CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

Conceptual Literature

The following topics discussed under conceptual literature the definition of

migration and the effects of migration in terms of social, economic, and academic

status of students.

Migration. In the book of Isaac (2013) entitled “Economics of Migration,” it

is stated that migration is distinguished from invasion and conquest, may take

many forms, such as: slave trading, the sale of serfs, the deportation of

undesirable aliens or nationals and of convicts. It has a twofold aspect; it covers

both emigration and immigration.

What could be the reasons of migration among these individuals?

According to King and Lulle (2016), people migrate for a variety of reasons, often

in combination. Decisions might be related to work, study, family reunion,

lifestyle, escape from oppression and many other factors but for the majority of

the migrants, the underlying rationale for this is due to economic (Research on

Migration, Facing Realities and Maximizing Opportunities, 2016, p.19). Their

reasons could be for the betterment of their material or social conditions and

improve the prospect for themselves and their family.

But the broad social, economic and political underpinnings of this mobility

are diverse and not always known, although they are linked to the notion of

globalization in broad terms. They include factors as diverse as international

patterns of demand for and supply of labor; the relative cheapness of

international transport; the advent of systems of electronic communication, and

the emergence of transnational family networks stated by Migration and Human

Mobility, (2012).

Migration does not apply only on an international level. Some migrants

migrate but do not leave their country instead they settle for other places inside

of it. This is called internal migration. Migration is a phenomenon that happens

whenever a person or a group of persons leave a place in search of other places

that may have the necessary needs that their previous location does not have.

But since migrating requires a lot of time, effort and mostly money, some people

prefer to migrate to other places inside their country that they think can help

provide for themselves (Study of Adalia, L. et.al, 2018).

There are many factors that may affect the migrant after he or she

migrates. Some of these are the culture and tradition, language barrier and the

difficulty of looking for employment. Pull factors are the reasons why people are

attracted or pulled to a particular area. Stated by Ultimate Visa Corporation

(2019), people migrate for a number of reasons that fall under: environmental,

economic, cultural, political, and social. In addition to this, International Labour

Organization, (2015) found out that most of the healthcare workers migrates

because of the unfair working conditions, limited job opportunities and low-paying

jobs.

Social Effects of Migration. Stated in the study “Hither to Unknown

Facet of Migration in Batangas City: Basis for a Radio Program” completed by

Estoye and Hornilla (2013) that due to migration, students found it easier to

interact with the people inherent to the place. They never felt being out of place

and never lost their connection with other family members and relatives. They

also found it easier to adopt the practices in the community. Students

experienced culture shock at first but get used of it as time pass by.

In the study of Pesigan, J. et. al (2017), states that absentee parents or

lack of parental supervision may lead to negative behavior of children in conflict

with the law. It was during this adolescent period that the teens start to feel the

need for love and belongingness. Most teens begin to explore by having ins and

outs relationship, a lot of trial and error, sorting out new feelings. Due to absence

of parents, the teens tend to choose the wrong path believing that no one is

guiding them.

In the editorial “The Social Cost of Migration,” of the Philippine Star

(2015), Apart from urban migration, the country has become one of the world’s

largest exporters of labor. From blue-collar workers to sailors, health

professionals and financial managers, Filipinos are finding jobs overseas. Some

do it for adventure, but most are forced to work abroad for lack of decent

alternatives in their own country. A number of them are vulnerable to labor

exploitation, physical and sexual abuse. The estimated 10 million overseas

Filipino workers remit billions annually, accounting for a significant chunk of

national production, but the social costs of the OFW phenomenon are well

documented. Children are growing up without one or both parents, Marriage are

breaking up, with spouses unable to withstand long periods of separation. The
extended family, which provides a healthy support network for the very young,

the elderly and infirm, is weakening.

Economic Effects of Migration. In a global scale, migrant domestic

workers gives a significant contribution to the global economy which includes

increasing paid job opportunities for women and men workers with family

responsibilities, greater scopes for caring ageing populations, children and

persons with disability, and substantially income transfers within and between

countries (Decent Work for Domestic Workers, Convention 189,

Recommendation 201, ILO, 2011).

