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Hoist (device)
A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which
rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use
chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The most familiar form is an elevator, the car of which
is raised and lowered by a hoist mechanism. Most hoists couple to their loads using a lifting
hook.Today, there are a few governing bodies for the North American overhead hoist industry which
include the Hoist Manufactures Institute (HMI), ASME, and the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). HMI is a product counsel of the Material Handling Industry of America
consisting of hoist manufacturers promoting safe use of their products.
The word “hoist” is used to describe many different types of equipment that lift and lower loads. For
example, many people use “hoist” to describe an elevator. The information contained here pertains
specially to overhead, construction and mine hoist.
Overhead
Overhead hoists are defined in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
B30 [1]standards as a machinery unit that is used for lifting or lowering a freely suspended (unguided)
load. These units are typically used in an industrial setting and may be part of an overhead crane.
A specific overhead hoist configuration is usually defined by the
lifting medium, operation and suspension. The lifting medium is the type of component used to
transmit and cause the vertical motion and includes wire rope, chain or synthetic strap or rope. The
operation defines the type of power used to operate the hoisting motion and includes manual
power, electric power, hydraulic power or air power. The suspension defines the type of mounting
method used to suspend the hoist and includes hook, clevis, lug, trolley, deck, base, wall or ceiling.
The most commonly used overhead hoist is electrical powered with wire rope or chain as the lifting
medium[2]. Both wire rope and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800’s, however mass
production of electric hoists did not start until the early 1900’s and was first adapted by Germany[3]. A
hoist can be a serial production unit or a custom unit. Serial production hoists are typically more cost-
effective and designed for a ten-year life in a light to heavy hoist duty service classification. Custom
hoists are typically more expensive and are designed for a heavy to severe hoist duty service
classification. Serial production hoists were once regarded as being designed for light to moderate hoist
duty service classifications, but since the 60’s this has changed. [4] Over the years the custom hoist
market has decreased in size with the advent of the more durable serial production hoists. A machine
shop or fabricating shop will typically use a serial production hoist, while a steel mill or NASA may
typically use a custom hoist to meet durability and performance requirements.
When selecting an overhead hoist, several application parameters must be considered. These are the
average operating time per day, load spectrum, starts per hour, operating period and equipment
life. These parameters determine the Hoist Duty Service Classification, and are further defined in the
document “Comparison of Hoist Duty Service Classifications[5]” to help hoist installers and users better
understand the hoist’s useful life and duty service application.
Proper installation, operation, inspection, maintenance and safe use of overhead hoists is paramount.
Refer to the “Hoist Operator’s Manual[6]” and “Hoist Inspection and Hoist Maintenance Personnel
Manual[7]”.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers also publishes a number or standards related to
overhead hoists. The “ASME B30.16 Standard for Overhead Hoists (Underhung) [8]” and “ASME
B30.21 Standard for Lever Hoists[9]” provide additional guidance for the proper design, installation,
operation and maintenance of hoists.
Construction
Also known as a Man-Lift, Buckhoist, temporary elevator, builder hoist, passenger hoist or construction
elevator, this type of hoist is commonly used on large scale construction projects, such as high-rise
buildings or major hospitals.[10] There are many other uses for the construction elevator. Many other
industries use the buckhoist for full-time operations, the purpose being to carry personnel, materials,
and equipment quickly between the ground and higher floors, or between floors in the middle of a
structure. There are three types: Utility to move material, personnel to move personnel, and dual-rated,
which can do both.[11]
The construction hoist is made up of either one or two cars (cages) which travel vertically along stacked
mast tower sections. The mast sections are attached to the structure or building every 25 feet (7.62 m)
for added stability. For precisely controlled travel along the mast sections, modern construction hoists
use a motorized rack-and-pinion system that climbs the mast sections at various speeds.
SPECIFICATION OF ELEC .HOIST
Gear
Two meshing gears transmitting rotational motion. Note that the smaller gear is rotating faster. Since
the larger gear is rotating less quickly, its torque is proportionally greater. One subtlety of this particular
arrangement is that the linear speed at the pitch diameter is the same on both gears.
Multiple reducer gears in microwave oven (ruler for scale)

A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a cogwheel, inserted
teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change
the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. Gears almost always produce a change in torque,
creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple
machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape.[1] Two or more meshing gears,
working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed
part, called a rack, producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage
of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.
When two gears mesh, if one gear is bigger than the other, a mechanical advantage is produced, with
the rotational speeds, and the torques, of the two gears differing in proportion to their diameters.
In transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term "gear" as
in "first gear" refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear.
Types of Gearbox:
Basically Gear box is divided into two types according to the transmission. These are
1. Manual Transmission Gearbox:In this type of transmission different speed ratio or gear ratio is
selected by the driver manually. Some special skill of driving is required to operate this type of gear
box. According to their design, this is subdivided into three types.
(A.) Sliding mesh gear box:
When we talk about types of gearbox, this is one of the oldest type. It this, gears on the main shaft are
moved right or left for meshing them with appropriate gears on the counter shaft for obtaining different
speed. This type of gear box derives its name from the fact that the gears are meshed by sliding. One
disadvantage of it is that, special skill is required to operate this gear box and there are high chances of
wear and tear of gearbox.
(B.) Constant mesh gear box:

This is one of the famous type used in twenty century. It this gearbox, all the gears are in constant mesh
with each other all the time. The gears on the main shaft rotates freely without rotating the main shaft.
Constant mesh gear box consists two dog clutches. These clutches are provided on the main shaft, one
between the clutch gear and the second gear and the other between the first gear and reverse gear. When
the left side dog clutch is made to slide left by means of gearshift lever, it meshes with the clutch gear
and the vehicle runs on top speed. If this clutch slide right and mesh with second gear, then the vehicle
runs on second gear speed. So in constant mesh gear box we can change the gear ratio by shifting the
dog clutch. This type of gear box is more popular than sliding mesh because it creates low noise and
less wear of gears.
(C.) Synchromesh gear box:

One big problem occur in constant mesh gear box is that when the driver engage the dog clutch, the
main shaft and gear to be meshed running at different speed. So when engage this gear cause wear and
tear of dog clutch. This problem is solved by a synchromesh gear box. This gear box is same as the
constant mesh gear box except dog clutch is replaced by synchromesh devices.
Synchromesh gear devices works on the principle that two gears to be engaged are first brought into
frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engaged readily and smoothly. The
synchromesh looks like as the cone clutch where the outer surface of cone consist the frictional surface.
This type of gear box is widely used in automobile.
2. Automatic Transmission Gear box:
When we talk about transmission, the automatic transmission is unforgettable. A transmission in which
various speeds are obtained automatically is known as automatic transmission. In this type of gear box
driver merely selects the general car condition such as forward or reverse. The selection, timing and
engagement of gear for the required gear speed are accomplished automatically when the accelerator is
pressed or depressed. Automatic transmission needs no gear change lever and clutch pedal since clutch
and transmission is a combined unit and works automatically.
Automatic transmission is generally subdivided into two types:
(A.) Epicyclic gear box:

This type of gear box uses no sliding dogs or gears to engage but different gear speeds are obtained by
merely tightening brake bands on gear drum. It consists of a ring gear annular wheel, sun gear and
planet gears with carrier. In order to obtain different speeds any one of these units can be held from
rotation by means of brake band. The ring gear contains teeth on it inner circumference and it
surrounded by a brake band. The brake band is operated by a gear stick or lever to grip the ring gear
and hold its movement. The sun gear is attached to the clutch shaft thus moves along with the movement
of engine crankshaft. The planet gears are in constant mesh with both the sun gear and ring gear and
are free to rotate on their axes carried by the carrier frame which in turn is connected to the driver shaft.
When the ring gear is locked by the brake band, the rotating sun gear causes the planet gears to rotate.
Since the ring gear cannot move. The planet gears are forced to climb over it. During this position, the
ring gear acts as track for the planet gears to move over. The driven shaft which is connected to the
planet gear carrier is thus rotate. When the ring gear is released, it is free to move in consequence to the
rotation of planet gears which rotate around their axis. During this position, there is no movement of
planet carries and hence the driven shaft remains stationary. A planetary gear box contains a numbers
of such units to obtain various speed reductions.
(B.) Hydraulic torque converter:
Hydraulic torque converter is same as the electric transformer. The main purpose of the torque converter
is to engage the driving member to driven member and increase the torque of driven member. In the
torque converter, an impeller is bolted on the driving member, a turbine is bolted on the driven member
and stationary guide vanes are placed between these two members. This all parts are enclosed into single
housing filled with hydraulic liquid. The impeller rotates with the driven member and it through the
liquid outward by centrifugal action. This liquid flowing from the impeller to turbine runner exerts a
torque on the stationary guide vanes which change the direction of liquid, thereby making possible the
transformation of torque and speed. The difference of torque between impeller and turbine depends
upon these stationary guide vanes. This serves as the function of both gear box and clutch.
Casting
Molten metal before casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
materials are usually metals or various time setting materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for
making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ships' propellers, etc. can be cast easily in the required size,
rather than fabricating by joining several small pieces.[1]
Casting process simulation[edit]

Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality considering
mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical
properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast component's quality
up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the required
component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise
layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy, material, and tooling savings.
The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting
methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing. This saves costs along
the entire casting manufacturing route.
Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early '70s, mainly
in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology over
the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial programs (such as AutoCAST and MAGMA) are
available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the
mold or die during the casting process.
• Categorized under Objects | Difference Between Steel and Cast Iron
Steel vs Cast Iron
Iron is a hard grey metal, and heavier than any of the other elements found on Earth. During a process,
impurities or slag is removed from iron, and it is turned into a steel alloy. This confirms that steel is an
alloy, whereas iron is an element. Iron exists in natural forms, and scientists have found it in meteorite
rocks as well. The main difference between the two elements is that steel is produced from iron ore and
scrap metals, and is called an alloy of iron, with controlled carbon . Whereas, around 4% of carbon in
iron makes it cast iron, and less than 2% of carbon makes it steel.
Cast iron is cheaper than steel, and it has a low melting point with an ability to mold into any form or
shape because it does not shrink when it gets cold. Steel is made with a controlled amount of carbon,
whereas cast iron can have any amount of carbon. Carbons and other metals like chromium are added
to the iron to make alloys and different qualities or grades of steel, such as stainless steel.
Other difference between steel and cast iron is their properties. Properties of steel is that it is mild,
harder to cast and has a relatively high viscosity. The properties of cast iron is that it is brittle, more
damping and absorbs vibration and noises. In a molten form, cast iron is sufficient enough to making
casts of any kind, from components of various machines to intricate shapes, such as cast iron or wrought
iron furniture or gates. It is slightly destructive upon drilling, produces powder, and does not bend or
dent because it is very hard, but it breaks easily – unlike steel. Steel produces chips if it is grinded, and
it is malleable. The strength of both cast iron and steel is also controversial, as some think steel is
stronger than cast iron and others think that iron and steel are same thing, but the truth is that cast iron
has a more compressive strength, and steel is more tensile. If compared with cast iron, steel is superior
in tension, and does not rust.
Cast iron and steel are used as construction materials, and are used to make structures for buildings.
Steel is used to make beams, doors etc. Cast iron has been used to make pipelines and guttering in the
past. It is still used for making manhole covers, cylinder blocks in the engines of cars, and for very
heavy and expensive cooking utensils, besides its other uses as a construction material. Steel is preferred
by the automobile industry to make steel parts and components, and it is used in various other industries
to make tools, knives, frames, nails etc.
Pinion
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This article is about a type of gear. For other uses, see Pinion (disambiguation).
Pinion and annular gear

A pinion is a round gear—usually the smaller of two meshed gears—used in several applications,
including drivetrain and rack and pinion systems.
Drivetrain[edit]
Drivetrains usually feature a gear known as the pinion, which may vary in different systems, including
 the typically smaller gear in a gear drive train (although in the first
commercially successful steam locomotive—the Salamanca—
the pinion was rather large).[1] In many cases, such as remote
controlled toys, the pinion is also the drive gear for a reduction in
speed, since electric motors operate at higher speed and lower torque
than desirable at the wheels. However the reverse is true in watches,
where gear trains commence with a high-torque, low-speed spring
and terminate in the fast-and-weak escapement.
 the smaller gear that drives in a 90-degree angle towards a crown
gear in a differential drive.
 the small front sprocket on a chain driven motorcycle.
 the clutch bell gear when paired with a centrifugal clutch, in radio-
controlled cars with an engine (e.g., nitro).[2]
Rack and pinion[edit]
Rack and pinion animation

Main article: rack and pinion
In rack and pinion system, the pinion is the round gear that engages and moves along the linear rack.
1.
Alloy steel

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50%
by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low
alloy steels and high alloy steels. The difference between the two is disputed. Smith and Hashemi define
the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8.0%.[1][2] Most commonly, the phrase "alloy
steel" refers to low-alloy steels.
Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The simplest steels
are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type). However, the term "alloy
steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other alloying elements added deliberately in addition
to the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common
one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants
include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.
The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon
steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot
hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat treating.
Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine blades of jet
engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some
steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important,
including in electric motors and in transformers.
Low-alloy steels
A few common low alloy steels are:
 D6AC
 300M
 256A
Principal low-alloy steels[3]
SAE designation Composition
13xx Mn 1.75%
40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S
41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%
43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25%
44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52%
46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25%
47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35%
48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%
50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%
50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min
50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50%, and added boron
51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05%
51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min
51Bxx Cr 0.80%, and added boron

52xxx Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min
61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min
86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%
87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%
88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35%
92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65%
94Bxx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%, and added boron
Ni 5%, Cr 2%, Si 1.25%, W 1%, Mn 0.85%, Mo 0.55%, Cu 0.5%, Cr 0.40%, C

ES-1
0.2%, V 0.1%
Material science[edit]
Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. As a guideline, alloying
elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or hardenability, or in larger
percentages (over 5%) to achieve special properties, such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature
stability.[2] Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are added during the steelmaking process to remove
dissolved oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are
added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum,
and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides. Nickel and copper improve corrosion
resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and
calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of inclusions. Sulphur (in the form of manganese
sulphide) lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase machinability.[4] The alloying elements tend
to form either solid solutions or compounds or carbides. Nickel is very soluble in ferrite; therefore, it
forms compounds, usually Ni3Al. Aluminium dissolves in the ferrite and forms the compounds
Al2O3 and AlN. Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms the compound SiO2•MxOy. Manganese
mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS, MnO•SiO2, but will also form carbides in the
form of (Fe,Mn)3C. Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel, forming
(Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6. The type of carbide that chromium forms depends on the amount of
carbon and other types of alloying elements present. Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if there
is enough carbon and an absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e., titanium & niobium), they
form the carbides W2C and Mo2C, respectively. Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide
forming elements, forming vanadium carbide, titanium carbide, and niobium carbide,
respectively.[5] Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel.
Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing elements.
With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be obtained at room temperature. Carbide-
forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known as ferrite stabilizing
elements.[6]
Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel[7]
Element Percentage Primary function
Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels
Bismuth - Improves machinability
Boron 0.001–0.003 (Boron steel) A powerful hardenability agent
0.5–2 Increases hardenability

Chromium
4–18 Increases corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance
Lead - Improved machinability
Combines with sulphur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness.

0.25–0.40
Also helps to remove excess oxygen from molten steel.
Manganese
Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and
>1
causing transformations to be sluggish
Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of

steel, thus making molybdenum a very valuable alloy metal for
Molybdenum 0.2–5
making the cutting parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades
of turbojet engines. Also used in rocket motors.
2–5 Toughener
Nickel
12–20 Increases corrosion resistance
0.2–0.7 Increases strength
2.0 Spring steels

Silicon
Higher
Improves magnetic properties
percentages
Sulphur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties
Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in

Titanium -
chromium steels
Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.
Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes

Vanadium 0.15
fine grain structure. Increases the toughness at high temperatures
Categories:
 .
Steel grades
Steel grades to classify various steels by their composition and physical properties have been
developed by a number of standards organizations.
Category 1[edit]
Basic grade designations for category 1 steels consist of a single letter (designating application) then a
number signifying the mechanical property (often yield strength) dictated in the standard for that
application designation. For some application designations another letter is included before the property
value, this number is used to indicate any special requirements or conditions. These additional letters
and values depend entirely on the application of the steel and are specified in the standard and far too
numerous to mention here.
The next set of 3 digits gives the steel’s minimum yield strength. So S355 has a minimum yield strength
of 355 MPa for the smallest thickness range covered by the relevant standard – i.e. EN10025.[2]
Below is a table indicating the most common application codes.
Application Mechanical
Meaning Details
symbol Property
Minimum Yield
S Structural steel
Strength
Steel for pressure Minimum Yield

P
lines and vessels Strength
Steel for pipe and Minimum Yield

L
tube Strength
Minimum Yield
E Engineering steels
Strength
Steel for reinforced Characteristic

B
concrete Yield Case
Minimum Yield
R Steel for rail use
Case
High Tensile If followed by T then the given

Minimum Yield
H Strength Flat mechanical property is minimum
Case
products tensile strength
Flat Products for Followed by C, D or X and two

D
Cold Forming numbers characterising steel
Nominal Yield
T Tinmill Products
Case
Number = 100 x specific loss in W/kg

M Electrical Steel Number = 100 x nom thick in mm
Letter for type of steel (A,B,E,N,S or
P)
Additional symbols[edit]
In addition to the above category codes there are symbols that can be added to the grade code to identify
any additional compositional requirements, delivery conditions, mechanical properties, &c. These
values depend solely on the type/application code given in the first part of the code and are so numerous
as to be impossible to indicate here. Additional symbols are separated from the main code by the plus
sign (+).
The most common additional symbols are the impact and temperature codes for structural steels,
category 1 - Sxxx.
Impact Resistance Temperature
Impact Testing Temperature Testing

code strength code temperature
J 27 J R Room temperature
K 40 J O 0 °C
L 60 J 2 -20 °C
3 -30 °C
4 -40 °C
5 -50 °C
6 -60 °C
Delivery condition codes are also relatively common, the most common being:
Code Condition
A Annealed
QT Quenched and tempered
N Normalised
SR Stress relieved
C Cold worked
U Untreated
European standard steel number[edit]

In addition to the descriptive steel grade naming system indicated above, within EN 10027-2 is defined
a system for creating unique steel grade numbers. While less descriptive and intuitive than the grand
names they are easier to tabulate and use in data processing applications.
The number is in the following format: x.yyzz(zz)
Where x is the material type (only 1 is specified so far), yy is the steel group number (specified in
EN10027-2) and zz(zz) is a sequential number designated by the certifying body, the number in brackets
being unused but reserved for later use.
The steel groups are indicated below:
Code Type
Non-alloy steels
00 & 90 Basic steels
0x & 9x Quality steels
1x Special steels
Alloy steels
2x Tool steels
3x Miscellaneous steels
4x Stainless and heat resistant steels
5x – 8x Structural, pressure vessel and engineering steels
08 & 98 Special physical properties

