the two elements 𝜎“ = 𝑝¹¹ = 𝑝
𝑤“ 1 − 𝑟 ¹¹
are distinctly different due to their functions.
Where:
The interest is to define the peak-load bearing
Wp: the pillar’s width.
and the post-peak, or ultimate load
Wo: the space between pillars.
displacement of the pillar. The global response
r: the area of extraction ratio (area mined
depends upon the dimensions, rock mass and
divided by the total area of orebody)
the nature constraints applied.
The pillar strength can be evaluated with an
Three types of failure are found:
equation that relates the strength for a cubical
a. Spalling. This can be found in low
sample by means of width/height ratio and
height/width ratio pillars.
shape factors:
 𝑊 𝑊½ masses which absorb energy quickly and fail
𝜎“ = 𝜎’» 2𝑎 + 𝑏 5≈𝐾 ¾
𝐻 𝐻 suddenly, the extraction and how it takes place
The beforementioned Tributary Method yields have to be carefully applied.
a stress state which does not takes into account In R&P mining, the differences between a
the variation around the diversity of pillars hard-rock and coal mining yield a variation in
(corner, center and others), Coates manage to the priorities:
develop an equation which includes all the
- Ventilation
pillars and their variations.
- Ground control
All the beforementioned equation are applied
- Ore grade control
in W/H < 5
Barrier Pillar Design Topic 9
Design by assuming the failure of the panel
Crown stability analysis
pillars, using Salomon’s equation which
After identifying the potential collapse due to
involves W/H>5
joint orientation and surface geometry, this
analysis can be done to determine the stability
The strength of a pillar is related to:
of a rock block after the post-excavation state.
Volume:
It has two approaches: symmetric triangular
• Distribution of cracks.
roof prism or symmetrical wedge above a
• Natural fractures and others.
circular opening, both follow the same
Shape:
principle: finding the limit state. In this topic
• Confinement.
we will analyze the first element.
• Redistribution of field stress other than Assuming:
the pillar axis direction.
• Fissure water pressure is absent
• Change in pillar failure mode.
• Block surfaces are determined with
analytical process
Pillars can be rating due their condition:
• Block weight determined by joints
Intact pillar, no stress-induced fracturing.
orientations and excavation geometry
Spalling on pillar corners and can be divided
The next scheme depicts the prism under the
depending on the height of the fissure.
acting forces:
Pillars orientation is important when we do
know the horizontal stresses, this have to be
taken into account. In addition, there are rock
 movements with forces by means of the
beforementioned stiffnesses.
And with this approach, the Limit State can
be evaluated.

Where:
N and S are due to the contact with the rock
mass
R is the force due to a support Where:
P is the total applied vertical force, this will 𝑢’ = 𝑢™ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑢Œ = 𝑦™ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
change to Pl in the next analysis. Then, said previously, the relationship
Studying the Free Body Diagram, we can between forces and displacement is:
obtain that: 𝑁Z − 𝑁 = 𝐾Œ 𝑢Œ
𝑃O = 2𝑁𝑠𝑒𝑐øsin (ø − 𝛼) 𝑆Z − 𝑆 = 𝐾’ 𝑢’
Furthermore, we can observe that if 𝛼<ø, the Further manipulation will yield to:
prism is potentially stable, and this 2𝐻Z 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼sin (ø − 𝛼)
𝑃O =
guaranteed by extensive analysis. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ø

The relaxation procedure, defined by Bray, Noticing that if Pl is greater than the

takes into account the normal and shear weight of the mass, the prism rock mass is

stiffness in order to analyze the stability of stable without the need of any support.

the prism, assuming that the rock mass

Topic 10
behaves as an elastic continuum and there
are no induced forces. This allows us to Failure criteria for rock mechanics
evaluate the state of stress in points which The envelope of confining stress/axial stress

coincide with the surface of the prism. for peak strength is nonlinear. Although, the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion is the most used.
Taking into account the before shown
This relates the shear stress with the normal
scheme, now with Pl as the limit state:
stress with the following equation:
𝑃O
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎Œ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ø
𝑃
The procedure is to calculate the Where:
displacement done by the horizontal The cohesion, c, is taken into account as well
stresses in the prism and relate these as the friction angle.

