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Testing Reading

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 Language Testing & Evaluation
Fernandes Arung
2013

TESTING READING

Abstract
This paper focuses on testing reading which provides four general
types of test, and the purposes of the test which distinct between a
test itself and the assessment. This paper provides the general
preparations prior to conducting the test but each test is completed
also with special feature of preparation and what points to be
assessed. The significance of this paper is hopely to provide teachers
in conducting the test especially testing reading so that they can
understand what testing reading is, what to assess, how to prepare it,
and how to cunduct it.

A. Introduction
Reading is an art to comprehend the writers’ aim to be connected to the readers’
conceptualization. The art here refers to an aesthetics and reliability to what is being
read. The art refers to as finding out a burried treasures from a word, phrase,
sentence, paragraph, and discourse. Comprehending; reading context, means the
ability to understand written text in order to get the gist of what is written.
Conceptualization refers to a prior knowledge of the reader that is being in reader’s
mind used as a flexible filter in doing reading. In order to understand what reading is
and how to do and improve it, it is better to see what Shepherd & Mitchell showed as
follow:
In order to understand how we read and how reading may be improved, we must
first look a little at how the eye works. Light entering the eye is focused by the
lens onto the retina, which lines the inside of the eye. The retina itself consists of
hundreds of millions of tiny cells responsive to light. Some cells - the cones -
respond to specific colors; others - the rods - to the overall light intensity. These
cells are connected to a web of nerves extending over the retina, which relay
information to the visual cortex. The centre of the retina, called the fovea, is a
small area in which the cells are much more tightly packed, so that the perception
of images falling on the fovea is much sharper and more detailed than elsewhere
on the retina. When we focus our attention on something, the light from that item
is focused onto the fovea - this is called a fixation (Shepherd & Mitchell, 1997)

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Reading is not easy as what people think, it needs an intereset as the substantive
step to go on reading comprehension. Many other things needed to do reading to go
further to the level of keen on reading then to the level of reading fluency and
comprehension.
In order to know such level of reading, it is important to do a test and assessment.
The previous research showed reading comprehension as a low achievement. The
National Center for Education Statistic (2002) in Rathvon (2004) reported as follows:
On the 2002 NAEP reading assessment, 36% of fourth graders scored at the
Below Basic level in reading, indicating that they are unable to read and
comprehend a simple paragraph from a grade-level text. Moreover, there are
profound differences in reading achievement among racial/ethnic groups.
Among African American, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native
students, the respective percentages of fourth graders reading at the Below
Basic level were 60%, 56%, and 49%, compared with 25% and 30% for
white and Asian/Pacific Islander students (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2002).

Again, reading comprehension is not easy to do. In Asia, it indicated that the
students in fourth graders were very low in reading ability and in comprehending a
simple paragraph from a grade-level text. Rathvon further said that “many questions,
controversies, and challenges remain regarding the most effective way of identifying
children at risk for reading problems”.
Testing reading is important to do in order to evaluate the aspects that can be
used to arise the effective way of analyzing and identifying the needs to be put into
account concern reading.

B. Discussion
Testing reading seems to be cofusing since no understanding what items to be
tested. Reading comprehension, fluency, speed, includes making the text of the test,
the validity, reliability, difficulty, and types of the test should be absolutely
considered at all. The followings are the discussion on testing reading in the hope that
teachers can understand how to do testing reading for the students.

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a) Testing and Assessing

It is better to distinct between a test and an assessment. A test is a measuring
device for assessing the achievement of the objectives in a training system which
is a set of questions for which there is an accepted set of correct answers. The
characteristics of a test may be knowledge, ability, attitude, intelligence etc.
Testing refers to the way of questions and or statement to find out the feedback
or response and answer to be assessed and evaluated. A test, especially in L2, is
not intended to sheer judgement whether someone has had mastery or not,
whether somone has comprehended or not, or whether someone can pass the test
or not then to be stated as success. Let us say as what Harris & McCann (1994)
reported about some common arguments against classroom testing as follow:
‘Some of the students in my class, who have worked hard all year, fail tests.
Others who have done less work pass them, just because they have been to
an English speaking country or because they have private classes.’

