TOPIC 7

COMPONENTS, QUANTITIES AND UNITS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the three types of electrical components (LO4, LO3).
2. Use the electrical measuring tools properly (LO4, LO3).
3. Use the formulas to calculate values for resistance, capacitance,
inductance and power in series or parallel components (LO4, LO3).

CONTENT

7.0 INTRODUCTION
A thorough background in DC and AC circuit fundamentals provides the
foundation of understanding electronic devices and circuits. In this
experiment, you will identify the basic of electrical components; the units
correspond to each different component, and utilize the electrical measuring
instruments for example Digital Multimeter.

7.1 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

RESISTOR
Resistors resist or limit electric current in a circuit.

Symbol Unit: Ohm (Ω)

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CAPACITORS
Capacitors store electrical charge and are found in a variety of applications.
They used to be called condenser.

Symbol: Unit: Farad (F)

INDUCTOR
Inductors also known as coils, are used to store energy in an electromagnetic
field, they serve many useful functions in an electrical circuit.

Symbol: Unit: Henry (H)

VOLTAGE
The voltage across an element is the work (energy) required to move a unit
positive charge from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. The unit of
voltage is the volt, V.

Voltage (V) is expressed as energy (W) divided by charge.

W (J )
V  (1)
Q( J )
where;
V = Voltage
W = Energy or Work
Q = Charge

CURRENT
Current is the time rate of flow of electric charge past a given point. The unit
of current is the ampere (A); an ampere is 1 Coulomb per second.

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POWER AND ENERGY
Power is the rate of expanding or observing energy.

P = IV (2)

Energy is the fundamental ability to do work.

W = Pt (3)

Table 7.1 Power by an element

Power absorbed by an element Power supplied by an element

Since the reference directions of V Since the reference directions of

and I adhere to the passive V and I do not adhere to the
convention, the power passive convention, the power

P = Vi P=Vi

is the power absorbed by the is the power supplied by the

element element

7.2 PRELAB (10%)

a. According to Figure 7.1 below, write down the total resistance, RT in

mathematical formula and calculate the RT.

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 (b)

Figure 7.1

Figure Mathematical Formula, RT Calculation

7.1(a)

7.1 (b)

b. According to Figure 7.2 below, write down the total capacitance, CT in

mathematical formula and calculate the CT.

Figure 7.2

Figure Mathematical Formula, RT Calculation

7.2 (a)

7.2 (b)

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c. Using Equation 2 (refer to Theory), calculate power from Figure 7.3
below. Next, determine the number of kilowatt-hours of energy when
you use the equivalent of 1000W of power for 1 hour.

Figure 7.3

7.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

a. Resistors
b. Capacitors
c. Inductors
d. RCL meters
e. DC Power Supply
f. Wires
g. Breadboard

7.4 ACTIVITIES

7.4.1 RESULTS & OBSERVATION (40%)

Resistors
a. Determine the resistor values based on the colour codes given in the
Table 7.2.

Figure 7.4

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b. Connect the resistors as shown in Figure 7.5 into a breadboard. Next,
using the RCL meter, measure the total resistance, RT in Figure 7.5.
Repeat the same step for Figure 7.6. Write down your results in Table
7.3.

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

c. What can you deduce from the results obtained in Table 7.3?

Capacitors
a. Measure the total capacitance in Figure 7.7 and 7.8 respectively using
RCL meter. Write down your results in Table 7.4.

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.8

b. What can you deduce from the results obtained in Table 7.4?

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Inductors
a. Calculate the total inductance, LT for Figure 7.9 and 7.10. Write down
your results in Table 7.5.

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

b. Compare the total inductance in parallel with the smallest value of

individual inductor.

