The Gunn-diode: Fundamentals and Fabrication
Robert van Zyl, Willem Perold, Reinhardt Botha*
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, 7600
e-mail : rrvanzyl @ firga.sun .ac.za
* Department of Physics, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth, 6800
e-mail: phajrb@upe.ac.za
Abstrucf - A short tutorial on the Gunn-diode is
presented. The principles underlying Gunn-oscillationsare
discussed briefly and illustrated by relevant simulations.The
simulation of a typical Gum-diode in a cavity is also
presented. In conclusion,the fabricationprocess of low power
Gunn-diodes is discussed.
Keywords - Gunn-diode, Gunn-effect,transferred electron-
effect, GaAs, energy band, Monte Carlo particle simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
JB (Ian) Gunn discovered the Gunn-effect on 19 February
1962. He observed random noise-like oscillations when
biasing n-type GaAs samples above a certain threshold.
He also found that the resistance of the samples dropped at
even higher biasing conditions, indicating a region of
negative differential resistance. As will be explained later,
this leads to small signal current oscillations.
In Figure 1 part of the famous page from one of Gunn's
laboratory notebooks is shown with the entry "noisy" on
the line for 704 volt. Describing it as the "most important
single word" he ever wrote, it laid the foundation for what
was to become a major mode of a.c. power generation.
Due to their relative simplicity and low cost, Gunn diodes
remain popular to this day. It is, however, also true that
Fig. 1. A page from one of Gunn's laboratory notebooks on which he
made the discovery of the Gunneffect (taken from [l]).
407
relatively few electronic engineers understand clearly the
principles behind the Gunn-effect. The aim of this paper is
to give the reader an overview of the underlying theory of
the Gunn-effect and how it is utilised in Gunn-diodes to
produce a.c. power [2], [3]. Concepts which will be
discussed include the negative differential mobility
phenomenon in GaAs, Gunn-domain formation and the
basic Gunn-diode structure. A typical simulation of a
Gunn-diode in a cavity will also be presented.
The University of Stellenbosch, in conjunction with the
University of Port Elizabeth, is currently fabricating GaAs
Gunn-diodes for research purposes. The aim is to optimize
Gunn-diodes for a.c. output at W-band frequencies. A
review of this manufacturing process will be given.
The simulations in this paper have been performed by a
Monte Carlo particle simulator developed at the University
of Stellenbosch. A short review of the Monte Carlo
simulation of semiconductors is given in [4].
11. THE GUNN-EFFECT
IN THE STRICT SENSE
A. The Energy Band for GaAs
To understand the Gunn-effect it is necessary to have some
insight into the behaviour of electrons in a crystal lattice,
and most importantly, the allowed energy states electrons
can occupy. These are dictated by the energy band
structure of a semiconductor which relates an electron's
energy to its wave vector k .
The band structure for GaAs is shown in Figure 2. Both the
valence (negative electron energy) and conduction (positive
electron energy) bands are shown. Only the conduction
bands need to be considered for the study of electron
dynamics, since electrons in the valence bands are
stationary. Energy bands are very complex structures. It is,
however, clear from Figure 2 that for realistic electron
energies ( E <2eV) only the lowest conduction band curve
needs to be taken into account. This curve displays three
distinct "valleys" in the spatial crystal orientations labeled
I?, L and X. For the purposes of this paper it is sufficient to
consider the central r-valley and satellite L-valley only.
For the study of electron transport, the information near the
local band minima is important, since electrons are usually
located near the bottom of the valleys. For low electron
energies, relative to these band minima, the band structure
can be approximated by a parabolic E-k relation [5].
0-7803-5054-5.0407$10.00 01998 IEEE
 phenomenon is fundamental to the Gunn-effect as will be
explained later. The energy gap A shown in Figure 3 is the
energy that an electron in the r-valley will have to acquire
before it could undergo a transition to the L-valley. For
GaAs A=0.36eV.

B. The transferred electro,n mechanism

When no bias is applied to a semiconductor, almost all the

electrons occupy the r-valley since their respective thermal
energies are usually much less than the energy gap A. If
the sample is biased, the electrons are accelerated by the
applied electric field and may gain sufficient energy to be
transferred to the satellite valley. This phenomenon is
L A P A X
WAVE VECTOR
verified by Monte Carlo simulations and illustrated by the
graphs in Figure 4.
Fig. 2. The full energy band structure of GaAs. Both valence
It is clear from the graphs in Figure 4 that the mean
(negative electron energy) and conduction (positive electron
energy) bands are shown [3, p.41. electron energy increases :For increasing biasing fields.
This results in an ever increasing number of electrons
Conduction band structure gaining enough energy (0.36eV for GaAs) to be bridge the
T centralvalley satellite valley gap between the I?- and L-vidleys and be transferred from
the lower I'-valley to the upper L-valley. Significant
population of the L-valley takes place for biasing
exceeding 0.4 MVm-'.