A test is just to assess, measure, and evaluate, it is not a judgement at all. Testing
is closely related to assessing and they should walk together. A test is done by
teacher for the students but assessment is done by the teacher and the student. A
test includes formal and informal assessment and self-assessment. A formal
assessment is a test or exam conditions are established, is certainly an important
way of assessing learners while informal assessment is assessment carried out by
the teacher not under special test conditions, but in the normal classroom
environment or a way of collecting information about our students’ performance
in normal classroom conditions (for example with students helping each other
when necessary). Self-assessment is that carried out by students themselves of
their own progress and problems (Harris & McCann, 1994).
An assessment is a part of a test, it is usually done before, in progress, and or
after the learning. To assess means to estimate and not to judge to be said as
success or not but a test might be said to decide as success or failure. An

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assessment is the ongoing process of gathering, analyzing, and reflecing on

evidence to make informed and consistent estimation or decision to improve
students’ future learning. The purposes of the test are as follow:
1) To assess the progress towards the goal or objectives or the training.
2) To compare the performance of a trainee with the standard group.
3) To improve trainee’s self understanding and motivation.
4) To diagnose the weakness of the trainees in certain area.
5) To promote grade or rate of the trainees.
6) To assess the standard of instruction or curriculum.
Dealing with the purposes of doing a test, Harris listed some:
1) To find out about a candidate’s suitability to follow a course of study,
although this is not the case in state education.
2) To find out how a student is progressing during a course of study and
possibly identify problem areas before a course ends.
3) To compare a student’s performance with that of other students.
4) To find out how much a student has learned during the course or
academic year ie compare what students can do at the end of the course
compared with the beginning of the course.
Testing is to assess, measure, compare, improve, diagnose, promote, and
evaluate what had been done, has been done, and has been in progress.
There are three purposes of assessment as follow:
1. Assessment for Learning
This assessment is done when teacher uses inferences about students’
progress to inform his/her teaching. This assessment is included in
formative test.
2. Assessment as Learning
This assessment is done when students reflect on and monitor their
progress to inform their future learning goals. This assessment is
included in formative test.

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3. Assessment of Learning
This assessment is done when teachers use evidence of students’
learning to make estimations on students’ achievement against goals and
standards. This assessment is included in summative test.

b) Testing Reading
There will be four skills that can be tested deal with language proficiency. If
we deal with testing of reading then we may involve speaking and listening
because when someone is tested in reading such as reading aloud then s/he seems
to speak and listen to some items that will be tested such as the intonation, sterss,
sounds, applying phonics, etc. Testing reading seems to be very easy at first
glance but it would be very difficult when trying to conduct at various level and
types of the tests. Hughes said (2003) that the basic problem is that receptive
skills exercises (reading and listening) does not necessarily manifest itself
directly in the overt behaviour because when people write and speak, we can see
and hear but when people read and listen, we often have nothing to observe.
There are some considerations to be involved when doing the test of reading and
those should be put into account such as what to test and assess, types of test,
how to test, and when to test.
In doing test of reading, it is urged to decide what to assess so that we can
determine the type of the test appropriately to take out. After deciding the first
step, tester should identify the level of testee and the ages because each level of
ages has different ability concerns reading ability. Preparation for expeditious
reading test will be the tester’s ability in how to test whether it will be skimming,
search reading, and or scanning (Hughes, 2003). Mohamad (1999) said that when
tester is preparing the assessment, s/he may go through some of the
considerations such as ensuring that tester selects an appropriate text, making
sure that the language used in the text is suitably pitched to his/her students'

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proficiency, and scrutinising the text to ensure that the information in each
paragraph is tested.
Dealing with the operation or the preparation of the test, Hughes further
suggests careful reading operation as follow:
1. Identifying proniminal reference.
2. Identifying discourse markers.
3. Interpreting complex sentences.
4. Interpreting topic sentences.
5. Outlining logical organisation of a text.
6. Outlining the development of an argument.
7. Distinguishing general statements from examples.
8. Identifying explicitly stated main ideas.
9. Identifying implicitly stated main ideas.
10. Recognizing writer’s intention.
11. Recognizing the attitudes and emotions of the writer.
12. Identifying addressee or audience for a text.
13. Identifying what kind of text is involved (e.g. editorial, diary, etc.)
14. Distinguishing fact from opinion.
15. Distinguishing hypothesis from fact.
16. Distinguishing fact from rumour or hearsay.
After making preparation, then a tester should be better to make some inferences
such as the following:
1. Inferring the meaning of an unknown word from context.
2. Making propositional informational inferences, answering questions
beginning with who, when, and what.
3. Making propositional explanatory inferences concerned with
motivation, cause, consequence and enablement, answering questions
beginning with why and how.
4. Making pragmatic inferences.