Table 7.2
Num. Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Resistor
Value (Ω)
1. Orange Orange Brown Gold
2. Red Red Red Gold
3. Green Blue Orange Silver
4. Brown Black Yellow Silver

Table 7.3
Figure Measurement
7.5
7.6

Table 7.4
Figure Measurement
7.7
7.8

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 Table 7.5
Figure Measurement
7.9
7.10

7.4.2 QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION (35%)

a. What is the purpose of specifying the tolerance of the resistor?

b. Determine whether the resistor in each circuit of Figure 7.11 below

has possibly been damaged by overheating. (This can be done by
calculating power for each circuit and compare it with the power rated
on each resistor, respectively).

Figure 7.11

7.4.3 CONCLUSION (5%)

Write a conclusion to reflect your comprehension in this experiment.

7.5 REFERENCES
a. Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory Circuit Analysis (12th ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall International. Call number: TK454
.B69 2010.
b. Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky L. (2006). Electronic Devices and Curcuit
Theory (9th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Call number:
TK7867 .B69 2006.
c. Ralph, J. S. Penterjemah: Abd Rahman Ramli, Rahman Wagiman,
Shahbudin Shaari (1995). Elektronik: Litar dan Peranti. DBP.

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 TOPIC 8

OHM’S LAW

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Verify the relationship between current, voltage and resistance in a
circuit. (LO4, LO3)
2. Calculate the value of resistance correctly from the current-voltage
graph. (LO4, LO3)
3. Solve simple circuit problems by using three different forms of Ohm’s
Law. (LO4, LO3)

CONTENT

8.0 INTRODUCTION
Ohm's law is an empirical law, a generalization from many experiments that
have shown that current is approximately proportional to electric field for
most materials. Ohm's law has been observed on a wide range of length
scales. In the early 20th century, it was thought that Ohm's law would fail at
the atomic scale, but experiments have not borne out this expectation.

This experiment aims to provide an introduction to the three basic quantities

in electric circuit, understand the relationship among those three quantities as
well as to prove the Ohm’s Law experimentally.

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8.1 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY
Ohm’s Law describes mathematically how voltage, current and resistances in
a circuit are related. Ohm’s Law is used in three equivalent forms depending
on which quantity are needed to be determined.

Given the value of current and resistance, the value of voltage can be found
using
V  IR

Likewise, if the value of voltage and resistance are known, the value of
current can be determined using

V
I
R

Similarly, supposed the value of voltage and current are given, the value of
resistance can be determined using

V
R
I

8.2 PRELAB (10%)

1. Explain the colour code resistor.
2. Using your own words, restate the definition of Ohm’s Law.
3. Discuss the sign convention for the passive element. Use a diagram to
assist your explanation.
4. With the aided graphs, explain about the voltage-current AND current-
voltage relationship.

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8.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
1. Analog or Digital Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. DC Power Supply
4. Wires
5. Breadboard

8.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Task 1: Determine the value of voltage and current by varying the
resistance

a. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 8.1 with the value of Vs is 7V

and the value of R1 is 1kΩ. Refer to Appendix A to connect the DC
power supply.

Figure 8.1

b. Measure the value of current, I and the voltage, V1 across resistor R1.
Refer to Appendix A on how to measure voltage and current using
multimeter.
c. Record your reading in Table 8.1.
d. Repeat step 2-3 for different values of resistors according to Table
8.1.
e. Complete Table 8.1 for all specified values of resistor.
f. Write a short discussion based on the complete results obtained.

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Task 2: Determine the value of resistance from current-voltage (I-V)
graph

a. Build the circuit as shown in Figure 8.2 with the value of Vs is 2.0V.
For R1, choose any value of resistors.

Figure 8.2

b. Measure the value of current I.

c. Record your reading in Table 8.2.
d. Repeat step 2-4 for different values of Vs according to Table 8.2.
e. Complete Table 8.2 for all specified values of Vs.
f. Plot a current vs. voltage (I-V) graph based on data in Table 8.2.
g. Predict the value of unknown resistance R1 from your graph.
h. Write a short discussion based on the complete results obtained.