Ebs = 0. I MV/m
0.6

r L 0.5 Satellite
wave vector k I
valley

@ 0.4
0.3
Fig. 3. A simplified band structure of GaAs with the central (I3 5 0.2
and one satellite (L) valley shown. The energy gap (A) is the energy
needed before an electron can undergo acentralto satellitetransition. ; 0.1

0
0 100 200 300 400 m
Electron samples
The parabolic two-valley approximation is very simple to
implement and proves sufficient for most moderate-field 0.6
E hu = 0.4 MV/m
applications. A two-valley parabolic approximation to the 2 0.5 Satelliie
energy band of GaAs is shown in Figure 3. In terms of this I

parabolic approximation, the energy of an electron in each i3 0.4 - _

valley is given by g 0.3
5 0.2 mtral

E =-h 2 k 2 ;0.1
1: (1)
2m 0
0 100 200 300 400 5Ml
Electron samples
with k the magnitude of the wave vector, m* the effective
mass of the electron associated with that valley and h the E h = l.OMV/m
reduced Planck constant. 0.6 I I I I I

SateHie

The effective mass of a free electron in a semiconductor . - -

differs from the mass of a free electron in a vacuum due to
the interaction of the electrons with the atoms of the antral
valley
crystal. An electron in a semiconductor behaves
dynamically as a classical particle with mass m'. It is
important to note that the band structure of the central r- 0 100 200 300 400 500
valley has a sharper curvature than that of the satellite L- Electron mmples
valley. From (1) it follows that the effective mass Fig.4 Valley occupation of electrons in bulk GaAs for three applied
associated with an electron in the central valley, m;, is electrical fields, namely O.lMVm", D.4MVm" and 1MVm.l respectively.
much less than the effective mass associated with an As expected, the mean energy of the ensemble of electrons increase with
electron in the L-valley, m;. (m;=5*m; for G A S ) This stronger applied fields. Significant population of the satellite L-valley
takes place at fields exceeding 0.4MVm-'.

408
The electrons that have been transferred from the I“-valley
to the L-valley will immediately move slower due to the
increase in their effective mass. The average drift velocity
of the electrons, and consequently the current, will
therefore decrease with an increase in the applied field.
This manifests a region of negative differential resistance
(NDR) for applied fields exceeding 0.4 MVm-I, as shown
in Figure 5.
Fig. 5 The simulated steady-state average drift velocity of
electrons in bulk GaAs as a function of the applied electnc field
at 300K. The regon of NDR is indicated.
C. The formation of Gunn-domains
The question of exactly how the NDR phenomenon in
GaAs results in Gunn-oscillations can now be answered
with the aid of Figure 6.
A sample of uniformly doped n-type GaAs of length L is
biased with a constant voltage source V,. The electric field
is therefore constant and its magnitude given by E, = V&
From the bottom graph in Figure 6 it is clear that the
electrons flow from cathode to anode with constant
velocity vs.
It is now assumed that a small local perturbation in the net
charge arises at t = to. This is indicated by the solid curve
in Figure 6. This non-uniformity can, for example, be the
result of local thermal drift of electrons. The resulting
electric field distribution is also shown (solid curve).
The electrons at point A, experiencing an electric field E,, ,
will now travel to the anode with velocity v,. The
electrons at point B are subjected to an electric field EH,.
They will therefore drift towards the anode with velocity
v2, which is smaller than v,. Consequently, a pile-up of
electrons will occur between A and B, increasing the net
negative charge in that region. The region immediately to
the right of B will become progressively more depleted of
electrons, due to their higher drift velocity towards the
anode than those at B.
The initial charge perturbation will therefore grow into a
dipole domain, commonly known as Gunn-domains.
Gunn-domains will grow while propagating towards the
anode until a stable domain has been formed. A stable
domain is shown at a time instance t > to, indicated by the
dashed curve. At this point in time, the domain has grown
409
sufficiently to ensure that electrons at both points C and D
move at the same velocity, v,, as is clear from the bottom
graph in Figure 6.
I
I ! I
&2 416 4n 4e
Becbicfield
Fig. 6. A graphical illustration of the formation of Gum-domains.
It is important to note that the sample had to be biased in
the NDR region (see Figure 5) to produce a Gunn-domain.
Once a domain has formed, the electric field in the rest of
the sample falls below the NDR region and will therefore
inhibit the formation of a second Gunn-domain.
As soon as the domain is absorbed by the anode contact
region, the average electric field in the sample rises and
domain formation can again take place. The successive
formation and drift of Gunn-domains through the sample
lead to a.c. current oscillations observed at the contacts. In
this mode of operation, called the Gunn-mode, the
frequency of the oscillations is dictated primarily by the
distance the domains have to travel before being
annihilated at the anode. This is roughly the length of the
active region of the sample, L. The value of the d.c. bias
will of course also affect the drift velocity of the domain,
and consequently the frequency.
The process of domain growth, drift and absorption at the
anode is verified by the simulation results for a 5 pn GaAs
sample shown in Figures 7 and 8. The sample is uniformly
‘ ~ biased at 5V. The
doped with concentration l O ” ~ m and
frequency of oscillation is roughly 25GHz.
 15 I I
t=QOps 0 t=QOps
I 1
10
I
2