Other approach is the Hoek-Brown criterion,
which establishes the relation with a Best fit
curve (power) of the laboratory test performed.
The relationship was achieved by means of
studying intact rock masses and using factors
which decreases/reduces the properties of the
mass due to joints characteristics.
They needed to link the Empirical Criterion to
Geological observations, this was achieved in a
first stance with the Rock Mass Rating (RMR).
Later on, they realized that this was not the best
relation due to the fact that RMR fails in very
weak rock masses.
Hoek developed the Geological Strength Index
(GSI), which allows to achieve the previous
relation with more accurate results.
The GSI is bases on the degree of fracturing
and the condition of fracture surfaces, and
another parameter is D, the degree of
disturbance.
This approach allows to compute the Modulus
of Deformation of the rock mass.
However, two important parameters needed in
geological engineering are the cohesion and the
friction angle, thus they developed a the use of multiple drift to form the reinforced
Linearization to obtain these two parameters
which were equivalent to Mohr-Coulomb
approach. Two methods were developed: 8
pairs (σ’1-σ’3) with σ’3<0.25σci and a graphical
linearization around the considered σ’3.
Moreover, they realized that the sliding surface
is the one which leads our focus, hence they
develop another equation which yields the
overall behavior of the rock mass.
The difficulties in this approach is to determine
the value of the confining stress. They
developed two formulae to calculate this and
depends upon the situation: tunnel or slope.
Topic 11
Rock Mass Classification Methods
It was developed to prove initial estimation of
support requirements, and strength and
deformation of the rock mass. However, these
methods require in situ information which
cannot be obtain in the early state of the
excavation; hence, the classification must be
updated when this data is available.
Classification involving Stand-Up Time
It refers to the time in which the rock mass can
be stable before the settle of the supports. This
is evaluated based upon the span of the
excavation. Later called the Austrian Tunneling
Method, which improved the applied
techniques from the use of smaller headings to
ring. In the design of supports in hard-rock
mass, the potential falling wedges have to be
considered in order to place the support as
early as possible.
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
It is a quantitative estimation of rock mass with
respect to drilled core logs and yields the rock
mass quality in-situ. It is the percentage of
intact logs longer than 100 mm, with a diameter
greater than 54.7 mm. The extraction of the
core has to be done neatly in order to avoid
possible fractures. There is a correlation
between RQD and the number of joints
3
intersecting a volume of 1 m (Jv), where Jv is
the average spacing for the joints sets.
RQD is an input parameter in the following
classifications methods. This parameter
depends on the direction of the borehole.
Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
This classification depends upon:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength
2. RQD
3. Spacing of discontinuities
4. Condition of discontinuities
5. Orientation of discontinuities
6. Groundwater conditions
The rock mass can be divided into regions and
all the beforementioned parameters must be
evaluated in each region. Each parameter has a
rating value, the total sum gives the RMR.
This method was adapted to be applied in
mining excavation:
a. Modified Rock Mass Rating for mining
(MRMR)
b. Modified Basic RMR for mining
(MBR)
These adjustments are based on the blasting
damage, stress induced and stress changes and
weathering. The MBR added structural features
and distance from the cave to the front size of
the caving block.
Rock Tunneling Quality Index (Q)
Determination of rock mass characteristics and
tunnel support requirements. It depends upon:
1. RQD
2. Joint set number
3. Joint roughness number
4. Joint alteration number
5. Joint water reduction factor
6. Stress reduction factor
Hence, we can briefly define Q as the product
of the structure of the mass (a crude measure
of the block or particle size, ratio between 1
and 2), roughness and frictional characteristics
of the jointed walls or filling materials, ration
between 3 and 4) and the active stress (ratio
between 5 and 6).
Furthermore, another parameter was
developed which defines the Equivalent
Dimension (De) of the excavation:
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛, 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑚)
𝐷S =
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐸𝑆𝑅)
ESR depends upon the excavation category.