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8.5 ACTIVITIES

8.5.1 RESULTS & OBSERVATIONS (40%)

a. Complete the Table 8.1 and Table 8.2 with the correct values.

Task 1
Table 8.1
R1(Ω) I(A) V1(V)
390
470
560
1.0k
2.2k
3.3k
4.9k

Task 2
Table 8.2
VS(V) I(A)
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0

b. Plot the I-V graph on the attached graph paper. Do include the graph
title and label the axes involve. Next, find the unknown resistance
value from the plotted graph and show the calculation on the same
graph paper.

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8.5.2 QUESTIONS & DISCUSSIONS (35%)
a. Use Ohm’s Law to complete Table 8.3.

Table 8.3
I(mA) R(Ω) V(V)
1.2k 2.5
6.8k 1.2
3.3M 240
390 5.6
8.2k 9.0

b. Use Ohm’s Law to complete Table 8.4.

Table 8.4

I(mA) V(V) R(Ω)

2.0 6.5

4.0 4.0

10.0 3.5

0.005 7.0

2.5 1.5

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c. How much resistance is required to limit current flow to 20mA with 24V
supply?

d. What happens to the current in an electric circuit when the voltage is

increased? When it is decreased? When the resistance is increased,
and when it is decreased?

8.5.3 CONCLUSION (5%)

Write a conclusion to reflect your comprehension in this experiment.

8.6 REFERENCES
a. Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory Circuit Analysis (12th ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall International. Call number: TK454
.B69 2010.
b. Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky L. (2006). Electronic Devices and Curcuit
Theory (9th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Call number:
TK7867 .B69 2006.
c. Ralph, J. S. Penterjemah: Abd Rahman Ramli, Rahman Wagiman,
Shahbudin Shaari (1995). Elektronik: Litar dan Peranti. DBP.

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 TOPIC 9

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS AND SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Identify relationship between the sums of the voltage drops across a
series of connected resistors and the applied voltage according to
KVL. (LO4, LO3)
2. Verify experimentally the relationship found in objective 1. (LO4, LO3)
3. Identify the relationship between the sums of the current entry any
junction of an electric circuit and the current leaving that junction
according to KCL. (LO4, LO3)
4. Verify experimentally the relationship found in objective 3. (LO4, LO3)
5. Differentiate between the series and parallel circuits based on the total
current flow and total voltage drop. (LO4, LO3)

CONTENT

9.0 INTRODUCTION
An electrical circuit is any continuous path or array of paths along which
current may flow. A circuit usually contains a battery or other sources of EMF
to create the current. Without a source of energy to drive the circuit no
current will flow. Between the terminals of our power source can be any
combination of elements through which the electrons may pass; anything
from a single wire to a complicated collection of wires, tubes, transistors and
circuit elements.

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Whatever the elements that makes up the circuit there are some simple rules
that must be obeyed. Two of these rules are Kirchhoff’s laws regarding
current and voltage. This experiment aims to provide an understanding in
Kirchhoff’s laws and to see the correlation between Kirchhoff’s laws and
series and parallel circuits.

9.1 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Resistors in Series & Resistors in Parallel
In series circuit, the resistors are connected end-to-end such that the current
is the same through each resistor; since the current has only one path
available. The voltage drop across each resistor depends on the resistor
value. Figure 9.1 shows the resistors connected in series.

Figure 9.1

For a series circuit the total equivalent resistance, Req, is given as:

The second type of circuit is parallel circuit. Resistor are said to be in parallel
when they are connected at both ends, such that the potential difference
applied across the combination is the same as the potential difference
applied across an individual resistor. The current through each resistor
depends on the resistor value. The current has more than one path available,
and takes all available paths. Figure 9.2 shows the resistor connected in
parallel.

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 Figure 9.2

For a parallel circuit the total equivalent resistance, Req, is as follows:

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 R3

Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff current law states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering
any node is identically zero at any instant of time. This statement is a
consequence of the fact that charges cannot accumulate at a node.

