Contents

Table Of Figures ........................................................................................................................ 1

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1 Refrigeration ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Principle of refrigeration ............................................................................................. 3
1.2 Classification According to Applications ................................................................... 3
1.3 Refrigeration Technologies ......................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Magnetic Refrigeration: ....................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration ............................................................................. 4
1.3.3 Thermoelectric Refrigeration ............................................................................... 4
1.3.4 Stirling Cycle Refrigeration ................................................................................. 5
1.3.5 Air Cycle Refrigeration........................................................................................ 6
1.3.6 Tri-generation Refrigeration ................................................................................ 6
1.3.7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration ....................................................................... 7
1.3.8 Sorption (Absorption and Adsorption) Refrigeration .......................................... 8
1.3.8.1 Absorption Cycle .......................................................................................... 8
1.3.8.2 Adsorption Refrigeration .............................................................................. 9
2 Air-Conditioning ................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Operating Principles: ................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Refrigeration cycle ............................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Evaporative cooling ........................................................................................... 10
2.1.3 Free cooling ....................................................................................................... 10
3 List of Refrigerator Industries .......................................................................................... 12
4 List Of Ac Industries ........................................................................................................ 12
5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 13
6 Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................... 13
7 References ........................................................................................................................ 14

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Table Of Figures

Figure 1 Magnetic refrigeration ................................................................................................. 4

Figure 2 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration ..................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 Thermoelectric refrigeration ........................................................................................ 5
Figure 4 Stirling Refrigerator..................................................................................................... 6
Figure 5 Air Cycle Refrigeration ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 6 Tri-generation Refrigeration Schematic ...................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration ............................................................................... 7
Figure 8 Entropy Diagram ......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9 refrigeration cycle ........................................................................................................ 9
Figure 10 Capillary expansion valve connection to evaporator inlet. Notice Frost formation 10

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Abstract
This assignment is about the basic principles of refrigeration, and air conditioning, and
technological advancements in the respective fields. Refrigeration is actually the heat removal
from the system and air conditioning is the technology that modifies the condition of air
(heating, (de-) humidification, cooling, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement). In common
usage, though, "air conditioning" refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a complete
system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. Their operating
principles are stated and list of industries that manufacture refrigerator and air conditioner is
also attached.

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1 Refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space, substance, or system to lower and/or
maintain its temperature below the ambient one (while the removed heat is rejected at a higher
temperature). In other words, refrigeration means artificial cooling.

1.1 Principle of refrigeration

The evaporator transfers heat into the refrigerant; the refrigerant transfers this heat to the
condenser; the condenser transfers the heat to a cooling medium (such as water or outside
air). Conduction is the flow of heat through a substance by contact of particles.

1.2 Classification According to Applications

In terms of temperature range

High Temperature Above 3°C

Medium Temperature 0°C to -10°C
Low Temperature -18°C to -35°C
Very Low Temperature -50°C to -90°C
In terms of application

 Constant temperature
 Transport refrigeration
 Storage and display
 Display cabinets (integral and remote)
 Cold storage
 Food processing (temperature change of product)

1.3 Refrigeration Technologies

1. Magnetic Refrigeration
2. Thermoacoustic Refrigeration
3. Thermoelectric Refrigeration
4. Stirling Cycle Refrigeration
5. Air Cycle Refrigeration
6. Tri-generation Refrigeration
7. Vapor Compression Refrigeration
8. Sorption (Absorption and Adsorption) Refrigeration

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1.3.1 Magnetic Refrigeration:
A magnetic refrigeration cycle employs a solid-state magnetic material as the working
refrigerant. The material warms-up in the presence of a magnetic field and cools down when
the field is removed. Schematic is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Magnetic refrigeration

1.3.2 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration

Refrigeration relies on two major thermodynamic principles. First, a fluid’s temperature rises
when compressed and falls when expanded. Second, when two substances are placed in direct
contact, heat will flow from the hotter substance to the cooler one. In a thermoacoustic
refrigerator, the reverse of the above process occurs, i.e., it utilizes work (in the form of acoustic
power) to absorb heat from a low temperature medium and reject it to a high temperature
medium. Thermoacoustic refrigeration systems operate by using sound waves and inert gas in
a resonator to produce cooling. Schematic of Thermoacoustic Refrigeration is shown in Figure
2.