A finding in the study of Pesigan J. et. al (2017), presents the economic

factors influencing the negative behavior of children. The findings indicate the

importance of having a complete family in child development in order to achieve

a healthy life. This was confirmed in a study conducted by Sahmey (2013), which

indicates that offences committed by the delinquents were mainly due to the

combination of various influences such as a family pressure and poor socio-

economic status. Similarly, the study of Low et.al (2012) confirmed that economic

strain resulted to harsh/inconsistent parenting, sibling aggression and delinquent

peer association leads to delinquency behavior.

Stated in the study “Job Satisfaction and Organizational Climate of Jesus

of Nazareth Hospital in Batangas City” of Sevilla A. et. al (2015), the respondents

are less satisfied in terms of their current salary. Kabir (2011), said that money is

a good motivator; actually, all employees work or money, employees need

money, a good salary and good compensation are key factors in satisfying the
employee. The salary and compensation can be increased to motivate the

employees. The good playback can be one of the key factors affecting job

satisfaction. In this way one can increase the service quality and organizational

performance.

Due to poverty, written by Mozo M. (2011) at the Manila Bulletin, a Cebu-

based migration consultancy firm has observed a greater number of Filipinos

migrating abroad, particularly in Canada, all with the common goal of seeking

greener pastures overseas.

Academic Effects of Migration. Jensen (2013) stated that another

difference is the environment impact of the families with high/low income to their

child’s learning. Some students from low income earners have difficulties to

understand or learn as fast as others. Their vocabulary can be less and not that

much as the other students from different background. Also, their way of learning

and understanding are different from others, because their parents may not have

them at home or they have single parent. If they are poor then their parents must

work all the day for them, so there will be no time for them to help their children

with homework. Another thing is the stress they have and their family at home.

These ways affect their grades because no one help them sometimes, care

about their success in schools.

Lacour and Tissington (2011) examined the effects of poverty on

academic achievement in the USA. They conclude their study that poverty

directly affect academic achievement due to the lack of resources available for

student’s success; thus, low academic achievement is closely correlated with

lack of resources, with emphasis on Financial resources. They recommended

that instructional techniques and strategies implemented at the classroom,

school, district and government levels can help close the achievement gap by

providing students with necessary assistance in order to achieve high

performance in academics.

In the study of Kelly and Moogan (2012), the globalization of higher

education brings together learners and teachers from differing systems, creating

a heterogenous and diverse environment. Yet many higher education institutions

typically rely on foreign students themselves to adapt to their new higher

education environments.

Related Studies

Researchers conducted a review of the studies that had been performed

possessing interrelation with the present study. This literature is full of valuable

contributions providing numerous avenues for improving existing research and

answering queries regarding effects of migration.

The Paper “Rural Migration in Bolivia: The Impact of Climate Change,

Economic Crisis and State Policy” by Marsiscal, et. al (2011), describes the

impact of gradual environmental change on the livelihood of people living in two

very different areas in Bolivia, the Northern Potosi region, in the Andean

highlands, and the municipality of San Julian, in the tropical eastern lowlands of

the country. The authors show that mobility has long been an essential

component of livelihood in both locations and in many cases, it is increasing as

the result of the decline in natural resources due to climate change. There are

also important links between internal and international migration, and growing

reliance on remittances and transfers of cash and food. At the same time,

however, there are major differences in the duration and destinations of

migration, and in the composition of the migrant’s flows. These differences are

determined by socio-economic and cultural factors such as limited local non-farm

economic opportunities and restricted access to land, which make it difficult to

diversify income sources and increase people’s vulnerability. This is especially

the case for young people, who are the largest proportion of migrants in both the

research’s locations.

In the work of Faggian A. et. al (2010), stated that there are institutional

difference between the two countries where the push and pull effect happened,

which mean that the mobility effects of human capital acquisition have to be

interpreted carefully in the light of other economic, geographical and social

influences. Aside from parents, students are the most affected in this push and

pull effect. Student may or may not attain their needs or increase their wealth as

they migrated. Meanwhile, their social influences may improve a lot as you

encounter different types of persons.