To conclude, an important parameter which is
the deformation Modulus (Rm), had to be
estimated with the previous classifications,
several formulae were developed to assess this
variable.
Topic 12
Construction of inner building and
its requirements
A waterproofing layer is needed to protect the
basement as well as a thick slab in the bottom
of it.
The inner structure is built by casting concrete
on the walls and on its bottom, intermediate
slabs are casted out too as well as some central
pillars in order to provide a greater stability.
The water pressure of the soil is counteracted
by the concrete walls, these have also the
function to bear the load of the inner slabs.
The panels abovementioned can be damaged
by the water in a long term, hence the inner
structure is dimensioned to provide enough
strength to resist the water pressure.
In long term, Ka turns to Ko, the original stress
of the soil thus the walls have to be designed
with Ko.
The top slab can have a great thickness due to
the loading, these values can reach 1 m; but the
use of PVC tubes inside the slab can reduce the
quantity of concrete used.
Scienza Delle Costruzioni is a software made by
Civil Engineering department at PoliTO.
Frames calculation:
• Length
Condition • Area (for colums is area
• Force divided by the spacing
• Columns linked with between each columns)
• Elastcity Modulus
beams, the interface • Inertia (for columns the
• Quantity of nodes provide a graphic model inertia has to be dived by
the spacing)
• Stiffness
Input Mechanical
Properties
The foundation slab will have just concentrated
loads produced by columns and will be settle
above a bed of springs which guarantee a
proper behavior of the soil (Winkler Springs).
The software is just able to introduce a uniform
load; hence we have to input a mean value for
the horizontal stress.
The traffic load depends on the section
location and the length of the concentrated
load has to be taken into account.
Topic 13
Underground construction
characteristics
The value of Ko is difficult to obtain, several
measures are required in order to get a mean
value; these measurements have a high cost in
the construction, furthermore it can vary. Ko
can be greater than 1 in some soils.
In order to obtain this coefficient a back
calculation is required to match the model and
the real behavior.
The data measure in-situ are the displacement
because they are more representative of the
behavior of the rock mass and their natural
variability are lower than stresses of the rock
mass. This analysis is needed in the first phase
of excavation so as to dimension the
supporting elements, i.e. beams.
In a scheme, where the maximum and
minimum principal stresses are shown, the
contours depend on the Ko and the shape of
the void. It is needed to determine if the rock
mass has an elastic behavior around the void, if
this is achieved, we can state that it is stable;
otherwise a collapse of the void can occur.
In the maximum value of σy (2.2) it’s the soil
has a uniaxial load because the horizontal stress
is null.
Hoek-Brown linearization (Mohr-Coulomb):
2𝑐′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ø
𝜎‰Q =
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ø
a
Hooke Brown: Sigma c rock,mass = S Sigma c
intacted rock
𝜎‰Q = 𝑠 ‹ 𝜎PŒ ‰ZŠÇ
Sigma 1 intacted = sigmac intacted * sa
tensile
Mohr: Sigma c rock,mass = 2c cosphi/1+
sinphi
2𝑐′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ø
𝜎‰Q =
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ø
Hooke Brown: Sigma c rock,mass = Sa Sigma c
intacted rock
0 = sigma 3 +sigmac intact * (m*sigma3/sigma
c + s)a
The dimension of the void does not influence
the stresses. The distance of the equidistance
lines is linked to the dimensions of the void.
A decrease of stress can bear to an increase of
strains.
Circular opening:
Conditions: Ko = 1, deep void.
Sigma r plastic: it doesn’t depend on the radius.
Kp, Kv, sigma c.
Applying Po, the radial displacement is 0.
N𝜓: dilatancy; it governs the strain inside the
plastic zone. It’s very difficult to evaluate,
varies between 0 and Ø. The convergence
confinement curve increases if the value tends
to Ø.
σRequilibrium is the final load in the support and is
used to know to design the supports.
URmax is the maximum displacement of the
perimeter of the void, it reaches the maximum
value at a great distance of the face.
URo, is the displacement close to the face,
where the supports are installed. URo is
percentage or URmax; this percentage depends
on the plastic radius, internal pressure when is
equal to the equilibrium pressure, the radius of
the void and d, the distance from the
excavation face.
To conclude, the stiffness of the supports
depends on E, ν, radius and the thickness.
 Ko ≠ 1
We can define Mmax and