-3

-4

5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

I i
10

- 0
c
-c

~!
i i
.5 I
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 E O 1 2 3 4 5
T
- >
r 0 t=l30 s
-
7 J
(I, -l
.-
+
.-U
;U=
L I
j i
-w - 4
" .5
I I
1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

15
t=150ps

10

5
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Distance froni cathode (ptii) Distance ft-om cathode (pili)

Fig. 7 The simulated net charge concentration in a 5pm
GaAs sample biased at 5V. The distributions are shown at
four successive time instances to illustratethe formation, drift
and absorption at the anode of a dipole domain in a Gunn-
diode.
Fig. 8 The simulated field distribution for the dipole
distributions in Figure 7. Nore the growth in the peak value
and the subsequent drop in the field throughoutthe rest of the
sample to below the NDR region shown in Figure 5.

diode oscillators operating at these frequencies.

111. SIMULATION OF A MILLIMETER-WAVE
G U N N - E ~ COSCILLATOR
T The formation and drift of the dipole domains are
A typical application of a Gunn-diode in a cavity will now
be discussed. A high frequency oscillator (70 GHz) has
been chosen since it reveals an important aspect in the
understanding of the high frequency limit inherent to
Gunn-oscillators.
The doping profile of the Gunn-diode is shown in Figure 9.
An active region is sandwiched between highly doped
anode and cathode regions. These highly doped regions
ensure good ohmic contact with the external circuit. A
50% notch in the doping is included to provide an initial
high electric field near the cathode. The reason for the
notch will be explained later. The cavity is modeled as a
parallel resonant circuit shown in Figure 10.
The simulated voltage and current waveforms are given in
Figure 11. From these graphs it is evident that the
oscillator generates in the order of 140mW at 7OGHz with
an efficiency of 2.4%. These values are typical of Gunn-
illustrated with the sequeiice of field distributions in
Figure 12. A "dead zone", where no dipoles form, is
clearly evident near the cathode. Electrons injected at the
cathode are initially confined to the central valley of the
conduction band. They do not immediately gain enough
energy to be transferred to the upper L-valley. This results
in a delayed domain formation and a consequent dead zone
in the region of the cathode.
The presence of a dead zone in the diode impacts
negatively on the efficiency of the oscillator, because the
length of the active region in which the domain can grow,
decreases. Smaller domaim translate into smaller output
power. The existence of' a dead zone affects high
frequency (> 30 GHz) Gunn-oscillators the most, since the
physical lengths of these diodes are of the order a few
micron, roughly the same as the dead zone. Optimizing
Gunn-diodes invariably involves decreasing the dead zone
by encouraging domain nucleation as near to the cathode as
possible.

410
 7 , I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . - 2 . . ........
w
0104 . : I
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance from cathode [microns]

U 5x10" cm-'
1x10" cm-'
0 1.2Sx10"cmJ

Fig. 9. The doping profile of the simulated Gunn-diode.The active

region is sandwiched between t h e highly doped anode and cathode
regions. A notch in the doping appear at the cathode.
-10-4 ' : ' : ' : : I
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Fig. 10. The circuit schematic for the simulated Gunn-diode in a

cavity. The diode is biased with a 3V d.c. power supply. The
oscillator feeds into a 23Q load.

-lo! ' : . : I
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance from cathode [microns]
Fig. 12. The simulated sequence of fields for the
Gunn-oscillator described in the text clearly shows a
dead zone at the cathode.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 formation, is possible. Heterojunctions are typically 50nm

Time [ps]
in length, implying a drastic reduction in the dead zone and
a subsequent improvement in efficiency.
Fig. 11. The simulated voltage v(t) and currenti(t) waveforms for
the Gunn-oscillator desribed in the text. v(t) and i(t) are defined IV. FABRICATION OF GaAs GUNN-DIODES
in Figure 10.