Example 1: Write the KCL equation for the principal node shown in Figure
9.3.

Figure 9.3

i1 – i2 + i3 – i4 + i5 = 0
i1 + i3 + i5 = i2 + i4

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Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages around
any closed path in a circuit is identically zero for all time. The algebraic sum
of voltage is totally dependent of the voltage polarity encountered along the
closed path.

Example 2: Write the KVL equation for the circuit shown in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4

-V1 + v 2 + v 3 – V4 + v 5 = 0
-V1 + iR1 + iR2 – V4 + iR5 = 0
V1 + V4 = i (R1 + R2+ R5)

9.2 PRELAB (10%)

a. What are series and parallel circuits?
b. By using your own words, define what are Kirchhoff Voltage Law
(KVL) and Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL).
c. What are Voltage Divider and Current Divider? Give one example to
illustrate the Voltage Divider and Current Divider respectively.

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9.3 LIST OF EQUIPMENT
a. Multimeter
b. Resistors (2.2kΩ, 4.7kΩ and 5.6kΩ)
c. DC power supply
d. Wire
e. Protoboard/Breadboard

9.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Task 1: Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) and Series Circuit
a. Measure the resistance of the 2.2kΩ, 4.7kΩ and 5.6kΩ resistors using
the multimeter.
b. Connect the circuit in Figure 9.5, onto your protoboard/breadboard.

Figure 9.5

c. Using the multimeter, measure the node voltages VA, VB and VC with
respect to ground.
d. Measure the current IA, IB and IC.
e. Record all your measured data in Table 9.1.

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Task 2: Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) and Parallel Circuit
a. Build the circuit as shown in Figure 9.6.

5.6KΩ

Figure 9.6

b. Measure VAB, VBC, VB and VC. (Measure VB and VC with respect to

ground).
c. Measure the currents I1, I2 and I3. Make sure that all current values
satisfy the KCL rule.
d. Record the measured data in Table 9.2.

9.5 ACTIVITIES

9.5.1 RESULTS (40%)

KVL and Series Circuit
Table 9.1
Measurement
Voltage
Value
VA
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC

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Compare the total voltage drop across resistors with the supply voltage.
Next, compare the current values IA, IB and IC. Write down your answer
summarizing these two comparisons.

KCL and Parallel Circuit

Table 9.2
Measurement
Voltage
Value (V)
VAB
VBC
VB
VC
I1
I2
I3

Compare these two voltage values: VB and VB+VC. Then, compare all current
values.

9.5.2 DISCUSSION & QUESTION (35%)

a. Discuss how do theorems of KVL and KCL assist you to verify the
answer obtained in this experiment.

b. From Figure 9.7 above, find current, I3 flowing through resistor 1.2kΩ.
SHOW ALL CALCULATION STEPS.

510Ω 100Ω
25V 1.2kΩ 120Ω

Figure 9.7

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9.5.3 CONCLUSION (5%)
Write a conclusion to reflect your comprehension in this lab session.

9.6 REFERENCES
a. Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory Circuit Analysis (12th ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall International. Call number: TK454
.B69 2010.
b. Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky L. (2006). Electronic Devices and Curcuit
Theory (9th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Call number:
TK7867 .B69 2006.
c. Ralph, J. S. Penterjemah: Abd Rahman Ramli, Rahman Wagiman,
Shahbudin Shaari (1995). Elektronik: Litar dan Peranti. DBP.

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 TOPIC 10

SUPERPOSITION

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Verify experimentally the superposition method. (LO4, LO3)
2. Calculate the circuit with two voltage supplies by using the
superposition method. (LO4, LO3)

CONTENT

10.0 INTRODUCTION
The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that for a linear
system the response (Voltage or Current) in any branch of a bilateral linear
circuit having more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of
the responses caused by each independent source acting alone, while all
other independent sources are replaced by their internal impedances.