6 to 7 H
N. Somehow…? 6 to 7 B

M/W = 𝜎max

H
5 elements

N/A = 𝜎med
per meter

6 to 7 H
In order to avoid
instability, they have to be checked with M vs
N plot.
The simulation starts with a continuous
Numerical methods are used to verify the
reduction of the inner pressure until reach the
solution. A common approach is a
face of the excavation, then the support
bidimensional approach due to its simplicity. A
members along the perimeter are activated
fictitious internal pressure is a tool used to
until the inner pressure has a value of 0.
simulate a tridimensional problem in a 2D’s
model. The sum of the reaction of the support
On the plastic radius the circumferential stress
and the fictitious internal pressure has to be
reaches its maximum value, from which we can
equal to the convergence confinement curve.
obtain the thickness of the plastic zone.
The difference between the distance on the
The definition of the numerical model starts
final value (away from the face) and the
with a cartesian axis where, commonly, the left
excavation face measurements. This have to be
lower point is the origin.
done as well in the software.
In this case we can compare with accuracy the
Rock Mass parameter: Ø, c, E, ν, Nψ, Gw.
numerical results.
The initial stress state cannot be different from
the obtained applying the boundaries
Example:
conditions.
Using “Notes” app to write the Input Data:
Elimination of inner elements and substitution
with the initial stress on the void perimeter.
• Grid 300, 600
• Model elastic
• 4 Vertex for the excavation:
gen (0, 0); (0, 600); (300,600); 300,0)
i = (1, 301); j = (1, 601)
 • Boundaries conditions Step 5000
%Ko=1 %Ask for output
Fix y j = 1 i = 1, 301 (bottom)
Apply pressure = 15 [MPa] var 0,-15 An important result is the horizontal
i=1 j=1, 601 displacement. In the construction site this can
Apply pressure = 15 var 0,-15 i=1 be measure close to the excavation face.
j=301, 60191+ The convergence measured is the successive
Properties measurement between the dowels.
𝛶 = 25 KN/m3 (Note: Internal pressure: .6 -.7 Po)
RMR = 50
The convergence is:
ÌÍÌÎÏÐ Δ = 𝛿Z − 𝛿XOR
𝐸 = 10 «Ð
Δ = 2[𝑤XOR (𝑝P 0) − 𝑤T‹ŠS (𝑝P = .6 − .7 𝑝Z )]
ν = 0.3
The dilatancy and the convergence are difficult

to obtain. The dilatancy is obtain in laboratory
Ó
𝐾 (𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘) = 0(ÔÕ'Ö) = 8333.333Mpa
tests.
Ó
𝐺 (𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) = '(ÔÙÖ) = 3846.154𝑀𝑃𝑎 The in-situ measurements are compared with
ÛÜ• the numerical model design, we can modify
𝜌 (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) = 0.002548 QÝ
some parameters due to the uncertainty until to
%state of stress refers to the elements,
reach a minimum value of error between these
not the nodes
two.
ini syy = - 15 var 0,15 j=1, 600
Extensometer: it measures the strain of the
ini sxx = - 15 var 0,15 j=1, 600
rock mass. At the contact between the rock
%Geometry of the cavern
mass and the support structure.
Gen arc 150,310 160, 310 180º
Mark i=141 j=281, 311
By calculating the ratio of the beforementioned
Mark i=161 j=281, 311
displacement, D, we can obtain the rock mass
Mark j=281 i=141,261
parameters.
%to eliminate the region defined by the
marked nodes
The excavation is improved while it is still in
Model null reg i= 150 j=300
procedure. Enhance of the supports by
%iterative calculation
redefining the soil properties, by means of the
in-situ measurements.
Steel sets are placed all around the profile of
the excavation.
In the beginning, the internal pressure is equal
to the lithostatic. During the construction of the
void, the internal pressure is reduced, the rock 𝐸 = 𝐸ã (1 − 𝑒 ÕℇR )
mass deforms (converge) and the supports are Due to the time of construction, the value is
borne. not that high.
The following scheme represent the bar
The supports are model as linear elements, surrounded by the cement mortar (with t as
with axial stiffness by adding a spring. thickness).

