Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.1. HISTORY
Before the 18th and 19th century, people produced their food, clothing, and crops mostly by hand and
using small tools. This often required much time and energy. The Industrial Revolution brought about
change in the way goods were produced. There were several new inventions that allowed for the mass
production of products, especially in the field of agriculture. One such invention was the mechanical
reaper.
The mechanical reaper was invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1831. This machine was used by
farmers to harvest crops mechanically. For hundreds of years, farmers and field workers had to harvest
crops by hand using a sickle or other methods, which was an arduous task at best. The McCormick
mechanical reaper replaced the manual cutting of the crop with scythes and sickles. This new invention
allowed wheat to be harvested quicker and with less labor force.
DOI:10.23883/IJRTER.2018.4191.NBJIL 721
International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Research (IJRTER)
Volume 04, Issue 03; March- 2018 [ISSN: 2455-1457]
1.2. AGRICULTURE
The agricultural improvements of the 18th century had been promoted by people whose industrial and
commercial interests made them willing to experiment with new machines and processes to improve
the productivity of their estates. Under the same sort of stimuli, agricultural improvement continued
into the 19th century and was extended to food processing in Britain and elsewhere. The steam engine
was not readily adapted for agricultural purposes, yet ways were found of harnessing it to threshing
machines and even to plows by means of a cable between powerful traction engines pulling a plow
across a field. In the United States mechanization of agriculture began later than in Britain, but
because of the comparative labour shortage it proceeded more quickly and more thoroughly. The
McCormick reaper and the combine harvester were both developed in the United States, as
were barbed wire and the food-packing and canning industries, Chicago becoming the centre for these
processes. The introduction of refrigeration techniques in the second half of the 19th century made it
possible to convey meat from Australia and Argentina to European markets, and the same markets
encouraged the growth of dairy farming and market gardening, with distant producers such as New
Zealand able to send their butter in refrigerated ships to wherever in the world it could be sold.
portray Cyrus Sr. as a heroic farmer whose mechanical genius had made him a great benefactor of
mankind in general and farmers in particular. According to the ever-expanding legend, Cyrus Sr. fed
the hungry around the world (by making bread cheaper) and elevated farmers from simple sodbusters
to sophisticated managers of employees and capital. Ott documented these exaggerations in his 2015
dissertation, Producing a Past: Cyrus McCormick’s Reaper from Heritage to History. Ott argued that
the company used the sole-invention legend to draw parallels between the populist “labor theory of
value” and the company’s “technological surplus value ideology.” The propaganda reached a
crescendo at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where a large banner over the
company’s exhibit proclaimed that “all harvesters of to-day are based upon the features C.H.
McCormick invented and built in 1831.” McCormick’s competitors quickly complained that this claim
was patently false, and the Inventors’ Congress, an international group that was acting as the
exhibition’s jury, “forced the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company to take down all of its
placards claiming inventive priority,” Ott wrote. Undaunted, Cyrus Jr. lobbied the U.S. Treasury
Department to get his father’s image printed on the $10 silver certificate. Treasury Secretary John
Carlisle embraced the idea and unveiled an engraving of the proposed new currency in 1896. But he
pulled the plug on “McCormick money” after the company’s competitors vigorously challenged the
story that Cyrus alone had invented the reaper. This time, the challenge to the singular-invention
legend was more public and more damaging to the company’s reputation, according to Ott. This
embarrassing loss of prestige came at a difficult time. Grain prices were falling, farmers were
struggling, and the company’s farm machinery sales were dwindling. After waging a five-year price
war, the company merged with its four largest competitors in 1902 to form International Harvester.
The merger agreement called for J.P. Morgan and Co. to manage International Harvester for 10 years,
but when the McCormick family wrested control of the company away from the other partners in 1912,
Cyrus Jr. reasserted the legend to help fend off federal antitrust charges. The company never got Cyrus
Sr.’s image printed on currency, but a depiction of a mid-19th century reaper graced the back of the
Federal Reserve’s first $10 note in 1914.
The figure shows the base frame which acts as a chassis of a reaper machine is fabricated with the help
of square tubes and channels with the help of metal cutting and metal joining process called welding,
dc motor which act as a drive is mounted on side of the chassis. The rear wheel mounted shaft get
coupled to the engine with the help of chain drive for easy handling of vehicle. The shaft which is
mounted in between two bevel gears get rotated through the pulley which is mounted on the same shaft
with the help of belt drive. In order to hold and throwing the crop aside, we are going to place pairs of
belts with holding attachment connected to the rotating shaft which is mounted on two sets of bevel
gears. Similarly in order to cut the crop, we are going to place pairs of cutters on chain drive which is
mounted on same rotating shaft.