The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It is used in

converting any circuit into its Norton equivalent or Thevenin equivalent.
Applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant) consisting of
independent sources, linear dependent sources, linear passive elements
Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors and linear transformers.

Another point that should be considered is that superposition only works for
voltage and current but not power. In other words the sum of the powers is
not the real consumed power. To calculate power we should first use

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superposition to find both current and voltage of that linear element and then
calculate sum of the multiplied voltages and currents respectively.

10.1 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Some circuits require more than one voltage source. For example, certain
types of amplifiers require both a positive and negative voltage source for
proper operation. The superposition method is a way of determining currents
and voltages in a circuit that has multiple sources by taking one source at a
time. The other sources are replaced by their internal resistances.

A general statement of the superposition theorem is as follows:

The current in any given branch of a multiple source circuit can be found by
determining the current in that particular branch produced by each source
acting alone, with all other sources replaced by their internal resistances. The
total current in the branch is the algebraic sum of the individual source
currents in that branch.

The steps in applying superposition theorem are as follows:

Step1. Take one voltage source at a time and replace each of the other
voltage sources with a short circuit. (A short circuit represents zero
resistance).

Step2. Determine the current or voltage that you need just as if there were
only that one source in the circuit.

Step3. Repeat step 1 and 2 for each other source in turn.

Step4. To find the actual current or voltage, add or subtract the currents or
voltages due to the individual sources. Add if the currents are in the
same direction or if the voltages are of the same polarity. Subtract if
the currents are in the opposite direction or the voltages are of
opposite polarities.

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10.2 PRELAB (10%)
There are several methods that can be employed when analysing the
electrical circuit such as KVL and KCL. This time you are required to find the
information on other analysis methods and they are as follow:-
1. BRANCH CURRENT METHOD
2. MESH CURRENT METHOD
3. NODE-VOLTAGE METHOD

Next, study the superposition theorem and make a short note on it.

10.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

a. Dual power supply
b. Multimeter
c. Resistors (820 Ω, 1.2 kΩ, 2.2k Ω)
d. Breadboard

10.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a. Construct the circuit as in Figure 10.1. Measure V1, V2, V3, I1, I2 and
I3. Record your readings in Table 10.1.

Figure 10.1

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b. Construct the circuit in Figure 10.2. Measure V1, V2, V3, I1, I2 and I3.
Fill in the Table 10.1.

+ - + -

Figure 10.2

c. Sum up the total voltage obtained in step 1 and 2 and fill in the Table
10.1.
d. Construct the circuit in Figure 10.3 below. Measure V1, V2, V3, I1, I2
and I3. Record your readings in Table 10.1.

Figure 10.3

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10.5 ACTIVITIES

10.5.1 RESULTS & CALCULATION (40%)

Table 10.1

V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3

Readings from Figure 1

(A)
Readings from Figure 2
(B)

A+B

Readings from Figure 3

(C)

By referring to Figure 10.3, CALCULATE V1, V2, V3, I1, I2 and I3 by

employing the Superposition method. SHOW ALL CALCULATION STEPS.

10.5.2 QUESTION & DISCUSSION (35%)

a. Discuss why the voltage source shorted and a current source are
opened when the superposition method is applied.

b. Do the results of your experiment confirm the superposition theorem?

If yes, give specific data from Table 10.1.

c. Why is it important to include the polarity sign when recording the

value of current in the circuits?

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10.5.3 CONCLUSION (10%)
Write a conclusion to reflect your comprehension in this lab session.

10.6 REFERENCES
a. Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory Circuit Analysis (12th ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall International. Call number: TK454
.B69 2010.
b. Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky L. (2006). Electronic Devices and Curcuit
Theory (9th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Call number:
TK7867 .B69 2006.
c. Ralph, J. S. Penterjemah: Abd Rahman Ramli, Rahman Wagiman,
Shahbudin Shaari (1995). Elektronik: Litar dan Peranti. DBP.