Topic 14
Bolts

The relative displacement of the rock mass is

𝜏 = 𝐵Š 𝑉‰ null. So, we can write the shear strain as:
Where Bc represent the bar stiffness. 𝑉‰
tan (𝛾) = 𝛾 =
𝑡
The shear limit can be assessed by Mohr-
In addition, we know:
Coulomb Criterion:
𝜏 = 𝛾 𝐺
𝜏OPQ = 𝑐 + 𝜎Œ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ø
Where:
Where c is the cohesion of the cement mortar
G: shear modulus
and its friction angle because this is the weakest
Hence,
element among all.
𝑉‰ 𝐸
At a scale of the interaction of the rock mass 𝜏=
𝑡 2(1 + 𝜈)
and the bolt, the rock mass parameters are
Where:
greater. (i.e. E=100.103MPa) The cement 𝐸
mortar can have a trend shown in the following 𝐵Š =
2𝑡(1 + 𝜈)
chart, which is the negative exponential chart.
The cohesion is estimated considering a short
time of the placement of the bolt.
By using the Hoek-Brown equation, neglecting
the confinement pressure (σ3) and Ø = 40º
(constant):
𝑐𝑜𝑠ø
𝜎Œ = 2𝑐
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ø
By means of several compressive tests, we can
obtain the value of ε and the asymptotic Einf.
Elastic behavior for the bar and elastoplastic
behavior for the face of the excavation.
The behavior of the tendons inside the rock
mass is:
• The shear is null when the bar reaches
a maximum (local) axial force.
• The maximum shear is found when the
rate of the axial force along the bar is
maximum (greatest slope)
The shear trend is fundamental because they
are used to perform the stabilizer analysis.
1) Anchoring zone
The bolt function is to convey the forces to the
band close to the perimeter of the void.
At the plastic zone, the failure of the bolt and
the cement mortar is presented.
The Zone 2 thickness must be greater than the
plastic radius beforementioned.
There are 4 types of bolts:
1. Bolts made by the inserting the bar in
the void following by the addition of
cement mortar. If the workability of
the cement mortar is low, this one
could be injected first and then the bar
is placed.
2. The bolt is constituted with two tubes
where the cement is injected to fill the
space between the bar and the void,
this type of bolt can be prestressed.
3. Swellex bolts, they are constituted by a
tube in which water is injected to
generate an internal pressure. This bolt
is stiffer due to the fact that there is no
other material than the tube itself
which is in contact with the rock mass,
although this present a decremental
effect and this is allowing the corrosion
phenomenon to occur. For this reason,
these are temporary bolts which are
used in mining because this type of
construction usually has a reduce time
of service life.
4. The bolt is inserted after placing
several cartridges having some
chemical substance within, which can
be cement mortar. The bar is inserted
with a twirling effect to break the
 cartridges and start the hardening
effect.

The force which will be bearing by the bolt is:

In addition, resin can be used instead
of cement mortar, it can reach higher
values in a short period of time (E, ε),
however they are more expensive, and
the resin doesn’t maintain its properties
in time.
The extreme of the bolt can be an
active end by using an especial resin; in
addition, by pulling out the bar we
obtain a prestressed bolt.
Design of bolts
𝑊
𝐹=
𝑛
Where:
W: weight of the rock mass
n: number of bars
Then, we can design as follow:
1. Checking the tensile strength of the bar
against the weight of the rock mass to
verify if its diameter can be found in
the market; the safety factor used is
(Fs1) 1.5. This is assessed assuming 1

Passive bolts can be placed to stabilize in the bolt at the beginning.