09 & 99 Other purpose steels
The current certification body is the VDEh in Düsseldorf, Germany.
Comparisons[edit]
Below is a table comparing steel grades from different grading systems.
Comparison of steel grades by chemistry[3][4]
AST
EN steel M AISI/
JIS
number EN steel name gra SAE UNS DIN BS UNI
(Japan
(Europ (Europe) de grade (USA) (Germany) (UK) (Italy)
)
e) (US (USA)
A)
Carbon steels
040A
15
080 S12C
1.1141 CK15 C15
C15D 1010 M15 S15
1.0401 C15 C16
C18D 1018 080A S15CK
1.0453 C16.8 1C15
15 S15C
EN3
B
060A
1.0503 C45 47 C45
1.1191 CK45 080A 1C45 S45C
C45 1045
1.1193 CF45 46 C46 S48C
1.1194 CQ45 080 C43
M46
212
1.0726 35S20 1140/1 35S20 M40
1.0727 45S20 146 45S20 En8
M
1.0715 9SMn28
11SMn37 1215 230 CF9SMn2 SUM
1.0736 9SMn36
M07 8 25
En1 CF9SMn3 SUM
A 6 22
230
SUM
M07
CF9SMnP 22
Lead
1.0718 11SMnPb30 9SMnPb28 b29 SUM
12L14 ed
1.0737 11SMnPb37 9SMnPb36 CF9SMnP 23
En1B
b36 SUM
Lead
24
ed
Alloy steels
SCM
708A 420
25CrMo4
25CrMo4 30 SCM
1.7218 4130 (KB)
GS-25CrMo4 CDS 430
30CrMo4
110 SCCr
M1
708
SCM
M40
41CrMo4 440
708A
1.7223 41CrMo4 38CrMo4 SCM
42
1.7225 4140/4 42CrMo4 (KB) 440H
42CrMo4 709
1.7227 142 42CrMoS4 G40 SNB 7
M40
1.3563 43CrMo4 CrMo4 SCM
En19
42CrMo4 4M
En19
SCM 4
C
35NiCrMo SNCM
817
1.6582 34CrNiMo6 6 (KB) 447
34CrNiMo6 4340 M40
1.6562 40NiCrMo8-4 40NiCrMo SNB24
En24
7 (KB) -1-5
805A
SNCM
1.6543 21NiCrMo22 20 20NiCrMo
20NiCrMo2-2 8620 200
1.6523 21NiCrMo2 805 2
(H)
M20
A24 K1282
0 2 1503 15Mo3 STBA
1.5415 16Mo3 15Mo3
A/B/ K1232 - 16Mo3 12
C 0 243B
K1202
0 240
K1182 243
0
Stainless steels
S3010
1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301
0
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN
303S
S3030 X10CrNiS18- 31 X10CrNiS SUS
1.4305 X8CrNiS18-9 303
0 9 En58 18-09 303
M
304S
15
304S
SUS
16
X5CrNi18-9 304
X2CrNi19-11 S3040 304S X5CrNi18
1.4301 304 X5CrNi18-10 SUS
X2CrNi18-10 0 18 -10
XCrNi19-9 304-
304S
CSP
25
En58
E
S3040 304S SUS30

1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L
3 11 4L
X2CrNiN18- S3045
1.4311 304LN
10 3
1.4948[ci
tation S3040
X6CrNi18-11 304H
needed] 9
1.4303[ci
tation S3050
X5CrNi18-12 305
needed] 0
X5CrNiMo17 316S
12 2 29 X5CrNiM
X5CrNiMo17- X5CrNiMo17 316S o17 12 SUS
1.4401 12-2 S3160 13 3 31 X5CrNiM 316
316
1.4436 X5CrNiMo18- 0 X5CrNiMo 19 316S o17 13 SUS31
14-3 11 33 X8CrNiM 6TP
X5CrNiMo 18 En58 o17 13
11 J
X2CrNiMo17- S3160 316S SUS31

1.4404 316L
12-2 3 11 6L
X2CrNiMoN1
1.4406 7-12-2 S3165
316LN
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN1 3
7-13-3
S3163 X6CrNiMoTi1 320S

1.4571 316Ti
5 7-12 33
X2CrNiMo18- S3170
1.4438 317L
15-4 3
S3210 X6CrNiTi18- 321S SUS32

1.4541 321
0 10 31 1
A35
SEW 595
GX40CrNiSi2 1 J9420 310C
1.4848 GX40CrNiSi2 SCH22
5-20 HK4 4 40
5-20
0
GX10NiCrSiN N0815 GX10NiCrSiN

1.4859
b32-20 1 b32-20
1.4878,[
citation X12CrNiTi18- S3210
321H
needed] 9 9
X7CrNiNb18- S3470
1.4906 347H
10 9
1.4512[ci
tation S4090 SUH40
X6CrTi12 409
needed] 0 9
S4100
410
0
S4300 430S SUS43

1.4016 430 X6Cr17
0 17 0
S4400
440A
2
1.4112[ci
tation S4400
440B
needed] 3
1.4125[ci
tation S4400 SUS44
440C X105CrMo17
needed] 4 0C
S4402 SUS43
1.4104 430F X14CrMoS17
0 0F
431 S4310 431S SUS43

1.4057 X17CrNi16-2 X16CrNi16
X[5] 0 29 1
4520
A33 K1152 STPA1
1.5423 16Mo5 4419H 16Mo5
5 P1 2 2
4419
A33 K1154 STPA2

1.7715 14MoV6-3 14MoV6-3 660
5 P2 7 0
A33
1.7335 13CrMo4-5 K1159 STPA2
5
1.7338 10CrMo5-5 7 3
P11
1.7375 10CrMo9-10 A33
K2159 17175 STPA2
1.7380 11CrMo9-10 5
0 10CrMo910 4
1.7383 12CrMo9-10 P22
K4154
5
X11CrMo5
1.7362 A33 501 S5010 STPA2
X12CrMo5
1.7366 5 P5 502 0 5
12CrMo19-5
S5020
0
S5040
0
X11CrMo9-1 A33 S5048 STPA2
1.7386 503
X12CrMo9-1 5 P9 8 6
K9094
1
A33
X10CrMoVNb K9156 X10CrMoVNb
1.4903 5
N9-1 0 N9-1
P91
X11CrMoWV X11CrMoWV
A33
1.4905 Nb9-1-1 K9246 Nb9-1-1
5
1.4906 X12CrMoWV 0 X12CrMoWV
P92
NbN10-1-1 NbN10-1-1
X1NiCrMoCu N0890
1.4539 904L
25-20-5 4
X1CrNiMoCu S3125
1.4547
N20-18-7 4
S2091
1.4565 NIT50
0
S2180
NIT60
0
Tool steels
T3010 X100CrMoV5 X100CrM SKD
1.2363 X100CrMoV5 A-2 BA 2
2[6] 1 oV5-1 KU 12
T3010
A-3
3[7]
T3010
A-4
4[8]
T3010
A-6
6[9]
T3010
A-7
7[10]
T3010
A-8
8[11]
T3010
A-9
9[12]
X32CrMoV3- X32CrMoV3-
3 T2081 3
1.2365 H10 SKD 7
32CrMoV12- 0 32CrMoV12-
28 28
X153CrMoV1 X153CrMoV1 X155CrV SKD

1.2379 D-2 BD 2
2 2-1 Mo12-1 11
95MnWCr
1.2510 O-1 100MnCrW4 Bo 1
-5 KU
Color Codes for API Steel Grade[edit]

In order to clearly distinguish the steel grade, tubing, casing and its coupling should be painted with
color codes respectively. Color bands should be painted on tubing and casing body longer than 600mm
to either end. The whole outer-body of the coupling needs to be painted color and then color codes
Steel
Coupling Tubular Body
Grade
None or black band at the

H40 None
manufacturer’s option
J55 all green. one green band
K55 all green two green bands
N80-1 all red one red band
all red + one green

N80-Q one red band + one green band
band
all red + one brown

L80-1 one red band + one brown band
band
API Tubing and

colorless + two yellow one red band + one brown band + two
Casing L80-9Cr
bands yellow bands
colorless + one yellow one red band + one brown band + one
L80-13Cr
band yellow band
C90-1 all purple one purple band
T95-1 all silver one silver band
all white + two brown

C110 one white band + two brown bands
bands
P110 all white one white band
Q125 all orange one orange band

API 5B and 5CT provide various steel grades and color codes of each grade, offering detailed and
overall information of casing and tubing, which help you clearly pick out the most suitable products for
different well application.
 Article
 Talk
Lubrication
Lubrication of a ship's steam engine crankshaft. The two bottles of lubricant are attached to the piston
and move while the engine is operating.
Lubrication is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear in a contact
between two surfaces. The study of lubrication is a discipline in the field of tribology.
Lubricants can be solids (such as Molybdenum disulfide MoS2),[1] solid/liquid dispersions (such
as grease), liquids (such as oil or water), liquid-liquid dispersions[citation needed] or gases.
Fluid-lubricated systems are designed so that the applied load is partially or completely carried
by hydrodynamic or hydrostatic pressure, which reduces solid body interactions (and consequently
friction and wear). Depending on the degree of surface separation, different lubrication regimes can be
distinguished.
Adequate lubrication allows smooth, continuous operation of machine elements, reduces the rate of
wear, and prevents excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down,
components can rub destructively against each other, causing heat, local welding, destructive damage
and failure.
Lubrication mechanisms
Fluid-lubricated systems[edit]
As the load increases on the contacting surfaces, three distinct situations can be observed with respect
to the mode of lubrication, which are called lubrication regimes:[citation needed]
 Fluid film lubrication is the lubrication regime in which, through viscous forces, the load is fully
supported by the lubricant within the space or gap between the parts in motion relative to one
another object (the lubricated conjunction) and solid–solid contact is avoided.[2]
o In hydrostatic lubrication, external pressure is applied to the lubricant in the bearing to
maintain the fluid lubricant film where it would otherwise be squeezed out.
o In hydrodynamic lubrication the motion of the contacting surfaces as well as the design of the
bearing pump lubricant around the bearing to maintain the lubricating film. This design of
bearing may wear when started, stopped or reversed, as the lubricant film breaks down. The
basis of the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication is the Reynolds equation. The governing
equations of the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication and some analytical solutions can be
found in the reference.[3]
 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication: Mostly for nonconforming surfaces or higher load conditions, the
bodies suffer elastic strains at the contact. Such strain creates a load-bearing area, which provides
an almost parallel gap for the fluid to flow through. Much as in hydrodynamic lubrication, the
motion of the contacting bodies generates a flow induced pressure, which acts as the bearing force
over the contact area. In such high pressure regimes, the viscosity of the fluid may rise considerably.
At full film elastohydrodynamic lubrication the generated lubricant film completely separates the
surfaces. Contact between raised solid features, or asperities, can occur, leading to a mixed-
lubrication or boundary lubrication regime. In addition to Reynolds equation, elastohydrodynamic
theory considers the elastic deflection equation, since in this regime elastic deformation of the
surfaces contributes significantly to the lubricant film thickness.[4][5]
 Boundary lubrication (also called boundary film lubrication): The hydrodynamic effects are
negligible. The bodies come into closer contact at their asperities; the heat developed by the local
pressures causes a condition which is called stick-slip, and some asperities break off. At the
elevated temperature and pressure conditions, chemically reactive constituents of the lubricant react
with the contact surface, forming a highly resistant tenacious layer or film on the moving solid
surfaces (boundary film) which is capable of supporting the load and major wear or breakdown is
avoided. Boundary lubrication is also defined as that regime in which the load is carried by the
surface asperities rather than by the lubricant.[6]
 Mixed lubrication: This regime is in between the full film elastohydrodynamic and boundary
lubrication regimes. The generated lubricant film is not enough to separate the bodies completely,
but hydrodynamic effects are considerable.[7]
Besides supporting the load the lubricant may have to perform other functions as well, for instance it
may cool the contact areas and remove wear products. While carrying out these functions the lubricant
is constantly replaced from the contact areas either by the relative movement (hydrodynamics) or by
externally induced forces.
Lubrication is required for correct operation of mechanical systems such
as pistons, pumps, cams, bearings, turbines, cutting tools etc. where without lubrication the pressure
between the surfaces in close proximity would generate enough heat for rapid surface damage which in
a coarsened condition may literally weld the surfaces together, causing seizure.
In some applications, such as piston engines, the film between the piston and the cylinder wall also
seals the combustion chamber, preventing combustion gases from escaping into the crankcase.
See also
Oil cooling
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Oil
cooling" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (Septemb
er 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
For the cooling of lubricating oil, see Lubrication oil cooling.
Oil cooling is the use of engine oil as a coolant, typically to remove surplus heat from an internal
combustion engine. The hot engine transfers heat to the oil which then usually passes through a heat-
exchanger, typically a type of radiator known as an oil cooler. The cooled oil flows back into the hot
object to cool it continuously.
Oil cooling is commonly used to cool high-performance motorcycle engines that are not liquid-cooled.
Typically, the cylinder barrel remains air-cooled in the traditional motorcycle fashion, but the cylinder
head benefits from additional cooling. As there is already an oil circulation system available for
lubrication, this oil is also piped to the cylinder head and used as a liquid coolant. Compared to an oil
system used solely for lubrication, oil cooling requires additional oil capacity, a greater flow rate
through the oil pump, and an oil cooler (or a larger cooler than normal).
If air-cooling proves sufficient for much of the running time (such as for an aero-engine in flight, or a
motorcycle in motion), then oil cooling is an ideal way to cope with those times when extra cooling is
needed (such as an aero-engine taxying before take-off, or a motorcycle in a city traffic jam). But if the
engine is a racing engine that is always producing huge amounts of heat, water or liquid cooling may
be preferable.
Air-cooled aviation engines may be subject to "shock cooling" when descending from cruising altitude
prior to landing. During descent, very little power is needed, so the engine is throttled back and thereby
develops much less heat than when maintaining altitude. While descending, the plane's airspeed rises,
substantially increasing the rate of air-cooling the engine. These factors may cause the cylinder head to
crack; but the adoption of oil-cooled cylinder heads significantly reduces or cancels the problem as the
heads are now "oil-warmed".
In the 1980s, Suzuki used the "SACS" oil-cooling system on the GSX-R sportbikes, but later switched
to water-cooling.[1]
The Wankel engine features oil cooling in addition to liquid-cooling to successfully manage its
excessive heat. This rotary engine is most famous for its application in the Mazda RX-7 and RX-8.
Splash lubrication is a rudimentary form of oil cooling. Some slow-turning early engines would have
a "splashing spoon" beneath the big end of the connecting rod. This spoon would dip into sump oil and
would hurl oil about, in the hope of cooling and lubricating the underside of the piston.
Advantages[edit]
 Oil has a higher boiling point than water, so it can be used to cool
items at a temperature of 100 °C or higher. However, pressurised
water-cooling may also exceed 100 °C.
 Oil is an electrical insulator, thus it can be used inside of or in direct
contact with electrical equipment such as in transformers.
 Oil is already present as a lubricant, so no extra coolant tanks, pumps
nor radiators are required (although all of these items may need to be
larger than otherwise).
 Cooling water can be corrosive to the engine and must contain a
Corrosion inhibitor|rust-inhibitor, whereas oil naturally helps to
prevent corrosion.
 Thus, if through a gasket failure, coolant oil should enter, say, the
combustion chamber or the sump, this would be a mere
inconvenience; but if coolant water should similarly leak, substantial
engine damage might occur.
Disadvantages[edit]

Coolant oil may be limited to cooling objects under approximately
200–300 °C, otherwise the oil may degrade and even leave ashy
deposits.
 Pure water may evaporate or boil, but it cannot degrade, although it
may become polluted and acidic.
 Water is generally available should coolant need to be added to the
system, but oil may not be.
 Unlike water, oil may be flammable.
 The specific heat of water or water/glycol is about twice that of oil,
so a given volume of water may absorb more engine heat than can
the same volume of oil.
 Therefore, water may be a better coolant if an engine is permanently
producing large amounts of heat, making it better Help
 , a non-profit organization.
GEAR MATERIALS AND HEAT TREATMENTS
6. Gear Materials and Heat Treatments / It is essential to select proper materials and heat
treatments in accordance with the intended application of the gear.
Since gears are applied for various usages, such as industrial machinery, electric/ electronic devices,
household goods and toys, and composed of many kinds of materials, we like to introduce typical
materials and their heat treatment methods.
6-1 Types of Gear Materials
S45C (Carbon Steel for Structural Machine Usage)
S45C is one of the most commonly used steel, containing moderate amounts of carbon (0.45% ). S45C
is easily obtainable and is used in the production of spur gears, helical gears, gear racks, bevel
gears and worm gears.
Heat Treatment and Hardness
Heat Treatment Hardness
None less than 194HB
Thermal Refining 225 – 260HB
Induction Hardening 45 – 55HRC
SCM440 (Chrome-molybdenum Alloy Steel)
An alloy steel containing moderate amounts of carbon (0.40% ). It also contains chrome / molybdenum.
SCM440 has more strength than S45C and is used with thermal-refining or induction-hardening
treatment for producing gears.

SCM415 is one of the most commonly used low-carbon alloy steel (C = 0.15%). Generally, it is
carburized for use. It has more strength than S45C or SCM440. Surface hardness should be between 55
and 60HRC for use.
SUS303 (Stainless Steel：18Cr-8Ni Stainless Steel)
Since it is called “stainless steel”, it is a rust-resistant steel. This authentic stainless steel is basically
non-magnetic. Most commonly used for gears in applications where rust contamination is undesirable,
such as in food-processing machinery. There is a similar stainless steel called SUS304 which has more
corrosion resistance than SUS303.
Copper Alloy Casting
Frequently used as a material for worm wheels. Phosphor bronze casting (CAC502) or aluminum-
bronze casting(CAC702) are commonly used. For mating worms, iron metals such as
S45C/SCM44/SCM415 are used. To prevent galling / seizure by slippage, different materials are used
for each of the paired worm and worm wheel.
6-2 Heat Treatments
What is Quenching ?
Quenching is a treatment performed on steel, applying rapid cooling after heating at high temperature
(Approximate 800C). Quenching is applied to adjust the hardness of steel. There are several types of
quenching in accordance with cooling conditions; oil quenching, water quenching, and spray
quenching. After quenching, tempering must be applied to give toughness back to the steel, that might
become brittle. Quenching cannot harden genuine steel, however, quenching can work for steel
containing more than 0.35% carbon.
What is Thermal Refining ?
Thermal Refining is a heat treatment applied to adjust hardness / strength / toughness of steel. This
treatment involves quenching and tempering. Since machining is applied to products after thermal
refining, the hardness should not be raised too high in quenching.
What is Induction Hardening ?
Induction Hardening is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface of the steel containing carbon
more than 0.35%, such as S45C or SCM440. For gear products, induction hardening is effective to
harden tooth areas including tooth surface and the tip, however, the root may not be hardened in some
cases. The precision of gears declines by induction hardening. To encourage the gear accuracy, grinding
must be applied.
Fig. 6.1 Quenching Machine
Fig. 6.2 Heating Coil

(Gear and High frequency inductor (coil))
What is Carburizing ?
Carburizing is a heat treatment performed to harden only the surface of low-carbon steel. The surface,
in which carbon is present and penetrated the surface, gets especially hardened. Inner material structure
(with low-carbon C=0.15%) is also hardened by some level of carburizing, however, it is not as hard as
the surface. The precision of carburized gears declines by 1 grade or so, due to deformation
(dimensional change) or distortion. To encourage the gear accuracy, grinding is essential.
Fig. 6.3 Carburizing Furnace

Fig. 6.4 Carbon layer by carburizing
What is Nitriding ?
Nitriding is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface by introducing nitrogen into the surface
of steel. If the steel alloy includes aluminum, chrome, and molybdenum, it enhances nitriding and
hardness can be obtained. A representative nitride steel is SACM645 (Aluminum chromium
molybdenum steel).
Related article – Heat treatment of gears (Carburizing, Induction hardening, Nitriding)
When mating gears transmit power, both tooth flanks are in sliding contact and rolling contact. In other
words, the pressure which the tooth flank get is same as the pressure when a cylinder slides while rolling
on a flat surface. The tooth flank needs to have durability against such pressure.
However, some rigid materials such as ceramic are vulnerable to impacts and break easily. Bending
force is frequently applied to the dedendum and impact may be generated when gears start moving. The
material of gear needs to be tenacious in order to achieve high durability against external forces and
impact.
Therefore, gears need to be hard on the outside and tenacious inside just like a Japanese sword. Heat
treating is the method to give such characteristics.
Types of heat treatment for gears are :
1. Carburizing
2. Induction hardening
3. Nitriding
Let’s see the details and characteristics of each type.
1. Carburizing
A typical treatment for gears made of low-carbon steel like S15CK.