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 TOPIC 11

THEVENIN THEOREM

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Verify the theory of Thevenin’s Theorem experimentally. (LO4, LO3)
2. Investigate the condition for maximum power transfer to occur. (LO4,
LO3)

CONTENT

11.0 INTRODUCTION
Thevenin’s theorem is a popular theorem, used often for analysis of
electronic circuits. Its theoretical value is due to the insight it offers about the
circuit. This theorem states that a linear circuit containing one or more
sources and other linear elements can be represented by a voltage source
and a resistance. Using this theorem, a model of the circuit can be developed
based on its output characteristic.

11.1 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear two terminal networks can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a constant voltage in series
with a resistor. Thevenin’s theorem can be demonstrated using a circuit as
shown in Figure 11.1.

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 Figure 11.1

Let us determine the current IL through the resistor RL. The first step is to
remove the RL, giving us the circuit as in Figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2

The Thevenin’s voltage, VTh, is the voltage across the open circuit terminal
AB;

R2
VTh  VS
R1  R2

We then calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTh, appearing

across terminals A and B as in Figure 11.3. The voltage source is replaced
with a short circuit.

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 Figure 11.3

The equivalent resistance observed from terminal AB is

R 1R 2
R Th   R3
R1  R 2

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 11.4:

Figure 11.4

To find the current IL, in the RL, insert RL across the terminal AB as in Figure
11.5.

Figure 11.5

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 VTh
Load current IL is given as IL 
RTh  RL

11.2 PRELAB (10%)

a. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as in Figure 11.6 below. Next,
find the current through RL.
b. Explain the concept of Maximum Power Transfer and state what is the
condition for it to happen.

Figure 11.6

11.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

a. Dual power supply
b. Multimeter
c. Resistors (1.2 kΩ, 2.4kΩ, 3.6kΩ, 4.7 kΩ)
d. Variable resistor (10 kΩ)
e. Breadboard

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11.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Task 1: To verify the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit experimentally

a. Construct the circuit as in Figure 11.7 with VS = 20V, R1 = 1.2 kΩ, R2

= 2.7kΩ, R3 = 3.9kΩ.

Figure 11.7

b. Connect the voltmeter between terminals A and B and measure the

Thevenin voltage.
VAB = VTh = _____________ V

c. Connect the ammeter between terminals A and B and measure the

current of short circuit.
ISC = ____________ A

d. RTH=____________KΩ

Task 2: To determine the load current, IL and power, PL for load resistor,
RL

Connect the circuit in Figure 11.7 with the same values of VS and R1 to R3.
Change the resistance of the variable RL given in Table 11.1.

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11.5 ACTIVITIES

11.5.1 RESULTS & CALCULATION (40%)

Task 1
a. Calculate the equivalent resistance RTh.
VTh
RTh   ________ 
I SC
b. Using the value in previous steps, draw the Thevenin equivalent
circuit.
c. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent for circuit in Figure 11.7 using
calculation values. Does it similar to experimental result obtained in
step b?

Task 2
a. Experimentally Measure and record the values of current through the
resistor RL (IL) and voltage across the resistor RL (VL).

Table 11.1

Experimental Measured Calculated

Resistance Current Voltage Power

RL (kΩ) IL (mA) VL (V) PL = VLIL (W)

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b. From the data in Table 11.1, draw graph for the VL vs. IL and PL vs.
RL.

d. Measure by calculate the voltage across the terminal A and B (VL);

and then measure the short-circuit current through terminal A and B

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 (IL). Use both values IL and VL to calculate power on load (RL). Record
all data in Table 11.2.
e. Repeat Step d for all values of RL given in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2
Measured Calculated
Resistance Current Voltage Power
RL (kΩ) IL (mA) VL (V) PL = VLIL (W)
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

f. From the data in Table 11.2, draw graph for VL and PL.

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11.5.2 QUESTION & DISCUSSION (35%)
a. Compare and discuss result of experimental (Table 11.1/Graph) and
theoretical (Table 11.2/Graph).
b. Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit calculated in step c (Task 1).
c. What can you conclude on the relationship between Thevenin’s
theorem and maximum power transfer?