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Notes: Propositional inferences are those which do not depend on information

from outside the text.
Example: Fernandes and Mukhlis Rahman are in class B. Based on the
sentence, we can infer that Fernandes is Mukhlis Rahman’s classmate or
vise versa.
Pragmatic inferences are those where we have to combine information
from the text which knowledge from aoutside the text.
Example: It took me only thirty minutes by motorcycle to get from
Bantimurung to Pettarani. We can infer that s/he rode very quickly
because as we know that Bantimurung and Pettarani are not close by
each other.
The next is concerning texts to be considered. Hughes (2003) recommended that
the text that candidates are expected to be able to deal with can be specified
along a number of parameters as follow:
1. Text type; such as text books, handouts, articles (in newspapaers,
magazines, and journals), poems or verse, encyclopaedia entries,
dictionary entries, leaflets, letters, forms, diary, maps or plans,
advertisements, postcards, timetables, novels (extracts) and short stories,
reviews, manual computer Help systems, notices and signs.
2. Text forms; include Description (impressionistic descriptions &
technical descriptions), Exposition (definitions, explications, outlines,
summaries, and text interpretations), Argumentation (comments &
formal argumentations), Instruction (personal instructions, practical
instructions, and statutory instructions), and Narration (stories, jokes,
reports: biographical notes, news, & historical accounts).
3. Graphic features; include tables, charts, diagrams, cartoons, and
illustrations.

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4. Topics; could be listed or defined in general way such as non-technical

or non-specialist or in relation to a set of candidates whose background
is known. In the other word, the topic should be familiar to the students.
5. Style; might be specified in terms of formality.
6. Intended readership; can be quite specific such as native speaking
science undergraduate students, professionals, etc. This can also be
more general such as young native speakers, EFL students, ESL
students, etc.
7. Lenght; is usually expressed in number of words. This should be vary
according to the level of candidates.
8. Readability; is an objective. Teachers just measure the difficulty of the
text to read.
9. Range of vocabulary; may be indicated by a complete list of words and
it depends on indications of frequency in the learners’ dictionary.
10. Range of grammar; could be a list of structures, may be a reference to
those to be found in a course book or may be a parts of a grammar of a
language.
The next important thing to be considered is the level of candidates’
performance. This should be found out to deal with determining the test or types
of the test and the test itself could be used to determine the level. The level of
performance means how candidates perform by comparison with each other
(Hughes, 2003). He further stated that the best way to proceed is to use the test
task themselves to define the level. So, the tester should know whether the
candidates/testees are in low level skill, middle level skill, and or higher level
skill.
The next is about selecting the text. In selecting the text, it is important to
know the candidates’ ability in reading comprehension includes level of
performance. Hughes (2003) said that the successful choice of the text depends

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on experience, judgement, and a certain amount of common sense. He

recommended some considerations as follow:
1. Keeping specifications constantly in mind and try to select as
representattive a sample as possible. Do not repeatedly select texts of a
particular kind simply because they are readily available.
2. Choosing texts of appropriate lenght. Expeditious reading tests may call
for passages of up to 2.000 words or more.
3. Including as many passages as possible in a test in order to obtain both
content validity and acceptance reliability.
4. Looking for passages which contain plenty of discrete pieces of
information in order to test search reading.
5. Finding texts which have the specified elements that have to be scanned
for. This is for scanning.
6. Making sure that the text has a clearly recognizeable structure to test the
ability to quickly establish the structure.
7. Choosing texts that will interest the candidates but which will not over-
excite or disturb them.
8. Avoiding texts made up of information that may be part of candidates’
general knowledge.
9. Assuming that it is only reading ability that is being tested, do not
choose texts that are too culturally laden.
10. Do not use texts that students have already read.
Writing items is the next consideration. The purpose in writing items is to
measure the ability in which the tester is interested in and to elicit the candidates’
reliable behaviour so that the scoring is highly reliable.
The last consideration is concerning the techniques. Hughes (2003)
recommeded that the techniques used should interfere as little as possible with
the reading itself, and that they should not add a significantly difficult task on top
of reading. The common techniques can be Muliple Choice, Short Answer, Gap