After being penetrated by “carbon” just like the name, the metal surface is quenched and tempered to
harden. The thickness of the hardened layer is 0.2mm to 2mm depending on gear size.
In the past, people used to cover metal with crushed carbon before sealing and heating. In Europe,
products were dipped in molten sodium cyanide-based inorganic salts at high temperature, but the
toxicity of sodium cyanide was a problem. Currently, gas carburization in which products are heated in
carbon dioxide gas, methane, propane and steam are mainly used. Although the gas carburization is
expensive because large special equipment is needed, a large volume of products can be processed
effectively.
Carburizing is usually performed after gear is cut and gear teeth are formed. After that, tooth surface is
lapped and ground to finish.
A typical treatment for gears made of medium-carbon steel like S45C.
The eddy current flows by electromagnetic induction when the metal gear, wound with wire, is
electrified. The induction hardening takes advantage of the property of the eddy current which
concentrates at the metal surface and heats metal.
As the common method for induction hardening, the electric current is applied to the wired coil overlaid
on the gear tooth formed by cutting.
Induction hardening varies in the precision widely and fewer products can be processed at once
compared to other methods like carburizing. On the other hand, this method is suited to process products
with gear and axis integrated or large gears because the gear tooth can be hardened partially.
3．Nitriding
Frequently used for gears made of steel which contains chrome or molybdenum. Among the various
kinds of steel which are suitable for nitriding, aluminum-containing steel produces particularly a
powerful effect and are called “nitride steel”.
In nitration, gears are heated in nitrogen gas to form a layer of iron nitride of 0.1mm to 1mm thickness
on the gear surface.
The nitriding can give hardness higher than carburizing and induction hardening, but the layer hardened
by nitriding is thinner than other heat treatments. Meanwhile, the temperature necessary for nitriding is
relatively low, 500 to 600 degrees Celsius. In contrast, products need to be heated up to 800 degrees
Celsius in carburizing and induction hardening. Therefore, nitriding causes no quenching cracks or
distortion unlike other heat treatments.
Generally, the nitriding is carried out in the final step of processing gears as it doesn’t cause deformation
and gives high hardness.
Related links :
Materials for Gears and Heat Treatment
TOP > Gear Knowledge > THE ABCS OF GEARS – B > Gear Materials and Heat Treatments
6. Gear Materials and Heat Treatments / It is essential to select proper materials and heat
treatments in accordance with the intended application of the gear.
Since gears are applied for various usages, such as industrial machinery, electric/ electronic devices,
household goods and toys, and composed of many kinds of materials, we like to introduce typical
materials and their heat treatment methods.
6-1 Types of Gear Materials
S45C (Carbon Steel for Structural Machine Usage)
S45C is one of the most commonly used steel, containing moderate amounts of carbon (0.45% ). S45C
is easily obtainable and is used in the production of spur gears, helical gears, gear racks, bevel
gears and worm gears.

None less than 194HB
An alloy steel containing moderate amounts of carbon (0.40% ). It also contains chrome / molybdenum.
SCM440 has more strength than S45C and is used with thermal-refining or induction-hardening
treatment for producing gears.
SCM415 is one of the most commonly used low-carbon alloy steel (C = 0.15%). Generally, it is
carburized for use. It has more strength than S45C or SCM440. Surface hardness should be between 55
and 60HRC for use.
SUS303 (Stainless Steel：18Cr-8Ni Stainless Steel)
Since it is called “stainless steel”, it is a rust-resistant steel. This authentic stainless steel is basically
non-magnetic. Most commonly used for gears in applications where rust contamination is undesirable,
such as in food-processing machinery. There is a similar stainless steel called SUS304 which has more
corrosion resistance than SUS303.
Copper Alloy Casting
Frequently used as a material for worm wheels. Phosphor bronze casting (CAC502) or aluminum-
bronze casting(CAC702) are commonly used. For mating worms, iron metals such as
S45C/SCM44/SCM415 are used. To prevent galling / seizure by slippage, different materials are used
for each of the paired worm and worm wheel.
6-2 Heat Treatments
What is Quenching ?
Quenching is a treatment performed on steel, applying rapid cooling after heating at high temperature
(Approximate 800C). Quenching is applied to adjust the hardness of steel. There are several types of
quenching in accordance with cooling conditions; oil quenching, water quenching, and spray
quenching. After quenching, tempering must be applied to give toughness back to the steel, that might
become brittle. Quenching cannot harden genuine steel, however, quenching can work for steel
containing more than 0.35% carbon.
What is Thermal Refining ?
Thermal Refining is a heat treatment applied to adjust hardness / strength / toughness of steel. This
treatment involves quenching and tempering. Since machining is applied to products after thermal
refining, the hardness should not be raised too high in quenching.
What is Induction Hardening ?
Induction Hardening is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface of the steel containing carbon
more than 0.35%, such as S45C or SCM440. For gear products, induction hardening is effective to
harden tooth areas including tooth surface and the tip, however, the root may not be hardened in some
cases. The precision of gears declines by induction hardening. To encourage the gear accuracy, grinding
must be applied.
Fig. 6.1 Quenching Machine
Fig. 6.2 Heating Coil

(Gear and High frequency inductor (coil))
What is Carburizing ?
Carburizing is a heat treatment performed to harden only the surface of low-carbon steel. The surface,
in which carbon is present and penetrated the surface, gets especially hardened. Inner material structure
(with low-carbon C=0.15%) is also hardened by some level of carburizing, however, it is not as hard as
the surface. The precision of carburized gears declines by 1 grade or so, due to deformation
(dimensional change) or distortion. To encourage the gear accuracy, grinding is essential.
Fig. 6.3 Carburizing Furnace
Fig. 6.4 Carbon layer by carburizing
What is Nitriding ?
Nitriding is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface by introducing nitrogen into the surface
of steel. If the steel alloy includes aluminum, chrome, and molybdenum, it enhances nitriding and
hardness can be obtained. A representative nitride steel is SACM645 (Aluminum chromium
molybdenum steel).
Related article – Heat treatment of gears (Carburizing, Induction hardening, Nitriding)
When mating gears transmit power, both tooth flanks are in sliding contact and rolling contact. In other
words, the pressure which the tooth flank get is same as the pressure when a cylinder slides while rolling
on a flat surface. The tooth flank needs to have durability against such pressure.
However, some rigid materials such as ceramic are vulnerable to impacts and break easily. Bending
force is frequently applied to the dedendum and impact may be generated when gears start moving. The
material of gear needs to be tenacious in order to achieve high durability against external forces and
impact.
Therefore, gears need to be hard on the outside and tenacious inside just like a Japanese sword. Heat
treating is the method to give such characteristics.
Types of heat treatment for gears are :
1. Carburizing
3. Nitriding
Let’s see the details and characteristics of each type.
1. Carburizing
A typical treatment for gears made of low-carbon steel like S15CK.
After being penetrated by “carbon” just like the name, the metal surface is quenched and tempered to
harden. The thickness of the hardened layer is 0.2mm to 2mm depending on gear size.
In the past, people used to cover metal with crushed carbon before sealing and heating. In Europe,
products were dipped in molten sodium cyanide-based inorganic salts at high temperature, but the
toxicity of sodium cyanide was a problem. Currently, gas carburization in which products are heated in
carbon dioxide gas, methane, propane and steam are mainly used. Although the gas carburization is
expensive because large special equipment is needed, a large volume of products can be processed
effectively.
Carburizing is usually performed after gear is cut and gear teeth are formed. After that, tooth surface is
lapped and ground to finish.
A typical treatment for gears made of medium-carbon steel like S45C.

The eddy current flows by electromagnetic induction when the metal gear, wound with wire, is
electrified. The induction hardening takes advantage of the property of the eddy current which
concentrates at the metal surface and heats metal.
As the common method for induction hardening, the electric current is applied to the wired coil overlaid
on the gear tooth formed by cutting.
Induction hardening varies in the precision widely and fewer products can be processed at once
compared to other methods like carburizing. On the other hand, this method is suited to process products
with gear and axis integrated or large gears because the gear tooth can be hardened partially.
3．Nitriding
Frequently used for gears made of steel which contains chrome or molybdenum. Among the various
kinds of steel which are suitable for nitriding, aluminum-containing steel produces particularly a
powerful effect and are called “nitride steel”.
In nitration, gears are heated in nitrogen gas to form a layer of iron nitride of 0.1mm to 1mm thickness
on the gear surface.
The nitriding can give hardness higher than carburizing and induction hardening, but the layer hardened
by nitriding is thinner than other heat treatments. Meanwhile, the temperature necessary for nitriding is
relatively low, 500 to 600 degrees Celsius. In contrast, products need to be heated up to 800 degrees
Celsius in carburizing and induction hardening. Therefore, nitriding causes no quenching cracks or
distortion unlike other heat treatments.
Generally, the nitriding is carried out in the final step of processing gears as it doesn’t cause deformation
and gives high hardness.
Related links :
Materials for Gears and Heat Treatment
Gear Materials
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C Si Mn N P S Cr
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Mechanical properties of grade Fe 490
Grade Thickness(mm) Min Yield Tensile Elongation Min Impact En
Fe 490 ＜20mm Min 350Mpa 490Mpa 22% -20
20mm-40mm Min 330Mpa 490Mpa 22% -20
＞40mm Min 320Mpa 490Mpa 22% -20
The min impact energy is longitudinal energy
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Wire rope spooling technology
Applications
The multilayer wire rope spooling system has undergone continuous refinement over the years and
adapted for any application where long lengths of steel wire ropes must be wrapped in multiple layers
quickly and smoothly.
System advantages
With the parallel groove system, rope wear is considerably reduced in multilayer spooling.
Winch drums for multilayer wire rope Spooling
When the first layer has filled the drum, the second layer then travels back across the drum with each
wrap of rope sitting precisely along the groove of two wraps of the first layer. With parallel grooving it
is possible to calculate the exact forces that the rope imposes on the drum because the spooling is
controlled.
Multilayer wire rope Spooling Pic 1

Cross winding is reduced to approximately 20% of the circumference of the drum, and 80% remains
parallel to the flanges in the inner layer rope groove. This parallel grooving evenly distributes the load
between the individual layers and has been shown to increase substantially – by more than 500%, tests
have shown – the life of the wire rope. The system has been used to mount ropes up.

In offshore applications, huge lengths of rope are often housed on drums. The anchor winches on
Saipem’s Semac 1 pipe laying barge, for example, each hold 2,800 metres of 76mm (3 inch) diameter
wire rope in 14 layers. Saipem’s Castorone, the world’s largest pipe laying vessel uses a wire rope that
is 3,850m long and 152mm in diameter. It weighs 420t. The rope is pulled by capstan and stored on a
massive Rema traction winches that feature the parallel grooving system, with an approximately back
tension of 40t on the capstan.

Application-specific design
Every system should be tailored to the application for which it is used. The groove pattern is engineered
to suit the rope's length, diameter and construction type.
Spooling under tension
In any multi-layer spooling application it is important that when the rope is first installed on the drum,
it is done so under tension to avoid any slack on inner layers that can be crushed or nicked against the
groove walls by outer layers.
Correct fleet angle
The fleet angle is defined as the largest angle of the rope between the first sheave and the drum flange,
relative to the centre line of the drum. With all type of drums, the rope is subject to a fleet angle which
impacts on its behaviour and affects lifespan. Fleet angle should be between 0.25° and 1.25°, depending
on the rope construction. The fleet angle can be varied by moving the first sheave closer to or further
away from the drum. If the sheave is too close to the drum, the fleet angle will be greater than 1.25°; if
it is too far away, the fleet angle will be less than 0.25°.
.
Fleet angle compensator[edit]

The fleet angle compensator (FAC) is driven by the movement of the wire rope as it goes through the
crossover sections of the drum. As the rope winds or unwinds, the FAC shaft automatically oscillates
slowly, allowing its sheave to slide back and forth across the shaft to maintain an optimum fleet angle
and guide the rope smoothly onto the drum.
Fleet angle compensator for winch drum
Screw level winder[edit]

Level winders can be hydraulically or electrically driven and computer controlled, or they can be simple
mechanical devices. A mechanical level winder comprises a main shaft (the lead screw) with helical
screw grooving along which the rope feeder travels. The rope feeder housing includes two vertical roller
bars and one horizontal roller, or alternatively a wire rope sheave. The lateral movement of the housing
is generated by a chain drive sprocket ratio between drum and lead screw, as shown in the image. The
automatic level winder fitted is designed and engineered to be compatible with the grooving on the
drum. Alternatively, a sheave can be integrated and installed within the housing frame. In this case, the
system can be set up anywhere around the drum. Oceanographic installations that spool rope up to 46
layers have demonstrated that level winders give synchronized and controlled spooling in the harshest,
most testing conditions.
Winch drum with screw level winder
Split sleeves[edit]
Grooving systems for multilayer spooling can be carved onto steel shells that are mounted onto old
drums, by either bolting or welding, as an outer sleeve. Called split sleeves, they can be retrofitted onto
old drums or mounted on new drums to allow a future change of application.
Pipe (fluid conveyance)

For structural pipe, see Hollow structural section.
For other uses, see Pipe (disambiguation).
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with

the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the
subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk
page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (April 2012) (Learn
how and when to remove this template message)
Carbon Steel Pipe in a storage yard

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipes
Plastic (PVC) pipes

A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section, used
mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses
of small solids. It can also be used for structural applications; hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight
than solid members.
In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering,
the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe
is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter (OD) and a schedule that
defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, but may be specified
by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Pipe is generally manufactured to one of
several international and national industrial standards.[1] While similar standards exist for specific
industry application tubing, tube is often made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and
tolerances. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe and tubing. The
term "tube" is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i.e., square or rectangular tubing. In
general, "pipe" is the more common term in most of the world, whereas "tube" is more widely used in
the United States.
Both "pipe" and "tube" imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a hose (or hosepipe) is usually
portable and flexible. Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as
elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials
that are inflexible, cannot be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, tube
assemblies are also constructed with the use of tube fittings.
industrial environment.
Manufacture[edit]
Main article: Tube drawing
There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture. Centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one
of the most prominent process.[citation needed] Ductile iron pipes are generally manufactured in such a
fashion. Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create the
hollow shell. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived
to be stronger and more reliable. Historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure
better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe.
Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, allow correctly
specified welded pipe to replace seamless in many applications. Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate
and welding the seam (usually by Electric resistance welding ("ERW"), or Electric Fusion Welding
("EFW")). The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade.
The weld zone can also be heat-treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often have tighter
dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, and can be cheaper to manufacture.
There are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these processes leads
to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces
that have to be welded together; as the components being welded together resist the electric current,
heat is generated which forms the weld. Pools of molten metal are formed where the two surfaces are
connected as a strong electric current is passed through the metal; these pools of molten metal form the
weld that binds the two abutted components.
ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel. The welding process for ERW
pipes is continuous, as opposed to welding of distinct sections at intervals. ERW process uses steel coil
as feedstock.
The High Frequency Induction Technology (HFI) welding process is used for manufacturing ERW
pipes. In this process, the current to weld the pipe is applied by means of an induction coil around the
tube. HFI is generally considered to be technically superior to “ordinary” ERW when manufacturing
pipes for critical applications, such as for usage in the energy sector, in addition to other uses in line
pipe applications, as well as for casing and tubing.
Large-diameter pipe (25 centimetres (10 in) or greater) may be ERW, EFW or Submerged Arc
Welded ("SAW") pipe. There are two technologies that can be used to manufacture steel pipes of sizes
larger than the steel pipes that can be produced by seamless and ERW processes. The two types of pipes
produced through these technologies are longitudinal-submerged arc-welded (LSAW) and spiral-
submerged arc-welded (SSAW) pipes. LSAW are made by bending and welding wide steel plates and
most commonly used in oil and gas industry applications. Due to their high cost, LSAW pipes are
seldom used in lower value non-energy applications such as water pipelines. SSAW pipes are produced
by spiral (helicoidal) welding of steel coil and have a cost advantage over LSAW pipes, as the process
uses coils rather than steel plates. As such, in applications where spiral-weld is acceptable, SSAW pipes
may be preferred over LSAW pipes. Both LSAW pipes and SSAW pipes compete against ERW pipes
and seamless pipes in the diameter ranges of 16”-24”.
Tubing for flow, either metal or plastic, is generally extruded.
Materials[edit]
Historic water mains from Philadelphia included wooden pipes