11.5.3 CONCLUSION (10%)

Write a conclusion to reflect your comprehension in this lab session.

11.6 REFERENCES
a. Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory Circuit Analysis (12th ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall International. Call number: TK454
.B69 2010.
b. Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky L. (2006). Electronic Devices and Curcuit
Theory (9th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Call number:
TK7867 .B69 2006.
c. Ralph, J. S. Penterjemah: Abd Rahman Ramli, Rahman Wagiman,
Shahbudin Shaari (1995). Elektronik: Litar dan Peranti. DBP.

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APPENDIX A

BASIC ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY

EQUIPMENT

USING DC POWER SUPPLY

Direct current (DC) power supply used in laboratory is actually a fundamental
instrument for testing circuits. This instrument is also called as voltage
converters because it changes the utility alternating current (AC) voltage into
regulated DC voltage. Figure A-1 shows a typical laboratory DC power
supply. It has three regulated DC outputs in one unit; one fixed 5V supply,
the other two supplies can be varied either independently or together.

Figure A-1

CONTROLS AND INDICATORS

F
C
E B

D A

Figure A-2

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Common controls and indicators of DC power supply are shown in Figure A-
2 and defined according to the group A-F. The main function of each group is
as follows:

A: Output terminal of ‘A’ supply. Leftmost control is negative output

terminal, middle control is earth/chassis ground and the rightmost
control is positive output terminal.
B: Output adjustment of supply ‘A’. Leftmost control to coarse adjust the
output voltage, middle control to fine adjust output voltage and
rightmost control to adjust current limit of ‘A’ supply.
C: Output terminals for fixed voltage supply. Left control is negative output
terminal and right control is positive output terminal.
D: Output terminal of ‘B’ supply. Control arrangement is the same as ‘A’
supply.
E: Output adjustment of ‘B’ supply. Control arrangement is the same as
‘A’ supply.
F: LED display to indicate supplied voltage or current .

CONNECTING POWER SUPPLY:

1. Before connecting the power supply to any circuit or device, the power
supply must be switched OFF and all controls are at minimum setting.
2. Connect the positive terminal of circuit to the positive terminal of power
supply.
3. Connect the negative terminal of circuit to the negative terminal of
power supply.
4. A complete connection of power supply is shown in Figure A-3.

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 Figure A-3

5. Observe for proper polarity. Circuit that is not equipped with reverse
polarity protection can be damaged if not connected properly to power
supply. Use colour coded leads to avoid improper connection such as
red leads for positive terminal and black leads for negative terminal.
6. Switch ON the power supply if all connections are complete.

USING DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM)

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is measuring equipment that can measure
several basic quantities and the measured reading is displayed in digital
form. Basic quantities that can be measured using DMM include voltage,
current and resistance. A typical Digital Multimeter (DMM) is shown in Figure
B-1.

Figure B-1

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VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT:
1. To measure DC voltage, first move the selector switch to DC VOLTS
or indicated by letter V and straight line over the dashed line.
2. Connect the meter leads across a component to be measured as in
Figure B-2. If the red leads is connected to higher voltage terminal,
the reading is positive, otherwise the reading is negative.
3. The DMM have the autoranging feature that select the optimum range
automatically for display the reading. The range is the maximum
voltage that can be displayed with particular setting.
4. AC voltage measurement process is the same as DC voltage except
that you have to ensure the select switch is in AC mode.
5. Since AC values are between positive and negative values, DMM will
display the reading in positive. The reading of DMM for AC voltage is
actually its root-mean-square (rms) value.

Figure B-2

CURRENT MEASUREMENT
1. To measure the current, move the selector switch to either DC or AC
function, depending on the circuit you are measuring.