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Filling, Information Transfer, Matching the Two Parts of Split Sentences, The
Cpmpletion of Sentences-Summaries-Diagrams-Tables-Flow Charts- Notes, and
Matching Paragraph Headings.
All the things above should be considered in testing reading in order to
postulate all characteristics that are significant to embed in and to find all
domains the test of reading.

c) What to test and assess

Designing tests of reading in a second language, the aim is normally to test
language-related ability, not intelligence (Alderson, 2000). Dealing with reading,
the ability here refers to the capability in decoding texts, reading fluently, reading
quickly (speed), and comprehending text. Four types of ability will represent in
what to test in testing reading and the first three types are the basics to reading
comprehension.
Reading Decoding. This is the basic reading ability. Reading decoding is the
ability to decipher the sounds represented by each letter or combination of letters
in a word. For years, it was thought that if children could learn to decode words
accurately, they would be successful in reading printed text. While it is true that
accuracy in decoding is important for fluency, readers not only need to decode
words accurately, they also need to decode them automatically with ease. In
reading decoding, tester would like to assess whether the children are able to
code or decipher sounds and phonics in a letter and or words. This type of test is
not only for merely children but this is also fit to adults who are still having
problems in spelling some distinct letters or alphabets.
In conducting this test, a tester should have some preparations and steps as
follow:
1. Providing and showing letters or alphabets. Make them as clear as
possible to see and if it is needed, make them in one by one big size.

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2. Allowing the candidates spell the letters prior to giving them correct
spelling.
3. Writing all misspelling letters and aspects that the candidates did.
4. Allowing the candidates to repeat spelling from the beginning to three
times.
5. Concluding all aspects that candidates did during spelling the letters.
Telling them what letters were misspelled.
6. In order to let the candidates learn, tester should teach them how to
correctly spell the letters.
Tests used to measure the candidates’ reading comprehension should be
based on candidates’ level and provide various techniques.
Reading Fluency. Reading fluency refers to accurate and automatic
decoding of the words in the text, along with expressive interpretation of the text,
to achieve optimal comprehension. Wagaman (2013) in eHow Contributor
defined fluency as the combination of speed of reading and the ability to read
with expression. In this test, candidates are supposed to read with appropriate
phrasing and interpretation. Fluent reading requires speedy recognition of words,
decoding accuracy, and oral expressiveness; these are to be assessed. One of the
simple tests to assess children’s reading fluency is by oral reading. This is also
important to improve their reading speed adn develop stronger vocabulary. The
way is simple where the parent reads out loud at the rate they'd like their child to
attain. This is done while their child reads along with them. This should model
what reading fluency looks like. It helps the child read at a faster rate. This
activity should be done with a grade appropriate book so that the child does not
get frustrated. Wagaman recommeded some instructions in conducting reading
fluency test as follow:
1. Choosing a book or passage for the student to read. The child may need
to read several different levels of books before the proper reading level
is determined, so it is a good idea to have several levels on hand prior to