Pipe is made out of many types of material including ceramic, glass, fiberglass,
many metals, concrete and plastic. In the past, wood and lead (Latin plumbum, from which comes the
word 'plumbing') were commonly used.
Typically metallic piping is made of steel or iron, such as unfinished, black (lacquer) steel, carbon
steel, stainless steel, galvanized steel, brass, and ductile iron. Iron based piping is subject to corrosion
if used within a highly oxygenated water stream.[2] Aluminum pipe or tubing may be utilized where iron
is incompatible with the service fluid or where weight is a concern; aluminum is also used for heat
transfer tubing such as in refrigerant systems. Copper tubing is popular for domestic water
(potable) plumbing systems; copper may be used where heat transfer is desirable (i.e. radiators or heat
exchangers). Inconel, chrome moly, and titanium steel alloys are used in high temperature and pressure
piping in process and power facilities. When specifying alloys for new processes, the known issues
of creep and sensitization effect must be taken into account.
Lead piping is still found in old domestic and other water distribution systems, but is no longer
permitted for new potable water piping installations due to its toxicity. Many building codes now
require that lead piping in residential or institutional installations be replaced with non-toxic piping or
that the tubes' interiors be treated with phosphoric acid. According to a senior researcher and lead expert
with the Canadian Environmental Law Association, "...there is no safe level of lead [for human
exposure]".[3] In 1991 the US EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule, it is a federal regulation which
limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water, as well as the permissible
amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. In the US it's estimated that 6.5 million lead
pipes installed before the 1930s are still in use.[4]
Plastic tubing is widely used for its light weight, chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties, and ease
of making connections. Plastic materials include polyvinyl chloride (PVC),[5] chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride (CPVC), fibre reinforced plastic (FRP),[6] reinforced polymer mortar
[6]
(RPMP), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), cross-linked high-density
polyethylene (PEX), polybutylene (PB), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), for example. In
many countries, PVC pipes account for most pipe materials used in buried municipal applications for
drinking water distribution and wastewater mains.[5] Market researchers are forecasting total global
revenues of more than US$80 billion in 2019.[7] In Europe, market value will amount to approx. €12.7
billion in 2020 [8]
Pipe may be made from concrete or ceramic, usually for low-pressure applications such as gravity flow
or drainage. Pipes for sewage are still predominantly made from concrete or vitrified clay. Reinforced
concrete can be used for large-diameter concrete pipes. This pipe material can be used in many types
of construction, and is often used in the gravity-flow transport of storm water. Usually such pipe will
have a receiving bell or a stepped fitting, with various sealing methods applied at installation.
Traceability and positive material identification (PMI)[edit]
When the alloys for piping are forged, metallurgical tests are performed to determine material
composition by % of each chemical element in the piping, and the results are recorded in a Material
Test Report (MTR). These tests can be used to prove that the alloy conforms to various specifications
(e.g. 316 SS). The tests are stamped by the mill's QA/QC department and can be used to trace the
material back to the mill by future users, such as piping and fitting manufacturers. Maintaining
the traceability between the alloy material and associated MTR is an important quality assurance issue.
QA often requires the heat number to be written on the pipe. Precautions must also be taken to prevent
the introduction of counterfeit materials. As a backup to etching/labeling of the material identification
on the pipe, positive material identification (PMI) is performed using a handheld device; the device
scans the pipe material using an emitted electromagnetic wave (x-ray fluorescence/XRF) and receives
a reply that is spectrographically analyzed.
Sizes[edit]
Main article: Nominal Pipe Size
Pipe sizes can be confusing because the terminology may relate to historical dimensions. For example,
a half-inch iron pipe does not have any dimension that is a half inch. Initially, a half inch pipe did have
an inner diameter of 1⁄2 inch (13 mm)—but it also had thick walls. As technology improved, thinner
walls became possible, but the outside diameter stayed the same so it could mate with existing older
pipe, increasing the inner diameter beyond half an inch. The history of copper pipe is similar. In the
1930s, the pipe was designated by its internal diameter and a 1⁄16-inch (1.6 mm) wall thickness.
Consequently, a 1-inch (25 mm) copper pipe had a 1 1⁄8-inch (28.58 mm) outside diameter. The outside
diameter was the important dimension for mating with fittings. The wall thickness on modern copper is
usually thinner than 1⁄16-inch (1.6 mm), so the internal diameter is only "nominal" rather than a
controlling dimension.[9] Newer pipe technologies sometimes adopted a sizing system as its own. PVC
pipe uses the Nominal Pipe Size.
Pipe sizes are specified by a number of national and international standards,
including API 5L, ANSI/ASME B36.10M and B36.19M in the US, BS 1600 and BS EN 10255 in the
United Kingdom and Europe.
There are two common methods for designating pipe outside diameter (OD). The North American
method is called NPS ("Nominal Pipe Size") and is based on inches (also frequently referred to as NB
("Nominal Bore")). The European version is called DN ("Diametre Nominal" / "Nominal Diameter")
and is based on millimetres. Designating the outside diameter allows pipes of the same size to be fit
together no matter what the wall thickness.
 For pipe sizes less than NPS 14 inch (DN 350), both methods give
a nominal value for the OD that is rounded off and is not the same as
the actual OD. For example, NPS 2 inch and DN 50 are the same
pipe, but the actual OD is 2.375 inches or 60.33 millimetres. The only
way to obtain the actual OD is to look it up in a reference table.
 For pipe sizes of NPS 14 inch (DN 350) and greater the NPS size
is the actual diameter in inches and the DN size is equal to NPS times
25 (not 25.4) rounded to a convenient multiple of 50. For example,
NPS 14 has an OD of 14 inches or 355.60 millimetres, and is
equivalent to DN 350.
Since the outside diameter is fixed for a given pipe size, the inside diameter will vary depending on the
wall thickness of the pipe. For example, 2" Schedule 80 pipe has thicker walls and therefore a smaller
inside diameter than 2" Schedule 40 pipe.
Steel pipe has been produced for about 150 years. The pipe sizes that are in use today in PVC and
galvanized were originally designed years ago for steel pipe. The number system, like Sch 40, 80, 160,
were set long ago and seem a little odd. For example, Sch 20 pipe is even thinner than Sch 40, but same
OD. And while these pipes are based on old steel pipe sizes, there is other pipe, like cpvc for heated
water, that uses pipe sizes, inside and out, based on old copper pipe size standards instead of steel.
Many different standards exist for pipe sizes, and their prevalence varies depending on industry and
geographical area. The pipe size designation generally includes two numbers; one that indicates the
outside (OD) or nominal diameter, and the other that indicates the wall thickness. In the early twentieth
century, American pipe was sized by inside diameter. This practice was abandoned to improve
compatibility with pipe fittings that must usually fit the OD of the pipe, but it has had a lasting impact
on modern standards around the world.
In North America and the UK, pressure piping is usually specified by Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) and
schedule (SCH). Pipe sizes are documented by a number of standards, including API
5L, ANSI/ASME B36.10M (Table 1) in the US, and BS 1600 and BS 1387 in the United Kingdom.
Typically the pipe wall thickness is the controlled variable, and the Inside Diameter (I.D.) is allowed to
vary. The pipe wall thickness has a variance of approximately 12.5 percent.
In the rest of Europe pressure piping uses the same pipe IDs and wall thicknesses as Nominal Pipe Size,
but labels them with a metric Diameter Nominal (DN) instead of the imperial NPS. For NPS larger than
14, the DN is equal to the NPS multiplied by 25. (Not 25.4) This is documented by EN 10255
(formerly DIN 2448 and BS 1387) and ISO 65:1981, and it is often called DIN or ISO pipe.
Japan has its own set of standard pipe sizes, often called JIS pipe.
The Iron pipe size (IPS) is an older system still used by some manufacturers and legacy drawings and
equipment. The IPS number is the same as the NPS number, but the schedules were limited to Standard
Wall (STD), Extra Strong (XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS). STD is identical to SCH 40 for NPS
1/8 to NPS 10, inclusive, and indicates .375" wall thickness for NPS 12 and larger. XS is identical to
SCH 80 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 8, inclusive, and indicates .500" wall thickness for NPS 8 and larger.
Different definitions exist for XXS, however it is never the same as SCH 160. XXS is in fact thicker
than SCH 160 for NPS 1/8" to 6" inclusive, whereas SCH 160 is thicker than XXS for NPS 8" and
larger.
Another old system is the Ductile Iron Pipe Size (DIPS), which generally has larger ODs than IPS.
Copper plumbing tube for residential plumbing follows an entirely different size system in America,
often called Copper Tube Size (CTS); see domestic water system. Its nominal size is neither the inside
nor outside diameter. Plastic tubing, such as PVC and CPVC, for plumbing applications also has
different sizing standards[vague].
Agricultural applications use PIP sizes, which stands for Plastic Irrigation Pipe. PIP comes in pressure
ratings of 22 psi (150 kPa), 50 psi (340 kPa), 80 psi (550 kPa), 100 psi (690 kPa), and 125 psi (860 kPa)
and is generally available in diameters of 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 inches
(15, 20, 25, 30, 38, 46, 53, and 61 cm).
Standards[edit]
The manufacture and installation of pressure piping is tightly regulated by the ASME "B31" code
series such as B31.1 or B31.3 which have their basis in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(BPVC). This code has the force of law in Canada and the US. Europe and the rest of the world has an
equivalent system of codes. Pressure piping is generally pipe that must carry pressures greater than 10
to 25 atmospheres, although definitions vary. To ensure safe operation of the system, the manufacture,
storage, welding, testing, etc. of pressure piping must meet stringent quality standards.
Manufacturing standards for pipes commonly require a test of chemical composition and a series of
mechanical strength tests for each heat of pipe. A heat of pipe is all forged from the same cast ingot,
and therefore had the same chemical composition. Mechanical tests may be associated to a lot of pipe,
which would be all from the same heat and have been through the same heat treatment processes. The
manufacturer performs these tests and reports the composition in a mill traceability report and the
mechanical tests in a material test report, both of which are referred to by the acronym MTR. Material
with these associated test reports is called traceable. For critical applications, third party verification
of these tests may be required; in this case an independent lab will produce a certified material test
report(CMTR), and the material will be called certified.
Some widely used pipe standards or piping classes are:
Main article: Pipefitting
Pipe installation is often more expensive than the material and a variety of specialized tools, techniques,
and parts have been developed to assist this. Pipe is usually delivered to a customer or jobsite as either
"sticks" or lengths of pipe (typically 20 feet (6.1 m), called single random length) or they are
prefabricated with elbows, tees and valves into a prefabricated pipe spool [A pipe spool is a piece of
pre-assembled pipe and fittings, usually prepared in a shop so that installation on the construction site
can be more efficient.]. Typically, pipe smaller than 2 inches (5.1 cm) are not pre-fabricated. The pipe
spools are usually tagged with a bar code and the ends are capped (plastic) for protection. The pipe and
pipe spools are delivered to a warehouse on a large commercial/industrial job and they may be held
indoors or in a gridded laydown yard. The pipe or pipe spool is retrieved, staged, rigged, and then lifted
into place. On large process jobs the lift is made using cranes and hoist and other material lifts. They
are typically temporarily supported in the steel structure using beam clamps, straps, and small hoists
until the pipe supports are attached or otherwise secured.
An example of a tool used for installation for a small plumbing pipe (threaded ends) is the pipe wrench.
Small pipe is typically not heavy and can be lifted into place by the installation craft laborer. However,
during a plant outage or shutdown, the small (small bore) pipe may also be pre-fabricated to expedite
installation during the outage. After the pipe is installed it will be tested for leaks. Before testing it may
need to be cleaned by blowing air or steam or flushing with a liquid.
Pipe supports[edit]
Pipes are usually either supported from below or hung from above (but may also be supported from the
side), using devices called pipe supports. Supports may be as simple as a pipe "shoe" which is akin to
a half of an I-beam welded to the bottom of the pipe; they may be "hung" using a clevis, or
with trapeze type of devices called pipe hangers. Pipe supports of any kind may incorporate springs,
snubbers, dampers, or combinations of these devices to compensate for thermal expansion, or to provide
vibration isolation, shock control, or reduced vibration excitation of the pipe due to earthquake motion.
Some dampers are simply fluid dashpots, but other dampers may be active hydraulic devices that have
sophisticated systems that act to dampen peak displacements due to externally imposed vibrations or
mechanical shocks. The undesired motions may be process derived (such as in a fluidized bed reactor)
or from a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake (design basis event or DBE).
Pipe hanger assembles are usually attached with pipe clamps. Possible exposure to high temperatures
and heavy loads should be included when specifying which clamps are needed.[10]
Joining[edit]
Main article: Piping and plumbing fittings
Pipes are commonly joined by welding, using threaded pipe and fittings; sealing the connection with a
pipe thread compound, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Thread seal tape, oakum, or PTFE string, or by
using a mechanical coupling. Process piping is usually joined by welding using a TIG or MIG process.
The most common process pipe joint is the butt weld. The ends of pipe to be welded must have a certain
weld preparation called an End Weld Prep (EWP) which is typically at an angle of 37.5 degrees to
accommodate the filler weld metal. The most common pipe thread in North America is the National
Pipe Thread (NPT) or the Dryseal (NPTF) version. Other pipe threads include the British standard pipe
thread (BSPT), the garden hose thread (GHT), and the fire hose coupling (NST).
Copper pipes are typically joined by soldering, brazing, compression fittings, flaring,
or crimping. Plastic pipes may be joined by solvent welding, heat fusion, or elastomeric sealing.
If frequent disconnection will be required, gasketed pipe flanges or union fittings provide better
reliability than threads. Some thin-walled pipes of ductile material, such as the smaller copper or flexible
plastic water pipes found in homes for ice makers and humidifiers, for example, may be joined
with compression fittings.
A HDPE ring main that has been joined with an Electrofusion Tee.
Underground pipe typically uses a "push-on" gasket style of pipe that compresses a gasket into a space
formed between the two adjoining pieces. Push-on joints are available on most types of pipe. A pipe
joint lubricant must be used in the assembly of the pipe. Under buried conditions, gasket-joint pipes
allow for lateral movement due to soil shifting as well as expansion/contraction due to temperature
differentials.[11] Plastic MDPE and HDPE gas and water pipes are also often joined
with Electrofusion fittings.
Large above ground pipe typically uses a flanged joint, which is generally available in ductile iron pipe
and some others. It is a gasket style where the flanges of the adjoining pipes are bolted together,
compressing the gasket into a space between the pipe.
Mechanical grooved couplings or Victaulic joints are also frequently used for frequent disassembly and
assembly. Developed in the 1920s, these mechanical grooved couplings can operate up to 120 pounds
per square inch (830 kPa) working pressures and available in materials to match the pipe grade. Another
type of mechanical coupling is a flareless tube fitting (Major brands include Swagelok, Ham-Let,
Parker); this type of compression fitting is typically used on small tubing under 2 inches (51 mm) in
diameter.
When pipes join in chambers where other components are needed for the management of the network
(such as valves or gauges), dismantling joints are generally used, in order to make
mounting/dismounting easier.
Fittings and valves[edit]
Copper pipe fittings

Fittings are also used to split or join a number of pipes together, and for other purposes. A broad variety
of standardized pipe fittings are available; they are generally broken down into either a tee, an elbow, a
branch, a reducer/enlarger, or a wye. Valves control fluid flow and regulate pressure. The piping and
plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss them further.
Cleaning[edit]
Main article: Tube cleaning
The inside of pipes can be cleaned with a tube cleaning process, if they are contaminated
with debris or fouling. This depends on the process that the pipe will be used for and the cleanliness
needed for the process. In some cases the pipes are cleaned using a displacement device formally known
as a Pipeline Inspection Gauge or "pig"; alternately the pipes or tubes may be chemically flushed using
specialized solutions that are pumped through. In some cases, where care has been taken in the
manufacture, storage, and installation of pipe and tubing, the lines are blown clean with compressed air
or nitrogen.
Other uses[edit]
Main article: Hollow structural section
Pipe is widely used in the fabrication of handrails, guardrails, and railings.
Applications[edit]
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Steel pipe[edit]
Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and flammable
gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or propane fuel, and
is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In commercial buildings,
steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat exchangers, air handlers, variable air
volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment.
Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see National Pipe
Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of thread sealing
compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then threaded into a
corresponding threaded fitting using two pipe wrenches. Beyond domestic or light commercial settings,
steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings made by companies such
as Victaulic or Anvil International (formerly Grinnell) that hold the pipe joint together via a groove
pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes.
Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-pressure
situations these are usually joined by TIG welding.
In Canada, with respect to natural gas (NG) and propane (LP gas), black iron pipe (BIP) is commonly
used to connect an appliance to the supply. It must however be marked (either painted yellow or yellow
banding attached at certain intervals) and certain restrictions apply to which nominal pipe size (NPS)
can be put through walls and buildings. With propane in particular, BIP can be run from an exterior
tank (or cylinder) provided it is well protected from the weather, and an anode-type of protection
from corrosion is in place when the pipe is to be installed underground.
Copper pipe[edit]
Main article: Copper tubing
Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line in HVAC
systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing is
joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers a high level of
resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.
Soft copper[edit]
Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the tubing.
While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the copper hard/rigid,
it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to produce than non-
annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used for rigid copper, and it
is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper is the most popular choice
for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat pumps.
Flare connections[edit]
Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using a flare
tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare connections are a labor-
intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of many years.
Rigid copper[edit]
Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or
crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process,
cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and
allowed to slowly cool, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be bent/formed
without cracking.
Soldered connections[edit]
Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. Both the male and female
ends of the pipe or pipe connectors are cleaned thoroughly then coated with flux to make sure there is
no surface oxide and to ensure that the solder will bond properly with the base metal. The joint is then
heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a very
strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular choice for
water supply lines in modern buildings. In situations where many connections must be made at once
(such as plumbing of a new building), solder offers much quicker and much less expensive joinery than
compression or flare fittings. The term sweating is sometimes used to describe the process of soldering
pipes.
Compression connections[edit]
Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring or "ferrule") which is
squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut. The soft metal conforms to the surface
of the tubing and the fitting, and creates a seal. Compression connections do not typically have the long
life that sweat connections offer, but are advantageous in many cases because they are easy to make
using basic tools. A disadvantage in compression connections is that they take longer to make than
sweat, and sometimes require retightening over time to stop leaks.
Crimped or pressed connections[edit]
Crimped or pressed connections use special copper fittings which are permanently attached to rigid
copper tubing with a powered crimper. The special fittings, manufactured with sealant already inside,
slide over the tubing to be connected. Thousands of pounds-force per square inch of pressure are used
to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper tubing, creating a watertight seal.
Advantages of this method are:
 A correctly crimped connection should last as long as the tubing.