Figure 2 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration

1.3.3 Thermoelectric Refrigeration

Thermoelectric cooling is a way to remove thermal energy from a medium, device or
component by applying a voltage of constant polarity to a junction between dissimilar electrical

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conductors or semiconductors. A thermoelectric cooling system typically employs a matrix of
semiconductor pellets sandwiched in between two large electrodes. When a DC voltage source
is connected between the electrodes, the negatively-charged side becomes cooler while the
positively-charged side becomes warmer. The negative electrode is placed in contact with the
component, device or medium to be cooled, while the positive electrode is connected to a
heatsink that radiates or dissipates thermal energy into the external environment as shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 3 Thermoelectric refrigeration

Thermoelectric cooling is used in electronic systems and computers to cool sensitive

components such as power amplifiers and microprocessors. The technology can also be useful
in a satellite or space probe to moderate the extreme temperatures that occur in components on
the sunlit side and to warm the components on the dark side. In scientific applications, digital
cameras and charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are sometimes cooled using thermoelectric
cooling to minimize thermal noise, thereby optimizing the sensitivity and image contrast.

In general, thermoelectric cooling is less efficient than compressor-based refrigeration.

However, in situations where thermal energy must be transferred away from a solid or liquid
on a small scale, a thermoelectric cooling may be more practical and cost-effective than a
conventional refrigeration system. Other advantages of the thermoelectric cooling include the
absence of moving mechanical parts, physical ruggedness, portability, long operating life and
minimal maintenance requirements. A thermoelectric cooling system is also known as a Peltier
heat pump.

1.3.4 Stirling Cycle Refrigeration

The Stirling cycle cooler is a regenerative system in which gas in the system is moved
backwards and forwards between the hot end and cold end spaces. Heat is rejected via a heat

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exchanger at the hot end, and heat is absorbed from the space to be cooled via a heat exchanger
at the cold end. System apparatus is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Stirling Refrigerator

1.3.5 Air Cycle Refrigeration

An air cycle machine (ACM), as shown in Figure 5, is the refrigeration unit of the
environmental control system (ECS) used in pressurized gas turbine-powered aircraft.
Normally an aircraft has two or three of these ACM. Each ACM and its components are often
referred as an air conditioning pack. The air cycle cooling process uses air instead of a phase
changing material such as Freon in the gas cycle. No condensation or evaporation of a
refrigerant is involved, and the cooled air output from the process is used directly for cabin
ventilation or for cooling electronic equipment. This technique is the reverse Brayton Cycle.
Air is the working fluid.

Figure 5 Air Cycle Refrigeration

1.3.6 Tri-generation Refrigeration

Tri-generation is the production of electricity, heat and cooling in the one process. Typically
this means a gas fired generator producing electricity and heat with the exhaust heat going to

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an absorption chiller which produces chilled water and hot water for air conditioning or
alternatively the heat is used to heat a swimming pool. The ratio of electricity produced and
exhaust heat for the absorption chiller and then the ratio of cooling to heating can be varied to
meet the specific site requirements. Schematic of this refrigeration is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Tri-generation Refrigeration Schematic

1.3.7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large
commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 7 provides a schematic diagram of the
components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.

Figure 7 Vapor Compression Refrigeration

In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. From
point 1 to point 2, the vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a
vapor at a higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. In Figure
8 from point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser which cools
the vapor until it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing
additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid

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refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure
abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half
of the liquid.

Figure 8 Entropy Diagram

1.3.8 Sorption (Absorption and Adsorption) Refrigeration

It consists of two cycles i.e.

1. Absorption Cycle
2. Adsorption Cycle

1.3.8.1 Absorption Cycle

The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of raising the
pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an
absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the
pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the high-
pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of refrigerant,
it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an
absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most
common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water
(refrigerant) with lithium bromide (absorbent).