crown of the excavation due to potential failure 𝜎™ 𝐸™ 𝑛𝜋ø'W‹‰

𝐹𝑠Ô = =
of wedges (rock blocks). By means of visual 𝐹 𝐹
Then,
inspection, we can define the geometry and the
Ô
volume of these blocks. The simplest shape is 𝐹 𝐹𝑠 '
øW‹‰ =# ,
a pyramid shown in the following scheme: 𝑛𝜋𝐸™
2. Assessing the hole diameter with
respect to the properties of the material
used. In this case we need to evaluate
the shear strength; the safety factor
used is (Fs2) 1.8. We can assume the
length of the bolt inside the wedge (Lb):
𝜏 𝐶𝑛𝜋øYZOS 𝐿W
𝐹𝑠' = =
𝐹 𝐹
 Where C, is the cohesion of the Lb+La = 2,46 m. The adopted length is
material used. 3 m.
If øhole is smaller than øbar, we proceed The analysis of the bolt can be as explained in
with the next step. the following scheme, where it takes into
3. Computing the length of anchored (La) account the curvature equation (Euler-
by means of the previous equation. In Bernoulli’s equation and the boundaries
this case we need to assume a thickness conditions in the two zones).
for the employed material (t), the void
diameter has to be øbar+2t.
𝜏 𝐶𝑛𝜋(øW‹‰ + 𝑡)𝐿W
𝐹𝑠' = =
𝐹 𝐹
4. Calculating the total length of the bar
𝐿 = 𝐿W + 𝐿‹
Other approach is to calculate the diameter
with the second equation and substitute this
into the other to check the length of anchorage.
Example: triangular shape in the top of the
excavation: Area=3m2, 2,5m, 25KN/m3,
Displacement can be divided in two vectors,
yielding stress (σy)= 400 MPa, mortar cohesion
parallel to the bolt direction and perpendicular
(c) = 2 MPa.
to the bolt axis.
V= 2,5 m3
The hypothesis is considering a transversal
W=62,5 KN
spring to model the vertical displacement. A
Employing the beforementioned equation
typical position of the bolt is horizontal.
1. Øbar= 17,275 mm
Øreal = 18 mm (commercial diameter)

2. Verification of the length of anchoring,

using Lb= 2 m. Thickness of Cement
mortar annulus=0,01 m
Øhole, min= 8,953 mm, checked (<øbar)
3. La= 0,46 m
4. Length of the bolt would be:
 these two are the stabilizer forces, and they will
increase the safety factor.

P= Ky

If we consider an infinite stiffness for the RM.

P/E = strain = y/t

In zone II (end): V=0, M=0

In zone I (end): dy/dx=0, y=0 (respects to
RM) Boundaries cond:

Common Section: dy/dx, M, T and y are equal Zone 2: No axial force

in both sides Zone 1: No relative displacement between rock

mass and the bolt.

Making some assumption: Middle section: Same relative displacement ?

Length of both sides = 1 m (or more) and a

high value of the RM’s E.
We can obtain:

The maximum shear force is in the same

section where the maximum axial force is
applied, these two are in the origin. In addition,

By the analysis of the section of the bar:
Sigma (n) and bending moment, we can obtain
the maximum tensile stress in the bar; hence,
we can calculate the safety factor.
Increasing delta, we increase the state of
stresses within the bar. Hyperbolic trend is
shown in the previous chart. We picked the
minimum value of displacement, and then we
apply these two forces to the rock in order to
evaluate the safety factor in the rock-bolt
system.
Complex Cavern

The trend of shear stresses in the section is a

parabolic function, where:
taumax = tauoSh/2/øI
S is the static moment.

Sigmaideal,fictitious=squareroot(sigma2+3taumax)
In order to model the previous carven, we need
By means of the previous relationship, we can
to simulate separately. There are two benches
obtain a safety factor
that can be assess as aboveground
Fs = sigmay/ Sigmaideal,fictitious
constructions.
The boundaries conditions are related to the
reduction of the element on the lateral walls
and the soil below. In the other hand, the top
excavation is totally enclosed.
Note that if the bench reaches the studied
section, the pressure will be 50% of the original
stress. We have to consider the distance from
the studied section due to the fact that this will
modify the pressure along the perimeter as
beforementioned.

Important fact:
Candoglia Cavern, biggest cavern in Turin.
The horizontal lithostatic pressure of this soil
is very high due to the relative movement of
the closeness of The Alps and this zone.
The study takes into account the diversity of
material around the cavern and the supports.
The simulations yield the risk of failure of the
Tac: a complex system of several excavation
beams.
tunnel which function is exploitation of
The numerical modelling was also used to
mineral. Each tunnel is orthogonal with upper
guarantee the elimination of several beams and
a lower level. The study section was the ramp
the increase of the entrance.
that connected the tunnels with the
aboveground. The stresses of the rock mass
It also shows up the plastic zone in a good
were calculated with Flac considering the
marble pillar on the side of the cavern, the
ramp’s void.
solution was to place a new row of much bigger
beams at the level of plastic zone.