 It takes less time to complete than other methods.
 It is cleaner in both appearance and the materials used to make the
connection.
 No open flame is used during the connection process.
Disadvantages are:
 The fittings used are harder to find and cost significantly more than
sweat type fittings.
 The fittings are not re-usable. If a design change is required or if a
joint is found to be defective or improperly crimped, the already
installed fittings must be cut out and discarded. In addition, the
cutting required to remove the fitting often will leave insufficient
tubing to install the new fitting, So couplers and additional tubing
will need to be installed on either side of the replacement fitting.
Whereas with a soldered fitting, a defective joint can just be re-
soldered, or heated and turned if a minor change is required, or
heated and removed without requiring any of the tubing to be cut
away. This also allows more expensive fittings like valves to be re-
used if they are otherwise in good to new condition, something not
possible if the fitting is crimped on.
 The cost of the tooling is very expensive. As of 2016, a basic toolkit
required to sweat solder all the copper pipes of a typical single family
residence, including fuel and solder, can be purchased for
approximately $200. By contrast, the minimum cost of a basic
powered crimping tool starts at around $1800, and can be as high as
$4000 for the better brands with a complete set of crimping dies.
Aluminium pipe[edit]
Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and its ductility.
Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable solvents, since it cannot
create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by flare or compression fittings,
or it can be welded by the TIG or heliarc processes.
Glass pipe[edit]
Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or
laboratory wastes, or pharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using specialized
gasket or O-ring fittings.
Groove (engineering)
In manufacturing or mechanical engineering a groove is a long and narrow indentation built into a
material, generally for the purpose of allowing another material or part to move within the groove and
be guided by it. Examples include:
1. A canal cut in a hard material, usually metal. This canal can be round, oval or an arc in order
to receive another component such as a boss, a tongue or a gasket. It can also be on the
circumference of a dowel, a bolt, an axle or on the outside or inside of a tube or pipe etc. This
canal may receive a circlip an o-ring or a gasket.
2. A depression on the entire circumference of a cast or machined wheel, a pulley or sheave. This
depression may receive a cable, a rope or a belt.
3. A longitudinal channel formed in a hot rolled rail profile such as a grooved rail. This groove is
for the flange on a train wheel.
Bearing (mechanical)
Ball bearing
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative movement to the desired motion and
reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for
free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a
motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings
facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly according to the
type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.
Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, and
transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure supporting it. The simplest
form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is used to reduce
friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers
or balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly.
A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for
maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing being a machine element that allows
one part to support another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with
varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings
are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the
most demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest
standards of current technology.
History
Tapered roller bearing
Drawing of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Study of a ball bearing

The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing, an object
being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention of the wheel.
Though it is often claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form of tree trunks under
sleds,[2] this is modern speculation.[3] They are depicted in their own drawings in the tomb
of Djehutihotep [4] as moving massive stone blocks on sledges with liquid-lubricated runners which
would constitute a plain bearing. There are also Egyptian drawings of bearings used with hand drills.[5]
The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a wooden ball bearing supporting a
rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake Nemi, Italy. The wrecks were dated
to 40 BC.[6][7]
Leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter around the year
1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design. However, Agostino Ramelli is
the first to have published sketches of roller and thrust bearings.[2] An issue with ball and roller bearings
is that the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be reduced by
enclosing the balls or rollers within a cage. The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described
by Galileo in the 17th century.[citation needed]
The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in the mid-1740s by horologist John Harrison for
his H3 marine timekeeper. This uses the bearing for a very limited oscillating motion but Harrison also
used a similar bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporaneous regulator clock.[citation needed]
Industrial era[edit]
The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan, a British inventor
and ironmaster who created the first design for a ball bearing in Carmarthen in 1794. His was the first
modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly.[8]
Bearings have played a pivotal role in the nascent Industrial Revolution, allowing the new industrial
machinery to operate efficiently. For example, they saw use for holding wheel and axle to greatly reduce
friction over that of dragging an object by making the friction act over a shorter distance as the wheel
turned.
The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed by bronze. Over their history
bearings have been made of many materials including ceramic, sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other
metals and plastic (e.g., nylon, polyoxymethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and UHMWPE) which are
all used today.
Watch makers produce "jeweled" watches using sapphire plain bearings to reduce friction thus allowing
more precise time keeping.
Even basic materials can have good durability. As examples, wooden bearings can still be seen today
in old clocks or in water mills where the water provides cooling and lubrication.
Early Timken tapered roller bearing with notched rollers

The first patent for a radial style ball bearing was awarded to Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic,
on 3 August 1869. The bearings were then fitted to the winning bicycle ridden by James Moore in the
world's first bicycle road race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869.[9]
In 1883, Friedrich Fischer, founder of FAG, developed an approach for milling and grinding balls of
equal size and exact roundness by means of a suitable production machine and formed the foundation
for creation of an independent bearing industry.
Wingquist original patent of self-aligning ball bearing

The modern, self-aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to Sven Wingquist of the SKF ball-
bearing manufacturer in 1907, when he was awarded Swedish patent No. 25406 on its design.
Henry Timken, a 19th-century visionary and innovator in carriage manufacturing, patented the tapered
roller bearing in 1898. The following year he formed a company to produce his innovation. Over a
century the company grew to make bearings of all types, including specialty steel and an array of related
products and services.
Erich Franke invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934. His focus was on a bearing design
with a cross section as small as possible and which could be integrated into the enclosing design. After
World War II he founded together with Gerhard Heydrich the company Franke & Heydrich KG (today
Franke GmbH) to push the development and production of wire race bearings.
Richard Stribeck’s extensive research [10][11] on ball bearing steels identified the metallurgy of the
commonly used 100Cr6 (AISI 52100) [12] showing coefficient of friction as a function of pressure.
Designed in 1968 and later patented in 1972, Bishop-Wisecarver's co-founder Bud Wisecarver created
vee groove bearing guide wheels, a type of linear motion bearing consisting of both an external and
internal 90-degree vee angle.[13][better source needed]
In the early 1980s, Pacific Bearing's founder, Robert Schroeder, invented the first bi-material plain
bearing which was size interchangeable with linear ball bearings. This bearing had a metal shell
(aluminum, steel or stainless steel) and a layer of Teflon-based material connected by a thin adhesive
layer.[14]
Today ball and roller bearings are used in many applications which include a rotating component.
Examples include ultra high speed bearings in dental drills, aerospace bearings in the Mars Rover,
gearbox and wheel bearings on automobiles, flexure bearings in optical alignment systems, bicycle
wheel hubs, and air bearings used in Coordinate-measuring machines.
Common[edit]
By far, the most common bearing is the plain bearing, a bearing which uses surfaces in rubbing contact,
often with a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A plain bearing may or may not be a discrete device. It
may be nothing more than the bearing surface of a hole with a shaft passing through it, or of a planar
surface that bears another (in these cases, not a discrete device); or it may be a layer of bearing
metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete) or in the form of a separable sleeve (discrete). With
suitable lubrication, plain bearings often give entirely acceptable accuracy, life, and friction at minimal
cost. Therefore, they are very widely used.
However, there are many applications where a more suitable bearing can improve efficiency, accuracy,
service intervals, reliability, speed of operation, size, weight, and costs of purchasing and operating
machinery.
Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, lubrication, principle of operation,
and so on.
Types[edit]
Animation of ball bearing (Ideal figure without a cage). The inner ring rotates and the outer ring is
stationary.
There are at least 6 common types of bearing, each of which operates on different principles:
 Plain bearing, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole. There are

several specific styles: bushing, journal bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle
bearing, composite bearing;
 Rolling-element bearing, in which rolling elements placed between
the turning and stationary races prevent sliding friction. There are
two main types:
o Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls;
o Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements are
cylindrical,taper and spherical rollers;
 Jewel bearing, a plain bearing in which one of the bearing surfaces
is made of an ultrahard glassy jewel material such as sapphire to
reduce friction and wear;
 Fluid bearing, a noncontact bearing in which the load is supported by
a gas or liquid (i.e. air bearing);
 Magnetic bearing, in which the load is supported by a magnetic field;
 Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported by a load element
which bends.
Motions[edit]
Common motions permitted by bearings are:
 Radial rotation e.g. shaft rotation;

 linear motion e.g. drawer;
 spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint;
 hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee.
Friction[edit]
Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to facilitate extended
use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing
can reduce friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid
between surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field.
 By shape: gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by

forming flexure bearings.
 By material: exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An
example would be using plastics that have low surface friction.)
 By fluid: exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a
lubricant or as a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from
touching, or by reducing the normal force between them.
 By fields: exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to
keep solid parts from touching.
 Air pressure: exploits air pressure to keep solid parts from touching.
Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An example of this is where the
cage is made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which reduce friction by their shape and finish.
Loads[edit]
Bearing design varies depending on the size and directions of the forces that they are required to support.
Forces can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings), or bending moments perpendicular to the
main axis.
Speeds[edit]
Different bearing types have different operating speed limits. Speed is typically specified as maximum
relative surface speeds, often specified ft/s or m/s. Rotational bearings typically describe performance
in terms of the product DN where D is the mean diameter (often in mm) of the bearing and N is the
rotation rate in revolutions per minute.
Generally there is considerable speed range overlap between bearing types. Plain bearings typically
handle only lower speeds, rolling element bearings are faster, followed by fluid bearings and finally
magnetic bearings which are limited ultimately by centripetal force overcoming material strength.
Play[edit]
Some applications apply bearing loads from varying directions and accept only limited play or "slop"
as the applied load changes. One source of motion is gaps or "play" in the bearing. For example, a
10 mm shaft in a 12 mm hole has 2 mm play.
Allowable play varies greatly depending on the use. As example, a wheelbarrow wheel supports radial
and axial loads. Axial loads may be hundreds of newtons force left or right, and it is typically acceptable
for the wheel to wobble by as much as 10 mm under the varying load. In contrast, a lathe may position
a cutting tool to ±0.002 mm using a ball lead screw held by rotating bearings. The bearings support
axial loads of thousands of newtons in either direction, and must hold the ball lead screw to ±0.002 mm
across that range of loads
Stiffness[edit]
A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing itself. For example, the balls in a ball bearing are
like stiff rubber, and under load deform from round to a slightly flattened shape. The race is also elastic
and develops a slight dent where the ball presses on it.
The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between the parts which are separated by the bearing
varies with applied load. With rolling element bearings this is due to the strain of the ball and race. With
fluid bearings it is due to how the pressure of the fluid varies with the gap (when correctly loaded, fluid
bearings are typically stiffer than rolling element bearings).
Service life[edit]
Fluid and magnetic bearings
Main articles: Fluid bearing and Magnetic bearing
Fluid and magnetic bearings can have practically indefinite service lives. In practice, there are fluid
bearings supporting high loads in hydroelectric plants that have been in nearly continuous service since
about 1900 and which show no signs of wear.[citation needed]
Rolling element bearings
Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature, maintenance, lubrication, material
defects, contamination, handling, installation and other factors. These factors can all have a significant
effect on bearing life. For example, the service life of bearings in one application was extended
dramatically by changing how the bearings were stored before installation and use, as vibrations during
storage caused lubricant failure even when the only load on the bearing was its own weight; [15] the
resulting damage is often false brinelling.[16] Bearing life is statistical: several samples of a given
bearing will often exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a few samples showing significantly better
or worse life. Bearing life varies because microscopic structure and contamination vary greatly even
where macroscopically they seem identical.
L10 life[edit]
Bearings are often specified to give an "L10" life (outside the USA, it may be referred to as "B10" life.)
This is the life at which ten percent of the bearings in that application can be expected to have failed
due to classical fatigue failure (and not any other mode of failure like lubrication starvation, wrong
mounting etc.), or, alternatively, the life at which ninety percent will still be operating.The L10 life of
the bearing is theoretical life and may not represent service life of the bearing. Bearings are also rated
using C0 (static loading) value. This is the basic load rating as a reference, and not an actual load value.
Plain bearings[edit]
For plain bearings, some materials give much longer life than others. Some of the John Harrison clocks
still operate after hundreds of years because of the lignum vitae wood employed in their construction,
whereas his metal clocks are seldom run due to potential wear.
Flexure bearings[edit]
Flexure bearings rely on elastic properties of material.Flexure bearings bend a piece of material
repeatedly. Some materials fail after repeated bending, even at low loads, but careful material selection
and bearing design can make flexure bearing life indefinite.
Short-life bearings[edit]
Although long bearing life is often desirable, it is sometimes not necessary. Harris 2001 describes a
bearing for a rocket motor oxygen pump that gave several hours life, far in excess of the several tens of
minutes life needed.[15]
Composite bearings[edit]
Depending on the customized specifications (backing material and PTFE compounds), composite
bearings can operate up to 30 years without maintenance.
Oscillating bearings[edit]
For bearings which are used in oscillating applications, customized approaches to calculate L10 are
used.[17]
External factors[edit]
The service life of the bearing is affected by many parameters that are not controlled by the bearing
manufacturers. For example, bearing mounting, temperature, exposure to external environment,
lubricant cleanliness and electrical currents through bearings etc. High frequency PWM inverters can
induce currents in a bearing, which can be suppressed by use of ferrite chokes.
The temperature and terrain of the micro-surface will determine the amount of friction by the touching
of solid parts.
Certain elements and fields reduce friction, while increasing speeds.
Strength and mobility help determine the amount of load the bearing type can carry.
Alignment factors can play a damaging role in wear and tear, yet overcome by computer aid signaling
and non-rubbing bearing types, such as magnetic levitation or air field pressure.
Maintenance and lubrication[edit]

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, but many others require little
maintenance. The latter include various kinds of fluid and magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element
bearings that are described with terms including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These
contain seals to keep the dirt out and the grease in. They work successfully in many applications,
providing maintenance-free operation. Some applications cannot use them effectively.
Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a grease gun, or an oil cup
for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed bearings were not encountered on most machinery,
and oiling and greasing were a more common activity than they are today. For example, automotive
chassis used to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as engine oil changes, but today's car chassis are
mostly sealed for life. From the late 1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied on many workers
called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans.
Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central pump serves periodic charges of
oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the various lube points in the machine's bearing
surfaces, bearing journals, pillow blocks, and so on. The timing and number of such lube cycles is
controlled by the machine's computerized control, such as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual override
functions when occasionally needed. This automated process is how all modern CNC machine tools and
many other modern factory machines are lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on
nonautomated machines, in which case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to
pump once daily (for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are called one-shot systems from
their chief selling point: one pull on one handle to lube the whole machine, instead of a dozen pumps
of an alemite gun or oil can in a dozen different positions around the machine.
The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck engine is similar in concept to the lube systems
mentioned above, except that oil is pumped continuously. Much of this oil flows through passages
drilled or cast into the engine block and cylinder heads, escaping through ports directly onto bearings,
and squirting elsewhere to provide an oil bath. The oil pump simply pumps constantly, and any excess
pumped oil continuously escapes through a relief valve back into the sump.
Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need periodic lubrication and cleaning, and many
require occasional adjustment, such as pre-load adjustment, to minimise the effects of wear.
Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well lubricated. However, many
applications make good maintenance difficult. For example, bearings in the conveyor of a rock
crusher are exposed continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of little use, because cleaning is
expensive yet the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a
good maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but not include any disassembly for
cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature, provides a limited kind of cleaning action, by
displacing older (grit-filled) oil or grease with a fresh charge, which itself collects grit before being
displaced by the next cycle.
Rolling-element bearing outer race fault detection[edit]
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to remove this template message)
Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries today, and hence maintenance of these
bearings becomes an important task for the maintenance professionals. The rolling-element bearings
wear out easily due to metal-to-metal contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner race and ball.
It is also the most vulnerable component of a machine because it is often under high load and high
running speed conditions. Regular diagnostics of rolling-element bearing faults is critical for industrial
safety and operations of the machines along with reducing the maintenance costs or avoiding shutdown
time. Among the outer race, inner race and ball, the outer race tends to be more vulnerable to faults and
defects.
There is still room for discussion as to whether the rolling element excites the natural frequencies of
bearing component when it passes the fault on the outer race. Hence we need to identify the bearing
outer race natural frequency and its harmonics. The bearing faults create impulses and results in strong
harmonics of the fault frequencies in the spectrum of vibration signals. These fault frequencies are
sometimes masked by adjacent frequencies in the spectra due to their little energy. Hence, a very high
spectral resolution is often needed to identify these frequencies during a FFT analysis. The natural
frequencies of a rolling element bearing with the free boundary conditions are 3 kHz. Therefore, in
order to use the bearing component resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault at an initial
stage a high frequency range accelerometer should be adopted, and data obtained from a long duration
needs to be acquired. A fault characteristic frequency can only be identified when the fault extent is
severe, such as that of a presence of a hole in the outer race. The harmonics of fault frequency is a more
sensitive indicator of a bearing outer race fault. For a more serious detection of defected bearing
faults waveform, spectrum and envelope techniques will help reveal these faults. However, if a high
frequency demodulation is used in the envelope analysis in order to detect bearing fault characteristic
frequencies, the maintenance professionals have to be more careful in the analysis because of resonance,
as it may or may not contain fault frequency components.
Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the bearings faces challenges due to issues like
low energy, signal smearing, cyclostationarity etc. High resolution is often desired to differentiate the
fault frequency components from the other high-amplitude adjacent frequencies. Hence, when the signal
is sampled for FFT analysis, the sample length should be large enough to give adequate frequency
resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the computation time and memory within limits and avoiding
unwanted aliasing may be demanding. However, a minimal frequency resolution required can be
obtained by estimating the bearing fault frequencies and other vibration frequency components and its
harmonics due to shaft speed, misalignment, line frequency, gearbox etc.
Packing[edit]
Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the gaps between the bearing
surfaces, also known as packing. The grease is held in place by a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also
called a gland) that covers the inside and outside edges of the bearing race to keep the grease from
escaping.
Bearings may also be packed with other materials. Historically, the wheels on railroad cars used sleeve
bearings packed with waste or loose scraps of cotton or wool fiber soaked in oil, then later used solid
pads of cotton.[18]
Ring oiler[edit]
Further information: Ring oiler
Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the central rotating shaft of the bearing.
The ring hangs down into a chamber containing lubricating oil. As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion
draws oil up the ring and onto the shaft, where the oil migrates into the bearing to lubricate it. Excess
oil is flung off and collects in the pool again.[19]
Splash lubrication[edit]
Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears partially immersed in the liquid,
or crank rods that can swing down into the pool as the device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil
into the air around them, while the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the
interior surfaces of the engine. Some small internal combustion engines specifically contain special
plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil around the interior of the mechanism.[20]
Pressure lubrication[edit]
For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in rapid bearing heating and
damage due to friction. Also in dirty environments the oil can become contaminated with dust or debris
that increases friction. In these applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be continuously supplied to
the bearing and all other contact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for filtration, cooling, and
possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly used in large and complex internal combustion engines in
parts of the engine where directly splashed oil cannot reach, such as up into overhead valve
assemblies.[21] High speed turbochargers also typically require a pressurized oil system to cool the
bearings and keep them from burning up due to the heat from the turbine.
Composite bearings[edit]
Composite bearings are designed with a self-lubricating polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) liner with a
laminated metal backing. The PTFE liner offers consistent, controlled friction as well as durability
whilst the metal backing ensures the composite bearing is robust and capable of withstanding high loads
and stresses throughout its long life. Its design also makes it lightweight-one tenth the weight of a
traditional rolling element bearing.[22]
Types[edit]
There are many different types of bearings. Newer versions of more enabling designs are in
development being tested, in which will reduce friction, increase bearing load, increase momentum
build-up, and speed.
Stiffne
Type Description Friction Speed Life Notes
ss†
Depends
on
materials Widely used,
and Good, relatively high
Rubbing surfaces, constructi provide friction, suffers
usually with on, PTFE d wear from stiction in
lubricant; some has is low, Low to very some
Low to
Plain bearings use coefficien but high - depends applications.
very
bearing pumped t of some upon application Depending upon
high
lubrication and friction slack is and lubrication the application,
behave similarly ~0.05- normall lifetime can be
to fluid bearings. 0.35, y higher or lower
dependin present than rolling
g upon element bearings.
fillers
added
Rolling Moder Moderate to Used for higher