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1.3.8.2 Adsorption Refrigeration
In adsorption refrigeration, the refrigerant (adsorbate) could be ammonia, water, methanol, etc.,
while the adsorbent is a solid, such as silicone gel, activated carbon, or zeolite, unlike in the
absorption cycle where absorbent is liquid.

2 Air-Conditioning
In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies
the condition of air (heating, (de-) humidification, cooling, cleaning, ventilation, or air
movement). In common usage, though, "air conditioning" refers to systems which cool air. In
construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as
HVAC.

2.1 Operating Principles:

2.1.1 Refrigeration cycle
Cooling in traditional AC systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which
uses the forced circulation and phase change of a refrigerant between gas and liquid to transfer
heat.

The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or
within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a variable refrigerant
flow terminal or fan coil unit) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment on its
condenser side.

A simple stylized diagram, as in Figure 9, of the refrigeration cycle:

1. Condensing coil
2. Expansion valve
3. Evaporator coil
4. Compressor

Figure 9 refrigeration cycle

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2.1.2 Evaporative cooling
In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert
coolers, are popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a
device that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water.
The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The
temperature of the incoming air is reduced, but it is also more humid, so the total heat (sensible
heat plus latent heat) is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted
to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry
enough, the results can be quite substantial. Figure 10 shows a capillary expansion valve.

Figure 10 Capillary expansion

valve connection to evaporator
inlet. Notice Frost formation

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when
there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible
for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the
outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of
a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer
air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window. These
coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.

2.1.3 Free cooling

Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to
circulate a coolant such as air, water, or a water-glycol mixture from a cold source, which in
turn acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage
media are cool outside air, deep aquifers, or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a
cluster of small-diameter boreholes. Some systems with small storage capacity are hybrid

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systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to
chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the temperature
of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.

Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined
with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air
conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.

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3 List of Refrigerator Industries
1. Haier 2. Gree
3. Orient 4. Dawlance
5. Pel 6. Kenwood
7. Geepas 8. CDA
9. Hitachi 10. Gaba National
11. Sharp 12. Panatron
13. Electrolux 14. LG
15. Waves 16. Changhong Ruba
17. Samsung 18. SG

4 List Of Ac Industries
1. Haier 2. Gree
3. Orient 4. Dawlance
5. Mistubishi 6. Kenwood
7. LG 8. Acson
9. Samsung 10. Pel
11. Panasonic 12. Changhong Ruba
13. Electrolux 14. Daikan
15. Enviro 16. Success
17. Singer 18. Panatron
19. Sharp

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5 Conclusion
This assignment teaches us about the terms refrigeration and air conditioning. We understood
the basic principles of R and AC. Technologies current in use and what will be the future
advancements in these technologies. Knowledge of manufacturing industries of refrigerator
and air conditioners has also been gained.

6 Learning Outcomes
 Understanding the terms refrigeration and air conditioning
 Comprehending their operating principles
 To know about technology developments in the respective fields
 To know about the manufacturing industries of refrigeration and air conditioning in
Pakistan

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7 References
Anon., n.d. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_cycle_machine#cite_ref-2
ASHRAE Terminology, n.d. [Online]
Available at: https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/free-resources/ashrae-terminology
Ceperley, P., 1979. A pistonless Stirling engine – the travelling wave heat engine. s.l.:s.n.
Haron Rubson, n.d. News. [Online]
Available at: http://www.haronrobson.com.au/product-and-technology-reviews/what-is-tri-
generation
International Institute of Refrigeration, n.d. International Dictionary of Refrigeration.
[Online]
Available at: http://dictionary.iifiir.org/search.php
ISI Indoor Solutions, n.d. Articles. [Online]
Available at: www.isihvac.com
McDowell, 2006. Fundamentals of HVAC Systems. 3rd ed. s.l.:s.n.
Tech Target Network, n.d. Network Hardware. [Online]
Available at: https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/thermoelectric-cooling

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