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2. As in ammeter, the leads of DMM must be connected in series (in-line)
with the circuit under test. Never connect the leads in series with the
circuit when the power supply is still ON. The appropriate way is to
turn the power OFF, break the circuit, connect DMM in series and
finally turn the power ON. This procedure is illustrated in Figure B-3.
3. If you are measuring AC current, the rms value will be displayed.
4. To measure an unknown current, start with the highest range of scale
in order to protect the DMM from damage.

Figure B-3

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT AND CONTINUITY TEST

1. Resistance must always be measured with one or both ends of

resistor under test disconnected from the circuit. This is to ensure that
no other voltage is present that can cause damage to the meter.
2. To measure the resistance, change the switch to mode and simply
put the leads to both ends of resistor and the resistance value will be
displayed as shown in Figure B-4.

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3. The mode can also be used for continuity test. An audible ‘beep’
indicates a conducting path between the probes and this is useful to
check test for shorted and open paths on circuit boards.

Figure B-4

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APPENDIX B: BORANG PENILAIAN MODUL/MODULE SURVEY FORM

Skala/Scale:
1 – Sangat Tidak Setuju/Strongly Disagree
2 – Tidak Setuju/Not Agree
3 – Tidak Pasti/Not Sure
4 – Setuju/ Agree
5 – Sangat Setuju/Strongly Agree

Pendapat saya mengenai modul ini/My opinion about the module:

Skala/Scale
A Format Modul/Module Format
1-5
Reka bentuk grafik kulit hadapan, belakang dan tulang modul bersesuaian dan
A1
menarik /Module front, back and bone cover is appropriate and interesting.
Saiz modul adalah sesuai dengan keperluan/The size of the module is
A2
appropriate to the needs.
Font jenis Arial 12 dan jarak baris 1.5 memudahkan bacaan/Arial 12 Font and 1.5
A3
line spacing facilitate the readings.
A4 Ketebalan modul adalah memadai/ The thickness of the module is sufficient.
Kualiti Penjilidan modul adalah bermutu./ The module binding condition is very
A5
quality.
Skala/Scale
B Kandungan Modul/ Contents of the Module
1-5

B1 Hasil pembelajaran modul adalah jelas/Learning outcomes is clear.

Kandungan modul disusun secara teratur dan membantu saya mencapai hasil
B2 pembelajaran/ The contents of the module is in orderly manner and help me to
achieve the learning outcomes.
Perincian topik dalam bentuk teks berperenggan, ilustrasi, grafik, jadual, carta
alir dan gambarajah membantu pemahaman/ The details of the topics in the
B3
paragraph text form, illustrations, graphics, tables and diagrams are helping the
understanding process.
Skala/Scale
C Bahan Pembelajaran/Learning Materials
1-5
Bahan pembelajaran adalah bersesuaian dan membantu pembelajaran/
C1
Learning materials is appropriate and helps the learning process.
Kualiti gambarajah, ilustrasi, carta alir, jadual dan formula adalah terang dan
C2 jelas/ The quality of diagrams/illustrations, flow charts, tables and formulas are
bright and clear.
Senarai bahan rujukan dan bacaan tambahan yang dicadangkan mudah
C3 didapati/ List of references and suggested additional readings are easily
available.
Skala/Scale
D Aktiviti & Latihan/Activities and Exercise
1-5
D1 Aktiviti dan latihan adalah bersesuaian/ Activities and exercises are appropriate.

Aktiviti dan latihan yang diberi membantu saya menguasai keperluan

D2
kursus/Acitivities and exercises helps me to master the course requirements.
Bimbingan yang bersesuaian diberi dalam menyelesaikan aktiviti dan
D3
latihan.Appropriate guidance is given in completing the activities and execises.
Komen dan maklumbalas berkaitan hasil aktiviti dan latihan membantu saya
D4 menguasai keperluan kursus/ Comments and feedback on the outcome of the
activities and exercises helps me to master the course requirements.

Cadangan terhadap penambahbaikan modul/ Suggestions for the module

improvement :
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................