In addition, the tunnels after their life of
service, are filled of low mortar cement
material in order to shut them down and
continue to a lower level excavation. This
material has a null state of stress, it rises due to
movement of the rock mass.
The plastic zone of the mining was found and
loomed certain concern in the last level, due to
the bound between the ramp’s plastic zone.
Furthermore, the main results were the stress
along YY,
In the following picture, we can appreciate the
zone where the mortar cement is located
(yellow marks).
A similar risky condition as the Candoglia
Cavern.
The solution was to move the ramp far away
from the rock mass in order to avoid the
movement of this material into the ramp’s
void.
To add, the aim of the study was also to reduce
the content of cement in the excavation
without making any detrimental activity.
In 3D models, there is no need to input the
internal pressure because the software includes
this value every time it eliminates the material
to create the void.
 to consider an uncertainty. To reduce it, we can
split the pillars by categories (i.e. material)
Hardy & Agapito, 1977
è.é00
𝑉’ è.ÔÔé 𝑊“ 𝐻’
𝜎“ = 𝜎’ # ,
𝑉“ 𝐻“ 𝑊’
P:pillar
S: specimen
W:width
H: height
V: volume
This model is used in the final phase of the The previous equation was formulated in a
excavation. The 2D models is faster and easier, specific type of material, but the lack of relation
and for those reason, is the simplest way to of strength compel its use.
compute the needed values. However, the 2D Although the uncertainty is greater, and this
modelling is not capable of calculate the means that the safety factor should be much
influence of crossed tunnels as shown in the higher.
following scheme.
Lunder & Pakalnis –

Confinement stress 3 (picture is in the phone)

Critical Points: corner

By means of a more accurate complex

calculation, we can assess the local safety factor
of the critical point within the pillar.
We can use Hooke & Brown equation to
Topic 15
calculate the limit stress.
Pillars 𝜎0 ‹
𝜎ÔOPQ = 𝜎0 + 𝜎ŠPŒR 2𝑚 + 𝑠5
By means empirical approaches, we can 𝜎ŠPŒR
calculate the strength of the pillars, but we need In pillars, the confinement pressure is equal to 0.
And knowing that:
 𝜎ÔOPQ 𝜎ŠPŒR 𝑠 ‹
𝐹𝑠OZŠ‹O = =
𝜎ÔŠ“ 𝜎ÔŠ“
Fs (local) = (sigma 1 lim)/sigma 1cp
Hence, we have:
Fs = sigmac intac. s^a/ (1.27+.28.wp/hp).sigmap

S: as a function of GSI, disturbance factor.

a: as a function of GSI, disturbance factor.
Where:

Sigmap = (wp + L) ^2/ wp^2 𝑆 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑠

L: width of the room
Discontinuity Plan:
We have to define the normal stiffness and the
shear stiffness. Review the professor slides.
We can evaluate the affected zone as:
The area of the circle/annulus in which the
excavation face has reached divided by the area
of the circle/annulus of the “not affected
zone”.
Inner 20º, outer 30º angle.

Topic 16
Subsidence due to Underground
Excavations
We can classify it by mining excavation.
We have to focus our attention in the value of
the inclination of the basin due to possible the
differential settlements. 2 𝐴S•Š‹•‹RSê 1 𝐴S•Š‹•‹RSê
𝑒=2 5 + 2 5
If the seam is horizontal, we are going to see 3 𝐴RZR‹O PŒŒS‰ 3 𝐴RZR‹O ZXRS‰
two cones figures where we can identify the a = 0 to 1, percentage of sealed seam (by
affected zone. collapsed)
s: height of the seam.
 has a correlation regarding to the ratio between
i and the diameter of the tunnel.