3.2. WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel is one of the
main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in
conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or
transportation while supporting a load, or performing labour in machines. Wheels are also used for
other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel, potter's wheel and flywheel. Common
examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly reduces friction by facilitating motion
by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied
to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity or by the application of another external force
or torque.
The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging) is explained as follows (refer to friction):
The normal force at the sliding interface is the same.
The sliding distance is reduced for a given distance of travel.
The coefficient of friction at the interface is usually lower.
Bearings are used to help reduce friction at the interface. In the simplest and oldest case the bearing
is just a round hole through which the axle passes (a "plain bearing").
Example situation
If a 100 kg object is dragged for 10 m along a surface with the coefficient of friction μ = 0.5,
the normal force is 981 N and the work done (required energy) is (work=force x distance) 981 × 0.5
× 10 = 4905 joules.
Now give the object 4 wheels. The normal force between the 4 wheels and axles is the same (in total)
981 N. Assume, for wood, μ = 0.25, and say the wheel diameter is 1000 mm and axle diameter is
50 mm. So while the object still moves 10 m the sliding frictional surfaces only slide over each other
a distance of 0.5 m. The work done is 981 × 0.25 × 0.5 = 123 joules; the work done has reduced to
1/40 of that of dragging.
Additional energy is lost from the wheel-to-road interface. This is termed rolling resistance which is
predominantly a deformation loss. This energy is also lowered by the use of a wheel (in comparison
to dragging) because the net force on the contact point between the road and the wheel is almost
perpendicular to the ground, and hence, generates an almost zero network. This depends on the
nature of the ground, of the material of the wheel, its inflation in the case of a tire, the net torque
exerted by the eventual engine, and many other factors.
A wheel can also offer advantages in traversing irregular surfaces if the wheel radius is sufficiently
large compared to the irregularities.
The wheel alone is not a machine, but when attached to an axle in conjunction with bearing, it forms
the wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is an example of a wheel and axle.
Note that wheels pre-date driven wheels by about 6000 years, themselves an evolution of using
round logs as rollers to move a heavy load—a practice going back in pre-history so far, it has not
been dated.
3.3. BEARING
Basic Rating Life (L10)
Defined as the life associated with 90 percent reliability.
According to ABMA Std. 9, for an individual bearing, or a group of apparently identical bearings
operating under the same conditions, the life associated with 90% reliability, with contemporary,
commonly used material and manufacturing quality, and under conventional operating conditions.
The calculation is based on JIS B 1518
If the speed is constant, the life is usually expressed in hours. The relationship between basic rating
life and life hours is as follows:
There are two types of bearing load to consider with a ball bearing: radial load, which represents
loads perpendicular to the shaft, and axial, or thrust, load, which represents loads parallel to the shaft.
A ball bearing can handle both of these kinds of loads, but different loads affect bearings in different
ways, so multiple bearing rating calculations are required. The load bearing calculations are outlined
by the JIS / ISO, which provides standards for not only the ball bearing but also for a wide variety of
industrial activities requiring accurate measures. JIS / ISO measurements are widely accepted
standards throughout the world. You will find all ball bearing standards under JIS B, as B is the
classification regarding mechanical engineering, which is the classification the bearing falls under
(other classifications include A for civil engineering and C for electrical engineering).
Use the load ratings to determine how many of each type of ball bearing you will need and which
type of bearing will be appropriate to your needs, so that you can enjoy long, effective life for your
bearing-using applications. Bearing information regarding various load ratings follows below.
Pr = XFr + YFa
X and Y are taken from the table below
Fr = Radial load (N)
Fa = Axial load (N)
3.3.3. DATA
Basic dynamic radial load rating(Cr): 553N
Ball Diameter (Dw):1.5875mm
Number of Balls (Z):6
Speed in rpm (n):3000min-1
Radial load(Fr):6N
Axial load (Fa):8N
The static radial load rating is dependent on the maximum contact stress between the balls and either
of the two raceways.
Using the calculations below, the larger of the two values should be used as the Static Equivalent
Radial Load:
If you have any further questions regarding ball bearing loads or ball bearing life, please feel free
to contact NMB at any time in order to get more specific information. Our highly qualified ball
bearing engineers will be happy to answer any questions you may have promptly and completely.