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beginning the test. The optimal level is one in which the child is able to
read fluently, but not perfectly. Perfect reading would indicate the child
has mastered this level of reading, known as the independent level.
2. Telling the child to begin reading aloud while starting a stopwatch. The
amount of time it takes the student to read the book will help determine
the child's fluency.
3. Take a running record while the child is reading. A running record is a
written record of the child's reading. It is basically a shorthand method
of writing down everything the child reads, correctly and incorrectly.
Some of the basic notations include a check mark for a correctly read
word, a dash for a word left out, and a carrot to insert a word if the child
adds an extra word to the sentence. If the word was read incorrectly, you
should write whatever the child said, phonetically. For example, if the
word was "house," you might right "hos." If the child self-corrects, or
says a word incorrectly but then repeats it correctly, add the letters SC
next to the notation, indicating the fact that the student corrected
himself.
4. Observe the student's ability to read with expression. Expressive reading
involves changes of pitch, volume, rhythm and tone of voice while
reading. Students who do not read with expression will often sound
choppy or speak in a monotone. Reading with expression should sound
like normal conversation.
5. Determine reading accuracy. After the child has completed the reading,
you need to decide if any of the mistakes changed the meaning of the
story. Errors that do not change the meaning do not count against the
student for determining fluency. Examples of mistakes that do not
change the meaning include mispronounced names. A 90 percent to 96
percent accuracy rate is considered instructional level, or the level at
which the child should read at school. To determine accuracy rate,

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divide the number of words read correctly by the total number of words.
So for example, if the student read 187 words correctly out of a total of
200 words, the student's accuracy rate is 94 percent. This would be a
book at an instructional level for this child.
6. Determine reading rate. To determine the child's reading rate, you need
to know how many total words there were in the story that the child
read, how many words the child read correctly and how long it took the
child to read the story. Then divide the total number of words read
correctly by the total amount of time it took to read the story.
Continuing our example from above, if the student read 187 words
correctly in a minute and a half, the student read 125 words per minute.
This is in the instructional range for a fifth grader.
7. Determine reading fluency by looking at the accuracy rate, reading rate
and child's ability to read with expression. The accuracy and reading
rates should be in the instructional range, and the child should read with
some expression to be considered to be reading fluently.
Tests used to measure the candidates’ reading fluency should be based on
candidates’ level and provide various techniques.
Reading Speed. This test is almost the same as testing reading fluency but
the speed in time is prominent. Hughes (2003) explained speed as follow:
Reading speed may be expressed in words per minute. Different speed will
be expected for careful and expeditious reading. In the case of the latter, the
candidates is, of course, not expected to read all of the words. The expected
speed of reading will combine with the number and difficulty of the items to
determine the amount of time needed for the test, or part of it.
(Hughes, 2003, p. 141)
Speed reading is the art of silencing subvocalization (Spreeder.Com, 2010-
2012). Nordquist in About.Com said that subvocalization means saying words
silently to oneself while reading (Nordquist, R. 2013) but subvocalization is
unnecessary to the adult reader, except perhaps when reading poetry (Shepherd

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& Mitchell, 1997). One of the best techniques in fasting reading is to less eyes
movement. Cutler (1993) flatten the study result that slow reader may make as
many or more visual stops per line as there are letters in the words on that line.
Good reader may stop (fixate) only once every two or three words, taking larger
visual “bites” as they move forward. Excellent readers seldom stop (visually
fixate) more that twicw per line, and only once on the shorter line-lenghts.
In testing reading speed, the only thing to assess is the speed. How many
words per minute a reader can read clearly and accurately. There are at least
some preparartions to conduct the reading speed such as follow:
1. Determining the level of candidates that is intended to test.
2. Providing stop-watch in order to count minute and a recorder to record.
3. Providing any text that depends on candidates’ level.
4. Asking the candidates one by one to read as a tester starting to turn on
the watch.
5. Asking the candidate to stop reading as the time is enough for a minute.
6. Counting how mwny words that the candidate has read during minute.
Tests used to measure the candidates’ reading speed should be based on
candidates’ level and provide various techniques. This website
http://www.studygs.net/reading.htm and http://www.readingsoft.com/ are
recommended if anyone wants to test his/her reading speed by online.
Reading Comprehension. It is better to define comprehension in terms of
reading that it refers to be able to find meaning of what is read or the ability to
understand what is being read, Gunning (2010) said that comprehension is a
constructive process in which students create meaning based on their background
knowledge. He further said that the more background knowledge you bring to an
article or story, the better you will understand it. It indeed needs time to be being
comprehension, Blachowicz & Ogle (2008) stated that comprehension does not
happen in one point; rather, it is a process that takes place over time. It of course
needs times to be able to comprehend what is read so it needs to read as a habit.