Rolling Ball or rollers are coefficien Good, ate to high (depends moment loads
element used to prevent or t of but high on lubrication, than plain
bearing minimise rubbing friction some (often often requires bearings with
with steel slack is require maintenance) lower friction
can be s
~0.005 usually coolin
(adding present g)
resistance
due to
seals,
packed
grease,
preload
and
misalign
ment can
increase
friction to
as much
as 0.125)
Mainly used in
low-load, high
Low Adequate precision work
Jewel Off-center bearing
Low due to Low (requires such as clocks.
bearing rolls in seating
flexing maintenance) Jewel bearings
may be very
small.
Very
high
(usuall Can fail quickly
Virtually
y due to grit or dust
infinite in some
Zero limited or other
Fluid is forced applications,
friction at to a contaminants.
Fluid between two faces Very may wear at
zero few Maintenance free
bearing and held in by high startup/shutdow
speed, hundre in continuous
edge seal n in some cases.
low d feet use. Can handle
Often negligible
per very large loads
maintenance.
second with low friction.
at/by
seal)
Zero
friction at Active magnetic
zero bearings (AMB)
Faces of bearing speed, but Indefinite. need
Magnet are kept separate constant No Maintenance considerable
ic by magnets power for Low practic free. power. Electrody
bearing (electromagnets o levitation, al limit (with electroma namic
r eddy currents) eddy gnets) bearings (EDB)
currents do not require
are often external power.
induced
when
movemen
t occurs,
but may
be
negligible
if
magnetic
field is
quasi-
static
Very high or
low depending
Limited range of
on materials and
Material flexes to movement, no
Flexure Very strain in
give and constrain Very low Low backlash,
bearing high. application.
movement extremely
Usually
smooth motion
maintenance
free.
Plain bearing PTFE and

shape with PTFE use of Good
liner on the filters to dependi Very high; Widely used,
Compo interface between dial in ng on Low to PTFE and fillers controls friction,
site bearing and shaft friction as laminat very ensure wear and reduces stick slip,
bearing with a laminated necessary ed high corrosion PTFE reduces
metal backing. for metal resistance static friction
PTFE acts as a friction backing
lubricant. control.
†
Stiffness is the amount that the gap varies when the load on the bearing changes, it is distinct from
the friction of the bearing.
 中文How Bearings Works
Types of Bearings
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Cutaway view of a ball bearing
PHOTO COURTESY THE TIMKEN COMPANY
There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes. These include ball bearings, roller
bearings, ball thrust bearings, roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.
Ball Bearings
Ball bearings, as shown below, are probably the most common type of bearing. They are found in
everything from inline skates to hard drives. These bearings can handle both radial and thrust loads, and
are usually found in applications where the load is relatively small.
In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball, and from the ball to the inner
race. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer race at a very small point, which
helps it spin very smoothly. But it also means that there is not very much contact area holding that load,
so if the bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform or squish, ruining the bearing.
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings like the one illustrated below are used in applications like conveyer belt rollers, where
they must hold heavy radial loads. In these bearings, the roller is a cylinder, so the contact between the
inner and outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads the load out over a larger area, allowing the
bearing to handle much greater loads than a ball bearing. However, this type of bearing is not designed
to handle much thrust loading.
A variation of this type of bearing, called a needle bearing, uses cylinders with a very small diameter.
This allows the bearing to fit into tight places.
Cutaway view of a roller bearing
Ball Thrust Bearing
Ball thrust bearings like the one shown below are mostly used for low-speed applications and cannot
handle much radial load. Barstools and Lazy Susan turntables use this type of bearing.
Ball thrust bearing

Roller Thrust Bearing
Roller thrust bearings like the one illustrated below can support large thrust loads. They are often
found in gearsets like car transmissions between gears, and between the housing and the rotating shafts.
The helical gears used in most transmissions have angled teeth -- this causes a thrust load that must be
supported by a bearing.
Roller thrust bearing

Tapered Roller Bearings
Tapered roller bearings can support large radial and large thrust loads.
Tapered roller bearings are used in car hubs, where they are usually mounted in pairs facing opposite
directions so that they can handle thrust in both directions.
Wire rope
Wire rope is several strands of metal wire twisted into a helix forming a composite "rope", in a pattern
known as "laid rope". Larger diameter wire rope consists of multiple strands of such laid rope in a
pattern known as "cable laid".
In stricter senses, the term "wire rope" refers to a diameter larger than 3/8 inch (9.52 mm), with smaller
gauges designated cable or cords.[1] Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main
material used for wire ropes.
Historically, wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of mechanical failure.
While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, flaws in the wires making
up a steel cable are less critical as the other wires easily take up the load. While friction between the
individual wires and strands causes wear over the life of the rope, it also helps to compensate for minor
failures in the short run.
Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s. Wire ropes are used
dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for transmission of mechanical power.
Wire rope is also used to transmit force in mechanisms, such as a Bowden cable or the control
surfaces of an airplane connected to levers and pedals in the cockpit. Only aircraft cables have WSC
(wire strand core). Also, aircraft cables are available in smaller diameters than wire rope. For example,
aircraft cables are available in 3/64 in. diameter while most wire ropes begin at a 1/4 in.
diameter.[2] Static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or as guy
wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move cargo overhead.
Construction[edit]
Wires[edit]
Steel wires for wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to
0.95%. The very high strength of the rope wires enables wire ropes to support large tensile forces and
to run over sheaves with relatively small diameters.
Strands[edit]
In the so-called cross lay strands, the wires of the different layers cross each other. In the mostly used
parallel lay strands, the lay length of all the wire layers is equal and the wires of any two superimposed
layers are parallel, resulting in linear contact. The wire of the outer layer is supported by two wires of
the inner layer. These wires are neighbours along the whole length of the strand. Parallel lay strands are
made in one operation. The endurance of wire ropes with this kind of strand is always much greater
than of those (seldom used) with cross lay strands. Parallel lay strands with two wire layers have the
construction Filler, Seale or Warrington.
Spiral ropes[edit]
In principle, spiral ropes are round strands as they have an assembly of layers of wires laid helically
over a centre with at least one layer of wires being laid in the opposite direction to that of the outer
layer. Spiral ropes can be dimensioned in such a way that they are non-rotating which means that under
tension the rope torque is nearly zero. The open spiral rope consists only of round wires. The half-
locked coil rope and the full-locked coil rope always have a centre made of round wires. The locked
coil ropes have one or more outer layers of profile wires. They have the advantage that their construction
prevents the penetration of dirt and water to a greater extent and it also protects them from loss of
lubricant. In addition, they have one further very important advantage as the ends of a broken outer wire
cannot leave the rope if it has the proper dimensions.
Stranded ropes[edit]
Left-hand ordinary lay (LHOL) wire rope (close-up). Right-hand lay strands are laid into a left-hand
lay rope.
Right-hand lang lay (RHLL) wire rope (close-up). Right-hand lay strands are laid into a right-hand lay
rope.
Stranded ropes are an assembly of several strands laid helically in one or more layers around a core.
This core can be one of three types. The first is a fiber core, made up of synthetic material or natural
fibers like sisal. Synthetic fibers are stronger and more uniform but cannot absorb much lubricant.
Natural fibers can absorb up to 15% of their weight in lubricant and so protect the inner wires much
better from corrosion than synthetic fibers do. Fiber cores are the most flexible and elastic, but have the
downside of getting crushed easily. The second type, wire strand core, is made up of one additional
strand of wire, and is typically used for suspension. The third type is independent wire rope core
(IWRC), which is the most durable in all types of environments.[13] Most types of stranded ropes only
have one strand layer over the core (fibre core or steel core). The lay direction of the strands in the rope
can be right (symbol Z) or left (symbol S) and the lay direction of the wires can be right (symbol z) or
left (symbol s). This kind of rope is called ordinary lay rope if the lay direction of the wires in the
outer strands is in the opposite direction to the lay of the outer strands themselves. If both the wires in
the outer strands and the outer strands themselves have the same lay direction, the rope is called a lang
lay rope (from Dutch langslag contrary to kruisslag,[14] formerly Albert’s lay or langs lay). Regular
lay means the individual wires were wrapped around the centers in one direction and the strands were
wrapped around the core in the opposite direction.[2]
Multi-strand ropes are all more or less resistant to rotation and have at least two layers of strands laid
helically around a centre. The direction of the outer strands is opposite to that of the underlying strand
layers. Ropes with three strand layers can be nearly non-rotating. Ropes with two strand layers are
mostly only low-rotating.[15]
Rope drive[edit]
There are technical regulations for the rope drives of cranes, elevators, rope ways and mining
installations not exceeding a given tensile force and not falling short of a given diameter ratio D/d of
sheave and rope diameters. A general dimensioning method of rope drives (and used besides the
technical regulations) calculate the five limits [17]
 Working cycles up to rope discarding or breakage (mean or 10%

limit) - Requirement of the user
 Donandt force (yielding tensile force for a given bending diameter
ratio D/d) - strict limit. The nominal rope tensile force S must be
smaller than the Donandt force SD1.
 Rope safety factor = minimum breaking force Fmin / nominal rope
tensile force S. (ability to resist extreme impact forces) - Fmin/S ≥
2,5 for simple lifting appliance
 Discarding number of wire breaks (detection to need rope
replacement) Minimum number of wire breaks on a reference rope
length of 30d should be BA30 ≥ 8 for lifting appliance
 Optimal rope diameter with the max. rope endurance for a given
sheave diameter D and tensile rope force S - For economic reasons
the rope diameter should be near to but smaller than the optimal rope
diameter d ≤ dopt.
The calculation of the rope drive limits depends on:
 Data of the used wire rope

 Rope tensile force S
 Diameter D of sheave and/or drum
 Simple bendings per working cycle w-sim
 Reverse bendings per working cycle w-rev
 Combined fluctuating tension and bending per working cycle w-com
 Relative fluctuating tensile force deltaS/S
 Rope bending length l
Safety
The wire ropes are stressed by fluctuating forces, by wear, by corrosion and in seldom cases by extreme
forces. The rope life is finite and the safety is only ensured by inspection for the detection of wire breaks
on a reference rope length, of cross-section loss, as well as other failures so that the wire rope can be
replaced before a dangerous situation occurs. Installations should be designed to facilitate the inspection
of the wire ropes.
Lifting installations for passenger transportation require that a combination of several methods should
be used to prevent a car from plunging downwards. Elevators must have redundant bearing ropes and a
safety gear. Ropeways and mine hoistings must be permanently supervised by a responsible manager
and the rope must be inspected by a magnetic method capable of detecting inner wire breaks.
Terminations
Right-hand ordinary lay (RHOL) wire rope terminated in a loop with a thimble and ferrule
The end of a wire rope tends to fray readily, and cannot be easily connected to plant and equipment.
There are different ways of securing the ends of wire ropes to prevent fraying. The most common and
useful type of end fitting for a wire rope is to turn the end back to form a loop. The loose end is then
fixed back on the wire rope.
Wire rope clamps/clips[edit]
Rusty steel wire rope clamp

A wire rope clamp, also called a clip, is used to fix the loose end of the loop back to the wire rope. It
usually consists of a U-shaped bolt, a forged saddle, and two nuts. The two layers of wire rope are
placed in the U-bolt. The saddle is then fitted over the ropes on to the bolt (the saddle includes two
holes to fit to the u-bolt). The nuts secure the arrangement in place. Three or more clamps are usually
used to terminate a wire rope. As many as eight may be needed for a 2 in (50.8 mm) diameter rope.
There is an old adage; be sure not to "saddle a dead horse". This means that when installing clamps, the
saddle portion of the clamp assembly is placed on the load-bearing or "live" side, not on the non-load-
bearing or "dead" side of the cable. According to the US Navy Manual S9086-UU-STM-010, Chapter
613R3, Wire and Fiber rope and Rigging, "This is to protect the live or stress-bearing end of the rope
against crushing and abuse. The flat bearing seat and extended prongs of the body (saddle) are designed
to protect the rope and are always placed against the live end."[18]
The US Navy and most regulatory bodies do not recommend the use of such clips as permanent
terminations.
Eye splice or Flemish eye[edit]
The ends of individual strands of this eye splice used aboard a cargo ship are served with natural fiber
cord after the splicing is complete. This helps protect seaman's hands when handling.
An eye splice may be used to terminate the loose end of a wire rope when forming a loop. The strands
of the end of a wire rope are unwound a certain distance. The wire is then bent around so that the end
of the unwrapped length forms an eye and the unwrapped strands are then plaited back into the wire
rope, forming the loop, or an eye, called an eye splice.
1. ^ Liftiting
A lifting hook is a device for grabbing and lifting loads by means of a device such as a hoist or crane.
A lifting hook is usually equipped with a safety latch to prevent the disengagement of the lifting wire
rope sling, chain or rope to which the load is attached.
A hook may have one or more built-in pulley sheaves as a block and tackle to multiply the lifting force.
Lifting hook attached to sheave suspended by wire rope from boom of crane
 working load limit
safe Working Load (SWL) sometimes stated as the Normal Working Load (NWL) is the maximum
safe force that a piece of lifting equipment, lifting device or accessory can exert to lift, suspend, or
lower, a given mass without fear of breaking. Usually marked on the equipment by the manufacturer.
It is a calculation of the Minimum Breaking Strength (MBS) aka Minimum Breaking Load
(MBL) divided by its risk factor, usually ten to one (10:1 or 1/10) for lifting equipment although
depending on the application, other fractions may be used such as 1/4, 1/5 and 1/6.
Other synonyms include Working Load Limit (WLL), which is the maximum working load designed
by the manufacturer. This load represents a force that is much less than that required to make the lifting
equipment fail or yield, also known as the SWL the WLL is calculated by dividing MBL by a safety
factor (SF). An example of this would be a chain that has a MBL of 2000 lbf (8.89 kN) would have
a SWL or WLL of 400 lbf (1.78 kN) if a safety factor of 5 (5:1, 5 to 1, or 1/5) is used.
As such:
WLL = MBL / SF
Minimum Breaking Strength
Minimum Breaking Strength, also known as Minimum Breaking Force, ultimate load, or tensile
strength, is the minimum force at which the chain, rope or webbing during manufacture has been found
by testing to break when a constantly increasing force is applied in direct tension. Breaking
strength(force) values are not guarantees that all chain segments will endure these loads(see proof test).
This breaking strength test is a manufacturer's attribute acceptance test and shall not be used as criteria
for service and design purpose, in real applications the design factors and use conditions has to be
determined by experienced engineers. As an example, a grade 70 transport chain has design factor of
4:1, while the design factor of polyester webbing is 3:1.
Factor of safety
Safety factor ()In engineering, a factor of safety (FoS), also known as (and used interchangeably
with) safety factor (SF), expresses how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an intended
load. Safety factors are often calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is
impractical on many projects, such as bridges and buildings, but the structure's ability to carry a load
must be determined to a reasonable accuracy.
Many systems are intentionally built much stronger than needed for normal usage to allow for
emergency situations, unexpected loads, misuse, or degradation (reliability).
Definition
There are two definitions for the factor of safety (FoS):
1. The ratio of a structure's absolute strength (structural capability)

to actual applied load; this is a measure of the reliability of a
particular design. This a calculated value, and is sometimes
referred to, for the sake of clarity, as a realized factor of safety.
2. A constant required value, imposed
by law, standard, specification, contract or custom, to which a
structure must conform or exceed. This can be referred to as
a design factor, design factor of safety or required factor of
safety.
The realized factor of safety must be greater than the required design factor of safety. However, between
various industries and engineering groups usage is inconsistent and confusing; it is important to be
aware of which definition(s) are being used. The cause of much confusion is that various reference
books and standards agencies use the factor of safety definitions and terms differently. Design codes
and structural and mechanical engineering textbooks often use "Factor of Safety" to mean the fraction
of total structural capability over that needed and are realized factor of safety[1][2][3] (first use). Many
undergraduate Strength of Materials books use "Factor of Safety" as a constant value intended as a
minimum target for design[4][5][6] (second use).
Calculation[edit]
There are several ways to compare the factor of safety for structures. All the different calculations
fundamentally measure the same thing: how much extra load beyond what is intended a structure will
actually take (or be required to withstand). The difference between the methods is the way in which the
values are calculated and compared. Safety factor values can be thought of as a standardized way for
comparing strength and reliability between systems.
The use of a factor of safety does not imply that an item, structure, or design is "safe". Many quality
assurance, engineering design, manufacturing, installation, and end-use factors may influence whether
or not something is safe in any particular situation.
Design factor and safety factor[edit]
The difference between the safety factor and design factor (design safety factor) is as follows: The
safety factor, or yield stress, is how much the designed part actually will be able to withstand (first "use"
from above). The design factor, or working stress, is what the item is required to be able to withstand
(second "use"). The design factor is defined for an application (generally provided in advance and often
set by regulatory building codes or policy) and is not an actual calculation, the safety factor is a ratio of
maximum strength to intended load for the actual item that was designed.
 Design load being the maximum load the part should ever see in
service.
By this definition, a structure with a FOS of exactly 1 will support
only the design load and no more. Any additional load will cause the
structure to fail. A structure with a FOS of 2 will fail at twice the
design load.
Margin of safety[edit]
Many government agencies and industries (such as aerospace)
require the use of a margin of safety (MoS or M.S.) to describe the
ratio of the strength of the structure to the requirements. There are
two separate definitions for the margin of safety so care is needed to
determine which is being used for a given application. One usage of
M.S. is as a measure of capability like FoS. The other usage of M.S.
is as a measure of satisfying design requirements (requirement
verification). Margin of safety can be conceptualized (along with the
reserve factor explained below) to represent how much of the
structure's total capability is held "in reserve" during loading.
M.S. as a measure of structural capability: This definition of margin
of safety commonly seen in textbooks[7][8] basically says that if the
part is loaded to the maximum load it should ever see in service, how
many more loads of the same force can it withstand before failing. In
effect, this is a measure of excess capability. If the margin is 0, the
part will not take any additional load before it fails, if it is negative
the part will fail before reaching its design load in service. If the
margin is 1, it can withstand one additional load of equal force to the
maximum load it was designed to support (i.e. twice the design load).
M.S. as a measure of requirement verification: Many

agencies and organizations such
as NASA[9] and AIAA[10] define the margin of safety
including the design factor, in other words, the margin of
safety is calculated after applying the design factor. In the
case of a margin of 0, the part is at exactly
the required strength (the safety factor would equal the
design factor). If there is a part with a required design factor
of 3 and a margin of 1, the part would have a safety factor
of 6 (capable of supporting two loads equal to its design
factor of 3, supporting six times the design load before
failure). A margin of 0 would mean the part would pass with
a safety factor of 3. If the margin is less than 0 in this
definition, although the part will not necessarily fail, the
design requirement has not been met. A convenience of this
usage is that for all applications, a margin of 0 or higher is
passing, one does not need to know application details or
compare against requirements, just glancing at the margin
calculation tells whether the design passes or not. This is
helpful for oversight and reviewing on projects with various
integrated components, as different components may have
various design factors involved and the margin calculation
helps prevent confusion.
Design Safety Factor = [Provided as requirement]
For a successful design, the Realized Safety Factor

must always equal or exceed the Design Safety
Factor so the Margin of Safety is greater than or
equal to zero. The Margin of Safety is sometimes,
but infrequently, used as a percentage, i.e., a 0.50
M.S is equivalent to a 50% M.S. When a design
satisfies this test it is said to have a "positive
margin," and, conversely, a “negative margin”
when it does not.
In the field of Nuclear Safety (as implemented at
U.S. government owned facilities) the Margin of
Safety has been defined as a quantity that may not
be reduced without review by the controlling
government office. The U.S. Department of Energy
publishes DOE G 424.1-1, "Implementation Guide
for Use in Addressing Unreviewed Safety Question
Requirements" as a guide for determining how to
identify and determine whether a margin of safety
will be reduced by a proposed change. The guide
develops and applies the concept of a qualitative
margin of safety that may not be explicit or
quantifiable, yet can be evaluated conceptually to
determine whether an increase or decrease will
occur with a proposed change. This approach
becomes important when examining designs with
large or undefined (historical) margins and those
that depend on 'soft' controls such as programmatic
limits or requirements. The commercial U.S.
nuclear industry utilized a similar concept in
evaluating planned changes until 2001, when 10
CFR 50.59 was revised to capture and apply the
information available in facility-specific risk
analyses and other quantitative risk management
tools.
For indistinguishable, so is it usually acceptable to
only calculate the ultimate safety factor.
Choosing design factors[edit]