The doping-notch is one way of reducing the dead zone,
since it forces a high electric field at the notch. This
stronger field will accelerate the electrons faster than
would otherwise be the case. The electrons will therefore
gain enough energy for transfer to the L-valley in a shorter
time and distance.
Another, more successful, method is the injection of "hot"
or energetic electrons directly into the cathode region.
This is accomplished by inserting a heterojunction between
the cathode contact and the active region of the diode 161.
A detailed discussion on hot electron injection is not within
the scope of this tutorial. In essence, when an electron
traverses a heterojunction of the correct type, it gains
almost immediately a certain amount of energy dictated by
the heterojunction. If this energy exceeds the gap, A,
transfer to the L-valley, and consequently Gum-domain
The authors are currently in the process of manufacturing
10GHz Gunn-diodes for research purposes. The aim is to
apply the experience gained in this process to the
development of efficient Gunn-diodes operating at
frequencies in excess of 100GHz. A chronological outline
of the fabrication process is discussed below with a
graphical representation of the process given in Figure 13.
A. Growth of diode structure
The diode layers have been grown at the Department of
Physics, University of Port Elizabeth, by a process known
as Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE). Growth
was performed in a horizontal, laboratory scale quartz
reactor, capable of accepting a 2x2cm2 piece of substrate.
The diode structures were grown on a 250pm GaAs:Si
substrate with doping density n=1.3x10L8cmA3.This was

411
 ~

followed by a 0 . 6 buffer
~ layer (n=1.4~10'*~ m - ~a) ,
0 . 3 undoped
~ injection layer ( n = l . l ~ l Ocm-3
' ~ ) which Growth of diode structure
serves as doping-notch, a l o p undoped active region
layer (n=2.5x101'~ m -and
(n=1.4x101*~ m - ~ ) .
~ )a 0 . 6 Si-doped
~ contact layer
+rem -
M(r b y r
byr

The GaAs substrate was placed on a molybdenum

susceptor, which was heated to 670°C before growth.
Trimethylgallium and arsine (10% in H2), diluted in a H,
carrier gas, were used as source materials. n-Type doping Define individual contacts by etching
of the contact layers was achieved by introducing SiH, gas
into the reactor. Growth rate is approximately lOA per
second.

The doping levels were determined from electrochemical

capacitance-voltage profiling of the grown structures and
Hall measurements on calibration layers. CV-profilingalso
provided an independent measurement of layer thicknesses. Define individual diodes by etching

Metal contacts were thermally evaporated onto both sides

of the structure to provide good electrical contact with the
external circuitry. These metal contacts consist of three
layers, namely a 80nm layer of AuGe sandwiched between
two lOnm layers of Ni. It was found that these contacts
disintegrate at currents exceeding 20mA, because they are
so extremely thin. Additional AuGe had to be evaporated
onto the existing contacts to a depth of 0 . 7 ~ .
--
c----d
Fig. 12. Step-by-step fabrication of low power Gunn-
diodes
B. Etching and scribing of individual diodes

Individual diodes are defined on the grown structures by a

standard photolithographic procedure. A mask defines the
desired metal contacts at the anode (top) side of the
structures. Contacts with a lOOpm diameter have been
etched. The unwanted AuGe metal was etched away using
a mixture of iodine crystals, potassium-iodide and water.
The unwanted GaAs was etched away using a mixture of
methanol, phosphoric acid, and H,O,. The GaAs had to be
etched to a depth of at least 1Opm to ensure that the active
region is of the same dimensions as the metal contacts. c.thcdE
The individual diodes can now be cut out using a diamond
Fig. 13. Packaged low power Gunn-diode.
edge scriber. Each diode is roughly 4 0 0 p in diameter.

C. Packaging , is harnessed in the generation of ax. power have been

The diodes are mounted in containers of suitable size. The
packaging of an individual diode is shown in Figure 14.
The diode is bonded to the gold plated copper base of the
bottom external metal contact using a highly conducting
epoxy. The two external contacts are separated by a
ceramic spacer. 25pn gold bonding wires connect the top
diode contact with the top lid. The wire is bonded onto the
diode contact with the same conducting epoxy.
D. Experimental results
Experimental results will be presented at the conference.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The Gunn-effect in bulk GaAs and how this phenomenon
discussed. The fabrication olf low power Gum-diodes has
been dealt with briefly. It is the desire of the authors that
this tutorial will have brought home an appreciation for
these devices which have served us so well over the past
three decades.
REFERENCES
[l] John Voelcker, "The Gunneffect", IEEE Spectrum, p.24, July 1989.
[2] BG Bosch, RWH Engelmann), Gunn-eflecr Electronics, Pitman
Publishing, London, 1975.
[3] JE Carroll, Hot Electron Microwave Generators, Edward Arnold
Publishers, London, 1970.
[4] RR van Zyl, WJ Perold, " n e Application of the Monte Carlo Method
to BermconducIorSirnutanon'.,77ans. S A I € , pp. 58-64, June 1996.
[SI K Tomizawa, Numerical Simuiration of Submicron Semiconductor
Devices, Artech House, London, 1993.
[6]2 Greenwald et al. "The Effect o f a High Energy Injection on the
Performance of mm Wave Gunn Oscillators", Solid-State Electronics,
Vol. 31,N0.7,pp. 1211-1214, 1988.

412