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In testing reading comprehension, there are some tasks to assess as Snow

(2002) stated that ...widely used comprehension assessments are heavily focused
on only a few tasks: reading for immediate recall, reading for the gist of the
meaning, and reading to infer or disambiguate word meaning. In doing these
tasks, tester should prepare such as the followings as Mohamad (1999)
recommended:
1. Ensuring that we select an appropriate text.
2. Making sure that the language used in the text is suitably pitched to our
students' proficiency.
3. Scrutinising carefully the text to ensure that the information in each
paragraph is tested.

After going through the preparation, it is then important to decide what level
to assess. Mohamad (1999) said that there are actually three main levels or
strands of comprehension as follow:

1. Literal comprehension, is the most obvious. Comprehension at this

level involves surface meanings. At this level, teachers can ask students
to find information and ideas that are explicitly stated in the text. In
addition, it is also appropriate to test vocabulary.
2. Interpretive or referential comprehension. At this level, students go
beyond what is said and read for deeper meanings. They must be able to
read critically and analyse carefully what they have read. Students need
to be able to see relationships among ideas, for exmple how ideas go
together and also see the implied meanings of these ideas. It is also
obvious that before our students can do this, they have to first
understand the ideas that are stated (literal comprehension). Interpretive
or referential comprehension includes thinking processes such as
drawing conclusions, making generalizations and predicting outcomes.

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At this level, teachers can ask more challenging questions such as

asking students to do the following:
 Re-arranging the ideas or topics discussed in the text.
 Explaining the author's purpose of writing the text.
 Summarizing the main idea when this is not explicitly stated in the
text.
 Selecting conclusions which can be deduced from the text t!hey have
read.
3. Critical reading whereby ideas and information are evaluated. Critical
evaluation occurs only after our students have understood the ideas and
information. At this level, students can be tested on the following skills:
 The ability to differentiate between facts and opinions.
 The ability to recognize persuasive statements .
 The ability to judge the accuracy of the information given in the text.
Tests used to measure the candidates’ reading comprehension should be
based on candidates’ level and provide various techniques.

C. Conclusion
Each type of testing has different points to consider but all of test is not easy to
make or to do. Every tester should be aware of how to prepare, conduct, and involve
some important thing to include in the test that is going to conduct.
In testting reading, some points should be understood in order to be best in
conducting the test. Starting to make preparation such as decide what to assess,
determining the level of testee, and providing them the understanding of doing the
test.
Dealing with what to assess, there are some types of tests that can be conducted
such as Reading Decoding which aims to assess whether the children are able to code
or decipher sounds and phonics in a letter and or words or not and there are at least
six steps to do to prepare the test. The next test is Reading Fluency which aims to

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assess the accuracy and automatic decoding of the words in the text, along with
expressive interpretation of the text, to achieve optimal comprehension and there are
at least seven instructions to be followed in conducting the test. Reading Speed is one
of the tests in testing reading. This test aims to assess the speed; how many words
attained or read in minute and of course clearly and accurately. There are at least six
steps to follow to preapare the test. The last type of reading test is Reading
Comprehension that is the general testing of reading because this includes the ability
to decode, fluency, and speed. It is not only three of the things mentioned before but
it is more to how to understand what is read.

REFERENCES

Alderson, J. Charles. 2000. Assessing Reading. United Kingdom: Cambridge

University Press

Blachowicz, Camille. & Ogle, Donna. 2008. Reading Comprehension-Strategies for

Independent Learners. New York: Gulidford Press

Cutler, Wade E. 1993. Triple Your Reading Speed-Third Edition. New York:
Macmillan General Reference

Gunning, Thomas G. 2010. Reading Comprehension Boosters – 100 Lessons for

Building Higher Level Literacy. San Fransisco: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Hughes, Atrhur. 2003. Testing for Language Teacher – Second Edition. United
Kingdom: Cambridge University Press

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Mohamad, Akmar. 1999. What Do We Test When We Test Reading

Comprehension?. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. V, No. 12
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Nunn Interacting.html, Accessed 11 October 2013

Rathvon, Natalie. 2004. Early Reading Assessment – A Practitioner’s Handbook.

New York: The Guilford Press

Shepherd, Peter. & Mitchell, Gregory U. 1997. The Speed Reading Course.
Www.ebusinesshelpcenter.com

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