Appropriate design factors are based on several
considerations, such as the accuracy of predictions
on the imposed loads, strength, wear estimates,
and the environmental effects to which the product
will be exposed in service; the consequences of
engineering failure; and the cost of over-
engineering the component to achieve that factor of
safety. For example, components
whose failure could result in substantial financial
loss, serious injury, or death may use a safety factor
of four or higher (often ten). Non-critical
components generally might have a design factor
of two. Risk analysis, failure mode and effects
analysis, and other tools are commonly used.
Design factors for specific applications are often
mandated by law, policy, or industry standards.
Buildings commonly use a factor of safety of 2.0
for each structural member. The value for buildings
is relatively low because the loads are well
understood and most structures
are redundant. Pressure vessels use 3.5 to 4.0,
automobiles use 3.0, and aircraft and spacecraft use
1.2 to 3.0 depending on the application and
materials. Ductile, metallic materials tend to use
the lower value while brittle materials use the
higher values. The field of aerospace
engineering uses generally lower design factors
because the costs associated with structural weight
are high (i.e. an aircraft with an overall safety factor
of 5 would probably be too heavy to get off the
ground). This low design factor is why aerospace
parts and materials are subject to very
stringent quality control and strict preventative
maintenance schedules to help ensure reliability. A
usually applied Safety Factor is 1.5, but for
pressurized fuselage it is 2.0, and for main landing
gear structures it is often 1.25.[11]
SAE steel grades
 Ferrite
 Austenite
 Cementite
 Graphite
 Martensite
Microstructures
 Spheroidite
 Pearlite
 Bainite
 Ledeburite
 Tempered martensite
 Widmanstatten structures
Classes
 Crucible steel
 Carbon steel
 Spring steel
 Alloy steel
 Maraging steel
 Stainless steel
 Weathering steel
 Tool steel
Other iron-based materials

 Cast iron
 Gray iron
 White iron
 Ductile iron
 Malleable iron
 Wrought iron
 v
 t
 e
The SAE steel grades system is a standard alloy numbering system for steel grades maintained by SAE
International.
In the 1930's and 1940's, the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and SAE were both involved in
efforts to standardize such a numbering system for steels. These efforts were similar and overlapped
significantly. For several decades the systems were united into a joint system designated the AISI/SAE
steel grades. In 1995 the AISI turned over future maintenance of the system to SAE because the AISI
never wrote any of the specifications.[1]
Today steel quotes and certifications commonly make reference to both SAE and AISI, not always with
precise differentiation. For example, in the alloy/grade field, a cert might say "4140", "AISI 4140", or
"SAE 4140", and in most light-industrial applications any of the above is accepted as adequate, and
considered equivalent, for the job at hand, as long as the specific specification called out by the designer
(for example, "4140 bar per ASTM-A108" or "4140 bar per AMS 6349") is certified to on the
certificate. The alloy number is simply a general classifier, whereas it is the specification itself that
narrows down the steel to a very specific standard.
The SAE steel grade system's correspondence to other alloy numbering systems, such as the ASTM-
SAE unified numbering system (UNS), can be seen in cross-referencing tables (including the ones
given below).
The AISI system uses a letter prefix to denote the steelmaking process. The prefix "C" denotes open-
hearth furnace, electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace, while "E" denotes electric arc furnace
steel.[2][3] A letter "L" within the grade name indicates lead as an added ingredient; for example, 12L14
is a common grade that is 1214 with lead added for machinability.
Carbon steel[edit]
Main articles: Carbon steel and Alloy steel
Carbon steels and alloy steels are designated a four digit number, whereby the first digit indicates the
main alloying element(s), the second digit indicates tg (top grade) element(s), and the last two digits
indicate the amount of carbon, in hundredths of a percent (basis points) by weight. For example, a 1060
steel is a plain-carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C.[4]
An "H" suffix can be added to any designation to denote hardenability is a major requirement. The
chemical requirements are loosened but hardness values defined for various distances on a Jominy
test.[3]
Major classifications of steel[2]
SAE designation Type
1xxx Carbon steels
2xxx Nickel steels
3xxx Nickel-chromium steels
4xxx Molybdenum steels
5xxx Chromium steels
6xxx Chromium-vanadium steels
7xxx Tungsten steels
8xxx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
9xxx Silicon-manganese steels
Carbon and alloy steel grades[5]
SAE designation Type

Carbon steels
10xx Plain carbon (Mn 1.00% max.)
11xx Resulfurized
12xx Resulfurized and rephosphorized
15xx Plain Carbon (Mn 1.00–1.65% max.)
Manganese steels
13xx Mn 1.75%
Nickel steels
23xx Ni 3.50%
25xx Ni 5.00%
Nickel-chromium steels
31xx Ni 1.25%; Cr 0.65%, or 0.80%
32xx Ni 1.75%; Cr 1.07%
33xx Ni 3.50%; Cr 1.50%, or 1.57%
34xx Ni 3.00%; Cr 0.77%
Molybdenum steels
40xx Mo 0.20%, 0.25%, or Mo 0.25% and S 0.042%[1]
44xx Mo 0.40%, or 0.52%
Chromium-molybdenum (chromoly) steels
41xx Cr 0.50%, 0.80%, or 0.95%; Mo 0.12%, 0.20%, 0.25%, or 0.30%
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
43xx Ni 1.82%; Cr 0.50–0.80%; Mo 0.25%
43BVxx Ni 1.82%; Cr 0.50%; Mo 0.12%, or 0.35%; V 0.03% min
47xx Ni 1.05%; Cr 0.45%; Mo 0.20%, or 0.35%
81xx Ni 0.30%; Cr 0.40%; Mo 0.12%
81Bxx Ni 0.30%; Cr 0.45%; Mo 0.12%; and added boron[1]
86xx Ni 0.55%; Cr 0.50%; Mo 0.20%
87xx Ni 0.55%; Cr 0.50%; Mo 0.25%
88xx Ni 0.55%; Cr 0.50%; Mo 0.35%
93xx Ni 3.25%; Cr 1.20%; Mo 0.12%
94xx Ni 0.45%; Cr 0.40%; Mo 0.12%
97xx Ni 0.55%; Cr 0.20%; Mo 0.20%

98xx Ni 1.00%; Cr 0.80%; Mo 0.25%
Nickel-molybdenum steels
46xx Ni 0.85%, or 1.82%; Mo 0.20%, or 0.25%
48xx Ni 3.50%; Mo 0.25%
Chromium steels
50xx Cr 0.27%, 0.40%, 0.50%, or 0.65%
50xxx Cr 0.50%; C 1.00% min
50Bxx Cr 0.28%, or 0.50%; and added boron[1]
51xx Cr 0.80%, 0.87%, 0.92%, 1.00%, or 1.05%
51xxx Cr 1.02%; C 1.00% min.
51Bxx Cr 0.80%; and added boron[1]
52xxx Cr 1.45%; C 1.00% min.
Chromium-vanadium steels
61xx Cr 0.60%, 0.80%, 0.95%; V 0.10%, or 0.15% min.
Tungsten-chromium steels
72xx W 1.75%; Cr 0.75%

Silicon-manganese steels
92xx Si 1.40%, or 2.00%; Mn 0.65%, 0.82%, or 0.85%; Cr 0.00%, or 0.65%
High-strength low-alloy steels
9xx Various SAE grades
xxBxx Boron steels
xxLxx Leaded steels
Stainless steel[edit]
Main article: Stainless steel
100 Series[edit]
 Type 102—austenitic general purpose stainless steel

200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys[edit]
 Type 201—austenitic that is hardenable through cold working

 Type 202—austenitic general purpose stainless steel
300 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel alloys[edit]
 Type 301—highly ductile, for formed products. Also hardens rapidly during mechanical working.
Good weldability. Better wear resistance and fatigue strength than 304.
 Type 302—same corrosion resistance as 304, with slightly higher strength due to additional carbon.
 Type 303—free machining version of 304 via addition of sulfur and phosphorus. Also referred to
as "A1" in accordance with ISO 3506.[6]
 Type 304—the most common grade; the classic 18/8 (18% chromium, 8% nickel) stainless steel.
Outside of the US it is commonly known as "A2 stainless steel", in accordance with ISO 3506 (not
to be confused with A2 tool steel).[6] The Japanese equivalent grade of this material is SUS304.
 Type 304L—same as the 304 grade but lower carbon content to increase weldability. Is slightly
weaker than 304.
 Type 304LN—same as 304L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much higher yield and tensile
strength than 304L.
 Type 305—same as 304, but with more nickel to decrease work hardening.
 Type 308—used as the filler metal when welding 304.
 Type 309—better temperature resistance than 304, also sometimes used as filler metal when
welding dissimilar steels, along with inconel.
 Type 310 310S— is a highly alloyed austenitic stainless steel used for high temperature application.
The high chromium and nickel content give the steel excellent oxidation resistance as well as high
strength at high temperature. This grade is also very ductile, and has good weldability enabling its
widespread usage in many applications. [7]
 Type 316—the second most common grade (after 304); for food and surgical stainless steel uses;
alloy addition of molybdenum prevents specific forms of corrosion. It is also known as marine
grade stainless steel due to its increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to type 304. 316
is often used for building nuclear reprocessing plants.
 Type 316L—is an extra low carbon grade of 316, generally used in stainless steel watches and
marine applications, as well exclusively in the fabrication of reactor pressure vessels for boiling
water reactors, due to its high resistance to corrosion. Also referred to as "A4" in accordance with
ISO 3506.[6]
 Type 316Ti—variant of type 316 that includes titanium for heat resistance. It is used in flexible
chimney liners.
 Type 321—similar to 304 but lower risk of weld decay due to addition of titanium. See also 347
with addition of niobium for desensitization during welding.
400 Series—ferritic and martensitic chromium alloys[edit]
 Type 405—ferritic for welding applications

 Type 408—heat-resistant; poor corrosion resistance; 11% chromium, 8% nickel.
 Type 409—cheapest type; used for automobile exhausts; ferritic (iron/chromium only).
 Type 410—martensitic (high-strength iron/chromium). Wear-resistant, but less corrosion-resistant.
 Type 416—easy to machine due to additional sulfur
 Type 420—Cutlery Grade martensitic; similar to the Brearley's original rustless steel. Excellent
polishability.
 Type 430—decorative, e.g., for automotive trim; ferritic. Good formability, but with reduced
temperature and corrosion resistance.
 Type 439—ferritic grade, a higher grade version of 409 used for catalytic converter exhaust
sections. Increased chromium for improved high temperature corrosion/oxidation resistance.
 Type 440—a higher grade of cutlery steel, with more carbon, allowing for much better edge
retention when properly heat-treated. It can be hardened to approximately Rockwell 58 hardness,
making it one of the hardest stainless steels. Due to its toughness and relatively low cost, most
display-only and replica swords or knives are made of 440 stainless. Available in four grades:
o Type 440A—has the least amount of carbon making this the most stain-resistant.
o Type 440B—slightly more carbon than 440A.
o Type 440C—has the greatest amount of carbon of the Type 440 variants. Strongest and
considered more desirable in knifemaking than the Type 440A variant[citation needed], except for
diving or other salt-water applications. This variant is also more readily available than other
variants of Type 440.[8]
o Type 440F—a free-machining variant. Contains the same high carbon content as Type 440C.
 Type 446—For elevated temperature service
500 Series—heat-resisting chromium alloys[edit]
600 Series—originally created for proprietary alloys (which are no longer given SAE grade
numbers)[9][edit]
 601 through 604: Martensitic low-alloy steels.

 610 through 613: Martensitic secondary hardening steels.
 614 through 619: Martensitic chromium steels.
 630 through 635: Semiaustenitic and martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels.
o Type 630 is most common PH stainless, better known as 17-4; 17% chromium, 4% nickel.
 650 through 653: Austenitic steels strengthened by hot/cold work.
 660 through 665: Austenitic superalloys; all grades except alloy 661 are strengthened by second-
phase precipitation.
900 series—austentic chromium-molybdenum alloys[edit]
 Type 904—similar to 316 but with higher chromium and molybdenum content for more corrosion
resistance
Stainless steel designations table[edit]
Stainless steel designations[10]
SAE UNS
% %
designatio designatio % Ni %C % Si % P %S %N Other
Cr Mn
n n
Austenitic
5.5
16– 3.5–
201 S20100 0.15 – 0.75 0.06 0.03 0.25 -
18 5.5
7.5
7.5
17– –
202 S20200 4–6 0.15 0.75 0.06 0.03 0.25 -
19 10.
0
0.12 14– 0.32

16.5 1–
205 S20500 – 15. 0.75 0.06 0.03 – -
–18 1.75
0.25 5 0.40
6 Mo; 0.75
Cu; "Super
0.02 austenitic"
254[11] S31254 20 18 - - - - 0.20
max ; All
values
nominal
16– 0.04
301 S30100 6–8 0.15 2 0.75 0.03 - -
18 5
17– 0.04
302 S30200 8–10 0.15 2 0.75 0.03 0.1 -
19 5
17– 2.0– 0.04

302B S30215 8–10 0.15 2 0.03 - -
19 3.0 5
17– 0.15 Mo 0.60
303 S30300 8–10 0.15 2 1 0.2 -
19 min (optional)
17– 0.15 Se
303Se S30323 8–10 0.15 2 1 0.2 0.06 -
19 min
18– 8– 0.04
304 S30400 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 0.1 -
20 10.50 5
18– 0.04
304L S30403 8–12 0.03 2 0.75 0.03 0.1 -
20 5
17– 0.04
304Cu S30430 8–10 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 - 3–4 Cu
19 5
0.10
18– 8– 0.04
304N S30451 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 – -
20 10.50 5
0.16
17– 10.50 0.04

305 S30500 0.12 2 0.75 0.03 - -
19 –13 5
19– 0.04
308 S30800 10–12 0.08 2 1 0.03 - -
21 5
22– 0.04
309 S30900 12–15 0.2 2 1 0.03 - -
24 5
22– 0.04
309S S30908 12–15 0.08 2 1 0.03 - -
24 5
24– 0.04
310 S31000 19–22 0.25 2 1.5 0.03 - -
26 5
24– 0.04
310S S31008 19–22 0.08 2 1.5 0.03 - -
26 5
23– 1.5– 0.04
314 S31400 19–22 0.25 2 0.03 - -
26 3.0 5
16– 0.04 2.0–3.0

316 S31600 10–14 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 0.10
18 5 Mo
16– 0.04 2.0–3.0

316L S31603 10–14 0.03 2 0.75 0.03 0.10
18 5 Mo
16– 0.10 1.75–2.50

316F S31620 10–14 0.08 2 1 0.2 -
18 min Mo
0.10
16– 0.04 2.0–3.0
316N S31651 10–14 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 –
18 5 Mo
0.16
18– 0.04 0.10 3.0–4.0

317 S31700 11–15 0.08 2 0.75 0.03
20 5 max Mo
18– 0.04 0.10 3.0–4.0

317L S31703 11–15 0.03 2 0.75 0.03
20 5 max Mo
Ti 5(C+N)
17– 0.04 0.10
321 S32100 9–12 0.08 2 0.75 0.03 min, 0.70
19 5 max
max
23–
329 S32900 2.5–5 0.08 2 0.75 0.04 0.03 - 1–2 Mo
28
0.75
17–
330 N08330 34–37 0.08 2 – 0.04 0.03 - -
20
1.50
Nb + Ta,
17– 0.04 0.03 10 x C
347 S34700 9–13 0.08 2 0.75 -
19 5 0 min, 1
max
Nb + Ta,
10 x C
min, 1
17– 0.04 0.03
348 S34800 9–13 0.08 2 0.75 - max, but
19 5 0
0.10 Ta
max; 0.20
Ca
15– 0.04
384 S38400 17–19 0.08 2 1 0.03 - -
17 5
SAE UNS
% %
Cr Mn
n n
Ferritic
11.5 0.1–0.3
405 S40500 – - 0.08 1 1 0.04 0.03 - Al, 0.60
14.5 max
10.5
– 0.04 Ti 6 x (C +
409 S40900 0.05 0.08 1 1 0.03 -
11.7 5 N) [12]
5
14–
429 S42900 0.75 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
16
16–
430 S43000 0.75 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
18
16– 1.2 0.15 0.60 Mo

430F S43020 - 0.12 1 0.06 -
18 5 min (optional)
16– 1.2 0.15 Se

430FSe S43023 - 0.12 1 0.06 0.06 -
18 5 min
16– 0.75–1.25
434 S43400 - 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 -
18 Mo
0.75–1.25
Mo;
16–
436 S43600 - 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - Nb+Ta 5 x
18
C min,
0.70 max
18–
442 S44200 - 0.2 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
23
23–
446 S44600 0.25 0.2 1.5 1 0.04 0.03 - -
27
SAE UNS
% %
Cr Mn
n n
Martensitic
11.5
403 S40300 – 0.60 0.15 1 0.5 0.04 0.03 - -
13.0
11.5
410 S41000 – 0.75 0.15 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
13.5
11.5
1.25–
414 S41400 – 0.15 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
2.50
13.5
12– 1.2 0.15 0.060 Mo

416 S41600 - 0.15 1 0.06 -
14 5 min (optional)
12– 1.2 0.15 Se

416Se S41623 - 0.15 1 0.06 0.06 -
14 5 min
12– 0.15
420 S42000 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
14 min
0.60 Mo
12– 0.15 1.2 0.15
420F S42020 - 1 0.06 - max
14 min 5 min
(optional)
0.90–1.25
11.0 0.20 0.5 Mo; 0.20–
0.50– 0.02 0.02
422 S42200 – – – 0.5 - 0.30 V;
1.0 5 5
12.5 0.25 1.0 0.90–1.25
W
15– 1.25–
431 S41623 0.2 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
17 2.50
0.60
16–
440A S44002 - – 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
18
0.75
0.75
16–
440B S44003 - – 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
18
0.95
0.95
16–
440C S44004 - – 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
18
1.20
SAE UNS
% %
Cr Mn
n n
Heat resisting
0.10 0.40–0.65
501 S50100 4–6 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 -
min Mo
0.40–0.65
502 S50200 4–6 - 0.1 1 1 0.04 0.03 -
Mo
Martensitic precipitation hardening
Cu 3-5, Ta
15-
630 S17400 3-5 0.07 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.15-
17
0.45 [13]
Latch
This article is about the fastener. For other uses, see Latch (disambiguation).
"Hasp" redirects here. For HASP, see HASP (disambiguation).
A slam latch uses a spring and is activated by the shutting or slamming of a door. Like all latches, a
slam latch is a mechanism to hold a door closed. The slam latch derives its name from its ability to slam
doors and drawers shut without damaging the latch. A slam latch is rugged and ideal for industrial,
agricultural and construction applications.
Cam lock[edit]
The base portion of a cam lock

Offset cam
A cam lock is a type of latch consisting of a base and a cam. The base is where the key or tool is used
to rotate the cam, which is what does the latching. Cams can be straight or offset; offset cams are
reversible. Commonly found on garage cabinets, file cabinets, tool chests, and other locations where
privacy and security is needed. [4]
Thrust bearing
A thrust ball bearing

A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary bearing. Like other bearings they permit rotation between
parts, but they are designed to support a predominantly axial load.
Thrust bearings come in several varieties.
 Thrust ball bearings, composed of bearing balls supported in a ring,

can be used in low thrust applications where there is little axial load.
 Cylindrical thrust roller bearings consist of small cylindrical rollers
arranged flat with their axes pointing to the axis of the bearing. They
give very good carrying capacity and are cheap, but tend to wear due
to the differences in radial speed and friction which is higher than
with ball bearings.
 Tapered roller thrust bearings consist of small tapered rollers
arranged so that their axes all converge at a point on the axis of the
bearing. The length of the roller and the diameter of the wide and the
narrow ends and the angle of rollers need to be carefully calculated
to provide the correct taper so that each end of the roller rolls
smoothly on the bearing face without skidding. These are the type
most commonly used in automotive applications (to support the
wheels of a motor car for example), where they are used in pairs to
accommodate axial thrust in either direction, as well as radial loads.
They can support greater thrust loads than the ball type due to the
larger contact area, but are more expensive to manufacture.
A spherical roller thrust bearing
 Spherical roller thrust bearings use asymmetrical rollers of spherical

shape, rolling inside a house washer with a raceway with spherical
inner shape. They can accommodate combined radial and axial loads
and also accommodate misalignment of the shafts. They are often
used together with radial spherical roller bearings. Spherical roller
thrust bearings offer the highest load rating density of all thrust
bearings.[1]
 Fluid bearings, where the axial thrust is supported on a thin layer of
pressurized liquid—these give low drag.
 Magnetic bearings, where the axial thrust is supported on a magnetic
field. This is used where very high speeds or very low drag is needed,
for example the Zippe-type centrifuge.
Thrust bearings are commonly used in automotive, marine, and aerospace applications. They are also
used in the main and tail rotor blade grips of RC (radio controlled) helicopters.
Thrust bearings are used in cars because the forward gears in modern car gearboxes use helical
gears which, while aiding in smoothness and noise reduction, cause axial forces that need to be dealt
with.
Thrust bearings are also used with radio antenna masts to reduce the load on an antenna rotator.
One specific thrust bearing in an automobile is the clutch "throw out" bearing, sometimes called
the clutch release bearing.
Fluid film thrust bearings

Exploded view of a Michell type thrust bearing. Note, each sector shaped pad can pivot on the ridges
on the lower plate
Fluid-film thrust bearings were invented by Albert Kingsbury, who discovered the principle in the
course of bearing and lubrication investigations commencing in 1888 while a student. His first
experimental bearing was tested in 1904. He filed for a patent in 1907, and it was granted in 1910.[2] The
first Kingsbury bearing in hydroelectric service, one of its major applications, was installed at the
Holtwood Generating Station in 1912. It remains in full use today.
Thrust bearings were independently invented by Australian engineer George Michell (pronounced
Mitchell) who patented his invention in 1905.
Sheave
Not to be confused with sheaf, which has the same plural as "sheave".
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Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Pulley block including sheave.