3.4. SHAFT
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a machine
which absorbs power. The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted on it.
3.4.1. TYPES
They are mainly classified into two types.
Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine absorbing
power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.
3.4.2. MATERIALS
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, an alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.
Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.
TRANSMISSION SHAFTS
25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps
60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps
The standard lengths of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.
STRESSES
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.
Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).
Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine elements
like gears and pulleys as well as the self-weight of the shaft.
Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
DESIGN STRESSES
The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression) may be taken as:
112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.
84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:
56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.
42 /mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
Pitch – As described earlier, pitch is the measured length between the centres of the holes in the
link plates. The pitch of the chain links must reflect the size of the sprocket teeth. The other three
measurements are directly proportional to the chain’s pitch.
Width – The width is defined as the distance between the inner link plates. The width is
approximately 5/8th of the link pitch.
Pin Diameter – The pin diameter is the diameter of the pin connecting the inside and outside
link plates together. The pin diameter is approximately 5/16 th of the link pitch, and about half the size
of the roller diameter.
Link Plate Thickness – The inner and outer link plates are the same thickness, which is
approximately 1/8th of the link pitch. The thickness of link plates for the heavy series of any pitch chain
is approximately the same as the thickness of the plates on the next larger pitch standard series chain.
Pedal spindles are hard steel, and gradually fret and erode the crank arm where the two meet. This can
eventually be a cause of crank breakage, which commonly occurs at the pedal eye. Some
manufacturers advise the use of a thin steel washer between the pedal and crank, but this is ineffective
because the hard washer frets against the crank instead. A solution, suggested by Jobst Brandt, is to use
a 45 degree taper at the surface where crank and pedal meet, as this would eliminate
precession-induced fretting and loosening (it is already done for most automobile lug nuts for the latter
reason). However, this would require manufacturers to change a well-established standard which
currently allows most pedals to be fitted to most cranks.
The solution to the issue of fretting is to use a metal based anti-seize lubricant; being composed of
assorted mixtures of aluminium, copper, graphite and nickel powders in a grease base – that allows
repeated assembly and disassembly without wear and the elimination of fretting corrosion during use.
3.7. SPROCKET
The sprockets are connected to the shaft by one of several available methods. However, connection by
a keyway and grub screw is common. Sprockets give the same drive speed, increased drive speed or
decreased drive speed. This is achieved by varying the number of teeth in each sprocket. The same
number of teeth gives the same speed to the driven shaft. If the driven sprockets teeth are less, then the
speed increases and if the driven sprockets teeth are more, this will decrease the speed of the driven
shaft.
A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, or cogs, that mesh with a chain, track or
other perforated or indented material. The name 'sprocket' applies generally to any wheel upon which
radial projections engage a chain passing over it. It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are
never meshed together directly, and differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are
smooth.
Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and other machinery either to
transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a
track, tape etc. Perhaps the most common form of sprocket may be found in the bicycle, in which the
pedal shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel, which drives a chain, which, in turn, drives a small sprocket
on the axle of the rear wheel. Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket and chain
mechanism, a practice largely copied from bicycles.
Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each by its originator.
Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used with belts have flanges to keep the
timing belt centred. Sprockets and chains are also used for power transmission from one shaft to
another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket chains being used instead of belts or ropes and
sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can be run at high speed and some forms of chain are so
constructed as to be noiseless even at high speed.
3.8. DC MOTORElectrical motors are everywhere around us. Almost all the electro-mechanical
movements we see around us are caused either by an AC or a DC motor. Here we will be exploring
DC motors. This is a device that converts DC electrical energy to a mechanical energy.
This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction of
rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical
force, and based on that the working principle of DC motor is established.
The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the
index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to each
other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the
direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction in which force is experienced by the
shaft of the DC motor.
Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a DC generator, but
electrically it is just the opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical energy to the input
port and derive mechanical energy from the output port. We can represent it by the block diagram
shown below.
Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is given to the electrical port or the input port
and we derive the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the mechanical port or output
port.
The input and output port variables of the direct current motor are related by the parameter K.
So from the picture above we can well understand that motor is just the
opposite phenomena of a DC generator, and we can derive both motoring and generating operation
from the same machine by simply reversing the ports.