For a circular opening, the best equation that

fits the curve is a Gaussian Curve.
ì
ëÕ•
𝑆 = 𝑆Q‹• 𝑒 'P ì
(For all types of soils, other charts are found
within the pdf.)
As we can observed in the chart, there is a great
uncertainty, so we can have a range with
respect of the minimum and maximum value
of the i/D ratio which can be found by creating
an envelope of the data collected.
Then, we will obtain two values for Smax due to
Several reports have found that we can the previous ratios (maximum and minimum
estimate the ratio between the area above the value for i) and this can be calculated with the
basin’s curve (Vs) and the area of the following expression:
excavation, the differences are respect with the 𝑉’ = 𝑆Q‹• 𝑖√2𝜋
type of excavation employed. The maximum angle can be estimated as:
For traditional excavation, we can take: 𝑆Q‹•
𝛽 = 0.61
𝑉’ 𝑖
= 1.5%
𝐴S•Š The maximum slope must be compared with
While for TBM excavation we have: the following criteria. The reported values are
𝑉’ with respect with tanβ:
= 4.0%
𝐴S•Š 1. Limit for machinery sensitive to travel
We can evaluate the ratio between the depth of (1/750)
the tunnel with respect with its diameter and it 2. Danger limit for reticular structures
(1/600)
 3. Limit for buildings where cracks are
not allowed (1/500)
4. Limit beyond which you can open
cracks in the wall, and you can have
problems in the use of the gantries
(1/300)
5. Limit beyond which tilts of buildings
may be visible (1/250)
6. Noticeable cracks in the infill walls and
on the load-bearing brick walls;
structural damage in buildings (1/150)
The previous chart depicts the internal
pressure and radial displacement relationship,
as shown the decrement of internal pressure is
due to an increment of the displacement in
which it is also related with the distance of the
excavation and the studied section. For a more
general case, the following scheme represents
an elastic-plastic rock mass with a support
system.

Topic 17
Convergence-Confinement Method
A well-known method which use is applied
worldwide and is capable to provide reliable
results for the optimization of the support
system, the assessment of the plastic zone and
the gathering of mechanical parameters as the
Elastic Modulus of the rock mass.
Read Convergence-Confinement method
This method consists in the evaluation of the
articles
displacement of the internal pressure and the
radial displacement of the void, in which they
are related as inversely proportional:
 Possible Written Questions 16. Assessment of the maximum shear
1. Aboveground and underground with derivative calculation.
evaluation. 17. Evaluation of the safety factor of the
2. Calculation of concrete wall, bolts needed to stabilize the rock block.
dimensioning assessment steps. 18. Calculation of safety factors in rock
3. Trend of underground water line pillars.
through the excavation side using 19. Hardi and Agapito, strength of the
Strack and Asgian. pillar.
4. Dimensioning of tendons. 20. Maximum inclination of the
5. Dimensioning of a diaphragm subsidence basin (aboveground
(concrete wall). calculation).
6. Evaluation of interlocking length of a
wall without tendons.
7. Evaluation of tendons with bending
and axial stiffness.
8. Limit shear stress with Bustamante and
Dubua diagram.
9. Janbu method.
10. Evaluation of the safety factor for an
excavation side.
11. Bearing capacity of micropiles, stresses
due to bending and axial forces.
12. Bearing capacity of jet grouting
columns, stresses due to bending and
axial forces.
13. Stress state of the rock mass and
perimeter of the void in order to
evaluate the safety factor.
14. Axial stiffness on tendons in rock mass
(ßc).
15. Simple negative exponential curve to
evaluate the Young’s modulus.
 Additional information trench cutter system
DIAPHRAGM WALLS, CUT-OFF WALLS AND SLURRY WALLS
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams and Columns
Diaphragm Wall
Diaphragm Walls - Design and Construction
Diaphragm wall Construction 1
Diaphragm wall Construction 2
Diaphragm wall Construction 3
Diaphragm wall Construction 4
Diaphragm wall Construction 5
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FLEXIBLE WALL SYSTEMS
Hoek-Brown Strength Criterion
Reinforced Concrete Section Design to Bending ...
Strack-Asgian 1978 (Unconfined Flow toward a Riverbank)
Underground or aboveground? Making the choice ...
bakker 1997: Groundwater flow ...
bustamante-doix
convergence-confinement method 1
convergence-confinement method 2
geological engineering in discontinuous rocks - goodman
groundwater flow (bakker)
hydrofraise machine
italian technical rules on buildings 2018
limit equilibrium method (LEM)
mining exploitation methods 1
mining exploitation methods 2
practical rock engineering - hoek
retaining structures
room and pillar method
simplified bishop method
stb 2001 (metodo bishop)