A sheave (/ʃiːv/) is a grooved wheel often used for holding a belt, wire rope, or rope and incorporated
into a pulley. The sheave spins on an axle or bearing inside the frame of the pulley. This allows the wire
or rope to move freely, minimizing friction and wear on the cable. Sheaves can be used to redirect a
cable or rope, lift loads, and transmit power. The words sheave and pulley are sometimes used
interchangeably.
Pulley
Pulley
Pulleys on a ship. In this context, pulleys are normally

known as blocks.
Classification Simple machine
Industry Construction, transportation
Wheels 1
Axles 1
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction
of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley
supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or
exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a sheave.
A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its circumference to locate the cable or
belt. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain.
The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium
BCE,[1] and Ancient Egypt in the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE).[2] In Roman Egypt, Hero of
Alexandria (c. 10-70 CE) identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift
weights.[3] Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical
advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to
transmit power from one rotating shaft to another.[4][5]
Contents
 1Block and tackle

 2Rope and pulley systems
o 2.1Method of operation
o 2.2Free body diagrams
 3Belt and pulley systems
 4See also
 5References
 6External links
Block and tackle[edit]
Various ways of rigging a tackle.[6]

A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the same axle form a block. Two blocks
with a rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets of pulleys form a block and
tackle.[7][8]
A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point and the other is
attached to the moving load. The ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the
number of parts of the rope that support the moving block.
In the diagram on the right the ideal mechanical advantage of each of the block and tackle
assemblies[6] shown is as follows:
 Gun tackle: 2
 Luff tackle: 3
 Double tackle: 4
 Gyn tackle: 5
 Threefold purchase: 6
Rope and pulley systems[edit]
Pulley in oil derrick

A hoist using the compound pulley system yielding an advantage of 4. The single fixed pulley is
installed on the hoist (device). The two movable pulleys (joined together) are attached to the hook. One
end of the rope is attached to the crane frame, another to the winch.
A rope and pulley system—that is, a block and tackle—is characterised by the use of a single continuous
rope to transmit a tension force around one or more pulleys to lift or move a load—the rope may be a
light line or a strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by
Renaissance scientists.[9][10]
If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the
number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows.
Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block.
If there are p of these parts of the rope supporting the load W, then a force balance on the moving block
shows that the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be W/p. This means the input force on the
rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input force by the factor p.
A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks
with two rope parts supporting the load W.
Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance that
results in a rope tension of W/2.

A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks
with four rope parts supporting the load W.
Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance that
results in a rope tension of W/4.
Method of operation[edit]
The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless,
and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch.
In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope
must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving
block must each support half the load.
Fixed pulley
Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension

in two parts of the rope supporting the pulley.

Movable pulley
Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two rope

parts with tension W/2.
These are different types of pulley systems:
 Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a

supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the
force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference.
Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a
movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter.
 Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A
single movable pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and
has a mechanical advantage of two.
 Compound: A combination of fixed and movable pulleys forms
a block and tackle. A block and tackle can have several pulleys
mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the
mechanical advantage.
Diagram 3: The gun tackle "rove to advantage" has the rope attached to
the moving pulley. The tension in the rope is W/3 yielding an advantage
of three.

Diagram 3a: The Luff tackle adds a fixed pulley "rove to disadvantage."
The tension in the rope remains W/3 yielding an advantage of three.
The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by interchanging the fixed and moving
blocks so the rope is attached to the moving block and the rope is pulled in the direction of the lifted
load. In this case the block and tackle is said to be "rove to advantage."[11] Diagram 3 shows that now
three rope parts support the load W which means the tension in the rope is W/3. Thus, the mechanical
advantage is three.
By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of the pulling force is reversed though
the mechanical advantage remains the same, Diagram 3a. This is an example of the Luff tackle.
Free body diagrams[edit]
The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analyzed using free body diagrams which balance
the tension force in the rope with the force of gravity on the load. In an ideal system, the massless and
frictionless pulleys do not dissipate energy and allow for a change of direction of a rope that does not
stretch or wear. In this case, a force balance on a free body that includes the load, W, and n supporting
sections of a rope with tension T, yields:
The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical
advantage MA of the pulley system,[12]
Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the

number of sections of rope supporting the load.
Belt and pulley systems[edit]
Flat belt on a belt pulley

Belt and pulley system
Cone pulley driven from above by a line shaft

A belt and pulley system is characterised by two or more pulleys
in common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque,
and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of
differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realised.
A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive; however, a belt
sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members
as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt)
so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the
ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly
by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets
 Dry film thickness

 Dry film thickness (DFT) or coating thickness is arguably the single most important
measurement made during the application and inspection of protective coatings. Coatings are
designed to perform their intended function when applied within a tight DFT range as specified
by the manufacturer.
RAL colour standard
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RAL is a colour matching system used in Europe that is created and administrated by the German RAL
gGmbH[1] (RAL non-profit LLC), which is a subsidiary of the German RAL Institute. In colloquial
speech RAL refers to the RAL Classic system, mainly used for varnish and powder coating but
nowadays there are reference panels for plastics as well. Approved RAL products are provided with a
hologram as of early 2013 to make unauthorised versions difficult to produce. Imitations may show
different hue and colour when observed under various light sources.
Contents
RAL colour space system[edit]
RAL CLASSIC K5 colour fan

See also: List of RAL colors
RAL Classic[edit]
In 1927 the German Reichs-Ausschuß für Lieferbedingungen und Gütesicherung (Reich Committee for
Delivery and Quality Assurance) invented a collection of forty colours under the name of "RAL
840".[2] Prior to that date manufacturers and customers had to exchange samples to describe a tint,
whereas from then on they would rely on numbers.[3]
In the 1930s the numbers were changed uniformly to four digits and the collection was renamed to
"RAL 840 R" (R for revised). With tints constantly added to the collection, it was revised again in 1961
and changed to "RAL 840-HR", which consists of 210 colours and is in use to this day. In the 1960s the
colours were given supplemental names to avoid confusion in case of transposed digits.
As "RAL 840-HR" covered only matte paint the 1980s saw the invention of "RAL 841-GL" for glossy
surfaces, limited to 193 colours.[4] A main criterion for colours in the RAL Classic collection is to be of
"paramount interest". Therefore, most of the colours in it are used on warning and traffic signs or are
dedicated to government agencies and public services (for example: RAL 1004 - Swiss Postal Service,
RAL 1021 - Austrian Postal Service, RAL 1032 - German Postal Service).[5] The first digit relates to
the shade of the colour:
Range
Range First Last Quantity
Name
RAL 1xxx Yellow RAL 1000 Green Beige RAL 1037 Sun Yellow 50
RAL 2000 Yellow

RAL 2xxx Orange RAL 2013 Pearl Orange 14
Orange
RAL 3xxx Red RAL 3000 Fire Red RAL 3033 Pearl Pink 34
RAL 4012 Pearl Black

RAL 4xxx Violet RAL 4001 Red Purple 12
Berry
RAL 5xxx Blue RAL 5000 Violet Blue RAL 5026 Pearl Night Blue 25
RAL 6038 Luminous

RAL 6xxx Green RAL 6000 Patina Green 36
Green
RAL 7048 Pearl Mouse

RAL 7xxx Grey RAL 7000 Squirrel Grey 38
Grey
RAL 8xxx Brown RAL 8000 Green Brown RAL 8029 Pearl Copper 20
RAL 9xxx White/Black RAL 9001 Cream RAL 9023 Pearl Dark Grey 14
RAL F9[edit]
This collection, which follows the naming of RAL Classic, was invented in 1984. [citation needed] It is
nowadays made up of ten colours (RAL 1039-F9 Sand beige, RAL 1040-F9 Clay beige, RAL 6031-F9
Bronze green, RAL 6040-F9-Light olive, RAL 7050-F9 Camouflage grey, RAL 8027-F9 Leather
brown, RAL 8031-F9 Sand brown, RAL 9021-F9 Tar black and RAL 6031-HR Bronze green for non-
camouflage applications), used by the Bundeswehr for military camouflage coating.[6][7]
RAL Design[edit]
In 1993 a new colour matching system was introduced, tailored to the needs
of architects, designers and advertisers. It started with 1,688 colours and was revised to 1,625 colours
and now 1825 colours. The colours of RAL Classic and RAL Design do not intersect.
Contrary to the preceding systems, RAL Design features no names and its numbering follows a scheme
based on the CIELAB color space, specifically cylindrical CIEHLC. Each colour is represented by
seven digits, grouped in a triple and two pairs, representing hue (000–360 degrees, angle in the CIELab
colour wheel), lightness (same as in L*a*b*) and chroma (relative saturation). The three numeric
components of almost all RAL Design colours are multiples of 5, the majority are divisible by 10.[8]
Conversion from RAL Design number tuple to CIELAB
"RAL 210 50 15" converts to L* = 50, a* = −12.99, b* = −7.5,

for instance.
RAL Effect[edit]
RAL Effect comprises 420 solid colours and seventy metallic
colours. It is the first collection from RAL to be based on
waterborne paint systems.
RAL Digital[edit]
RAL Digital is software that allows designers to navigate the
RAL colour space.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION FOR 2 TON MONORAIL HOIST 1. Scope: Design,

manufacture, supply, Erection and Commissioning of wire-rope electric monorail hoist
conforming to IS: 3938 tested to 25% overload and as per the following specifications: i. Lifting
capacity : 2.0 Tons ii. Height of Lift : 14 meters. iii. Travel Length : 42 meters (straight path) iv.
Type of suspension : Motor driven trolley v. No of falls: 2 vi. Application description :
Dust/moisture/hazardous/flammable environment 2. Speeds: Creep Speed for all motions
through VFD AC drives as per standard. Operating speeds for the hoist : I. Main Hoist : 3
meters/minute main speed & 1.0 meters/minutes micro speed (adjustable at purchaser site) II.
Long travel : 6-9 meters/minute main speed & 2-3 meters/minutes micro speed (adjustable at
purchaser site) 3. The 3 phase electrical supply for the power shall be at 415V±6% at 50 HZ. All
the systems shall be properly earthed as per code. The control supply shall be at 24 VAC. The
hoist shall be operated only by means of push button operated pendant at a height of 1.0m from
the ground level. 4. Motors: The motors shall be totally enclosed fan cooled squirrel cage
induction motor suitable for hoist operation. The class of insulation for the motors shall be of
Class "F" or better. All motors to be designed adequately. 5. Wheels : Wheels shall be Single
flanged tapper tread type. 6. LT rail : For LT rails, ISMB-350 will be provided by purchaser
along the travel. 7. Gears: Totally enclosed Spur/Helical gears made out of alloy steel precision
machined and cut by generating process on hobbing machine running on ball/roller bearings.
These gears are housed in M.S. plated gearbox. The gear boxes shall be guaranteed for
satisfactory operating performance and vibrations shall be as per VDI standards. Hoist gearbox
shall be fabricated by manufacturer. LT gearbox shall be standard gearbox. 8. Bearings: Anti-
friction Ball / Roller /Needle bearings shall be provided wherever required with grease nipples
for easy lubrication.(refer table no. 1 of reputed make) . 9. Rope Drum: Rope drum shall be of
seamless pipe and will be duly machined and grooved to accommodate full length of wire rope in
one layer. The drum will be mounted on antifriction ball / roller bearings. 10. Hook: Drop forged
„c‟ type swiveling hook conforming to IS:3813 supported on thrust bearings. Hook shall be
provided with suitable safety latch. Each hook shall be rated for 3T and shall be drop forged. 11.
Wire rope: 6x37 (or) 36 construction, Hemp core steel wire rope confirming to IS:2266 having
tensile strength of not less than 160-175 kg/mm2 . 12. Type of Motors : Totally enclosed fan cooled
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors, 150 starts/ hrs., with class – F insulation and S4 Duty with 40 %
CDF suitable for 3-Phase, 415V, 50Hz AC power supply, conforming to IS:325. 13. Limit Switch:
Snap action type limit switches (2 nos.) shall be provided for hoisting motion and two way lever
type for CT motion. Limit switches shall be provided to prevent over hoisting and over lowering
of hook. Additional limit switch to prevent over winding shall be provided and it should be anti-
gravity type. 14. Brake: “FAIL TO SAFE” Electromagnetic Disc type AC brake for hoisting and
long travel motions. 15. Power Supply: 3 phase 415V, 50Hz, AC supply is provided by NFC. 16.
Buffers: Rubber buffers shall be provided for long travel motion. 17. DSL System: i. Long Travel
: DSL system for long travel shall be of PVC Flexible festoon type trailing cable system moving
on „C‟ track (Ambient temperature : 50 Degree centigrade). 18. Control Panel: The control panel
shall be designed as per IS standards. The Vendor shall maintain sufficient space between the
components. All standard wiring practices such as cable ferruling, labeling, termination, etc shall
be followed. All the cables shall have proper ferrules legibly indicated. Panel shall have
instrument cooling fan with filter. The MPCBs shall be set at the current whose value is 115% of
the current drawn by the motors when load tested to 100% of SWL and it should be less than full
load current of the motor. The construction of the panel shall facilitate easy maintenance and
extra space (min. 10%) shall be provided for future expansion, All the MCBs, MPCBs,
transformers, contactors shall have label being indicated on them in accordance with the
approved circuit drawing. 19. General notes: 1. The hoist shall be operated through Pendant.
Suitable pendant shall be provided for LT and Hoist movements. Provision for Emergency
button, Locking and Bell shall also be provided. Separate switches shall be provided for micro
and main operations. 2. All bought out items like Limit switches, bearings, couplings, Wire ropes,
VFDs, Switchgears, gearboxes, motors, cables or any additional electrical item shall be as per
makes mentioned in the Table 1. Test certificates, manuals, technical brochures for all bought-
out items shall be furnished along with supply. 3. All fasteners used should be high tension grade
only
Bending of Beams for Steel Monorails

March 15, 2012Beam Bending, BendingDan
Bending of beams is often done to create curved steel monorails for material transport in factories and
warehouses. Most commonly, the beams are curved the “easy way,” i.e. against the weak or y-y
axis. Typically a trolley with a hoist hangs below the beam. Such transit systems are installed in new
and existing plants. The person ordering the beam bending might be an engineer or a maintenance
mechanic.
In addition to simple curving of these steel sections, beam bending to form offsets is often
required. Although the radii are specified as well as the degree of arc and the straight between bends,
what the customer usually needs is the straight ends to be parallel and the offset distance to be held to
a given tolerance.
Beam bending can also create offsets with beams curved the “hard way,” i.e. against the strong or x-x
axis. Much less common than offsets made the easy way, these hard way bends can create a change in
elevation in a monorail system.

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TRAINING IN TRACTEL TIRFOR INDIA PVT.

Multiple reducer gears in microwave oven (ruler for scale)

(A.) Sliding mesh gear box:

(B.) Constant mesh gear box:

(C.) Synchromesh gear box:

Automatic transmission is generally subdivided into two types:

(A.) Epicyclic gear box:

Molten metal before casting

Casting process simulation[edit]

• Categorized under Objects | Difference Between Steel and Cast Iron

Steel vs Cast Iron

Pinion and annular gear

Rack and pinion animation

SAE designation Composition

40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S

41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%

43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25%

44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52%

46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25%

47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35%

48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%

50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%

50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min

50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50%, and added boron

51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05%

51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min

51Bxx Cr 0.80%, and added boron

61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min

86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%

87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%

88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35%

92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65%

94Bxx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%, and added boron

Ni 5%, Cr 2%, Si 1.25%, W 1%, Mn 0.85%, Mo 0.55%, Cu 0.5%, Cr 0.40%, C

Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel[7]

Element Percentage Primary function

Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels

Bismuth - Improves machinability

Boron 0.001–0.003 (Boron steel) A powerful hardenability agent

0.5–2 Increases hardenability

Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance

Lead - Improved machinability

Combines with sulphur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness.

Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of

2.0 Spring steels

Sulphur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties

Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in

Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.

Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes

Steel for pressure Minimum Yield

Steel for pipe and Minimum Yield

Steel for reinforced Characteristic

High Tensile If followed by T then the given

Flat Products for Followed by C, D or X and two

Number = 100 x specific loss in W/kg

Impact Resistance Temperature

Impact Testing Temperature Testing

QT Quenched and tempered

European standard steel number[edit]

00 & 90 Basic steels

0x & 9x Quality steels

4x Stainless and heat resistant steels

5x – 8x Structural, pressure vessel and engineering steels