The direct current motor is represented by the circle in the centre, on which is mounted the brushes,
where we connect the external terminals, from where supply voltage is given. On the mechanical
terminal we have a shaft coming out of the Motor, and connected to the armature, and the
armature-shaft is coupled to the mechanical load. On the supply terminals we represent the
armature resistance Ra in series. Now, let the input voltage E, is applied across the brushes. Electric
current which flows through the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic field,
produces a torque Tg. Due to this torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates. As the armature
conductors are carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator magnetic field, it also
produces an emf Eb in the manner very similar to that of a generator. The generated Emf Eb is
directed opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back Emf, as it counters the forward
voltage.
Where,
P = no of poles
φ = flux per pole
Z= No. of conductors
A = No. of parallel paths and
N is the speed of the DC Motor.
So, from the above equation we can see E b is proportional to speed ‘N’. That is whenever a direct
current motor rotates, it results in the generation of back Emf. Now let us represent the rotor speed
by ω in rad/sec. So Eb is proportional to ω. So, when the speed of the motor is reduced by the
application of load, Eb decreases. Thus the voltage difference between supply voltage and back emf
increases that means E − Eb increases. Due to this increased voltage difference, armature current will
increase and therefore torque and hence speed increases. Thus a DC Motor is capable of maintaining
the same speed under variable load.
Now armature current Ia is represented by
Eb = 0.
Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor has a very high starting
current in the absence of back Emf. As a result we need to use a starter for starting a DC Motor.
Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back Emf starts being generated and gradually the current
decreases as the motor picks up speed.
3.8.1. INTRODUCTION
Two important concepts in gearing are pitch surface and pitch angle. The pitch surface of a gear is the
imaginary toothless surface that you would have by averaging out the peaks and valleys of the
individual teeth. The pitch surface of an ordinary gear is the shape of a cylinder. The pitch angle of a
gear is the angle between the face of the pitch surface and the axis.
The most familiar kinds of bevel gears have pitch angles of less than 90 degrees and therefore are
cone-shaped. This type of bevel gear is called external because the gear teeth point outward. The pitch
surfaces of meshed external bevel gears are coaxial with the gear shafts; the apexes of the two surfaces
are at the point of intersection of the shaft axes.
Bevel gears that have pitch angles of greater than ninety degrees have teeth that point inward and are
called internal bevel gears.
Bevel gears that have pitch angles of exactly 90 degrees have teeth that point outward parallel with the
axis and resemble the points on a crown. That's why this type of bevel gear is called a crown gear.
Miter gears are mating bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and with axes at right angles. Skew
bevel gears are those for which the corresponding crown gear has teeth that are straight and oblique.
3.8.2. TYPES
Bevel gears are classified in different types according to geometry:
Straight bevel gears have conical pitch surface and teeth are straight and tapering towards apex.
Spiral bevel gears have curved teeth at an angle allowing tooth contact to be gradual and
smooth.
Zero bevel gears are very similar to a bevel gear only exception is the teeth are curved: the ends
of each tooth are coplanar with the axis, but the middle of each tooth is swept circumferentially
around the gear. Zerol bevel gears can be thought of as spiral bevel gears (which also have
curved teeth) but with a spiral angle of zero (so the ends of the teeth align with the axis).
Hypoid bevel gears are similar to spiral bevel but the pitch surfaces are hyperbolic and not
conical.
VI. RESULT
After modification of automatic operated reaper it work continuously and gives more efficiency than
the machine before modify. Conveying mechanism now help to stop clogging and decreases the
cutting losses. Continuous working leads to harvest crop in less time with minimum man power.
Based on analysis of results following conclusion are drawn:
The automatic operated reaper is high labour saving equipment.
The cost of reaper is low so it is affordable to small farmers. The field efficiency is
satisfactory which more than 66%, it increases from 59% due to its modifications.
REFERENCE
I. Http://Www.Countrystudies.Us/Ethiopia
II. Alemu Yemane, “Design of Mechanical Driven Reaper” Ethiopia, 2012.
III. CADU 1969 Progress Report No.1. “Implement Research Section” CADU Publication No. 32.
IV. Ankur S. S, & Prof, Sachin V.D, “conceptual model preparation for wheat cutter for small scale farmer”
IJPRET, 2013 vol. 1(9)
V. Siddaling S & B.S.Ravaikiran, 2015, “Design And Fabrication Of Small Scale Sugarcane Harvesting Machine,”
IJERGC Vol 3.
VI. Prof. P.B.Chavan, et al, 2015, “Design and Development of Manually Operated Reaper,” Vol 12.
VII. Rayapura V.R. 1947, “Design and Development or Reaper for Indian Conditions,” India.