The study of Adalia et. al (2018), concluded that the kasambahays have

been motivated by extrinsic and intrinsic factors to migrate. It was also concluded

that among the extrinsic factor, money was the highest motivator while the

benefits were the lowest. Among the intrinsic factor, it can be concluded that

personal fulfillment was the highest motivator and knowledge and skills was the
lowest. Moreover, it can be concluded that kasambahays have dispositional

optimism about migration. After migration, the kasambahays’ family start to

obtain their personal needs and wants.

A study conducted by Estoye & Hornilla (2013), found out that migration

has a positive effect on the respondents in terms of social aspect while there was

a negative effect on the economic aspects. The differences in responses

pertaining to the effects of migration in both social economic aspects were not

significant when grouped according to the profile variables.

According to the study of Bai, et. al (2016), there are concerns about the

potential negative effects of parental migration on the academic performance of

the students that could be due to the absence of parental care. However, it might

also be that when a child’s parents work away from home, their remittances can

increase the household’s income and provide more resources and that this can

lead to better academic performance.

In supporting study of Dreher & Poutvaara (2011), they use a panel data

to examine the impact of the inflow of foreign students to the United States on

migration patterns in the country. Finding out that the stock of foreign students is

an important predictor of subsequent migration. They stated that the students felt

culture shock nor acculturation as they stay in the country. In exchange, the

quality of education is good enough resulting in a significant brain gain for the

United States.

Cited by Salami (2011), after migration, adjustment to the environment is

needed. Adjustment is a continual process by which a person varies his/her

behavior to produce a more harmonious relationship between himself/herself and

his/her environment. It implies changes in our thinking and way of demands of

the situation. Adjustment could be seen as a condition or state in which one feels

that one’s need have been (or will be) fulfilled and one’s behaviors conforms to

the need of given information. Socializing is also needed to learn adjustments.

A study of Oliveira (2016), Isolating the impact of maternal migration on

the future ambitions of children left behind is difficult in a country with such long-

standing migration ties to the United States. To determine how maternal

migration affects school experience and the educational aspirations of boys and

girls in Mexico, the author conducted surveys with 225 children between the ages

of 7 and 16 in four schools in the Tlapanalá municipality in the state of Puebla.

The surveys were conducted in three secundarias, or junior high schools (185

students) and one primaria, or elementary school (40 students) in June 2012.

The two factors used to examine educational experience were homework

completion and desire to continue studying in the future. During extensive

ethnographic research in Puebla, the author found that parental migration

influenced the educational aspirations of youth in a gendered manner. Even

though both boys and girls reported experiencing feelings of resentment and love

for their absent mothers, they responded differently when the issue at stake was

academic performance and schooling experiences.

A study of Tamayo (2011), The decision to migrate is not the sole function

of the prospect migrant, but the process of comparing the losses and benefits as

evaluated by the whole members of family. A total of 415 respondents were

surveyed in this study to characterize migration potential. Of those who are

migration potential, their willingness to pay was obtained which was used as

contingent value to migrate. The Tobit regression was also employed to

determine the threshold willingness to pay of the respondents. Migration

potentials are those who are high-income earners and have high formal

education. The migration-averse are those who belong to households with a

greater number of members of the family doing remunerative jobs; females are

also migration-averse. Contingent migration estimates revealed that religion and

household size would make the potential migrant to pay as much as it take to go

abroad; however, the highly-educated potential migrants are willing to pay less in

order to migrate

Synthesis

The study of Mariscal, et. al (2011), Development Economics (2011),

Adalia,ssss et. al (2018), and Estoye and Hornilla (2013) are related to the

present study for they all tackle about the economic effects of migration. Aside

from the reason they migrated because of lack of money and poverty, they

migrated due to environmental changes and gradual climate change. Another

comparison study of Bai, et. al (2016), and Dreher and Poutvaara (2011), stated

that migration will lead to absence of parental care. In exchange, household

income will increase and can sustain your academic needs. Migration can also

lead to culture shock or acculturation in exchange for good quality of education.

In the study of Faggian, et. al (2010), summarizes that migration can affect the

migrants in economic, geographical and social influences while in the present

study, it summarizes the