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GROUP 2 – TRAFFIC ANALYSIS how drivers perceive the traffic conditions. Transportation
agencies strive for economical solutions to congestion
Members:
that satisfy a majority of highway users.
1. PENARROYO, Lerie
2. CUSTODIA, Reymar
3. GRAGEDA, Christine
Traffic Flow Characteristics and the Fundamental
4. ESGUERRA, Jasmin
5. ASUNCION, JR Relationships
6. IRATAY, Lourence
Since traffic is strongly influenced by human behavior,
7. PURA, Rudolf
even advanced methods of predicting traffic operations
are burdened with a considerable degree of uncertainty.
SCOPES OF THE TOPIC:
The best source of information about traffic operations is
• Highway Traffic Analysis
the highways themselves.
• Highway Traffic Flow Characteristics

If a traffic engineer wants to learn about traffic conditions

• Measuring Technics for analyzing Traffics
on an existing highway, the best method is measurement.
• Speed-Flow Density Two pieces of data often collected are counts and

• Highway Capacity speeds. Vehicles can be counted and their speeds

• Forcasting Urban and Rural Roads
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
measured as they pass a specific location during an
observation period. This type of observation is called spot
observation. There is a second type of observation,
instantaneous observation, in which vehicles on a
designated highway segment are counted and their

Highway traffic operations are influenced by the behavior speeds measured instantly.

of drivers. A highway can be used by a finite number of

vehicles, and the driver perceived safe distances
Traffic Flow Characteristics
between vehicles determine this limit.
Instantaneous observations render the number of
vehicles on some highway segment at a given time of
For a given speed, as distances become shorter, more
measurement. This count can be converted to the so-
vehicles can use the highway. Both the volume of drivers
called traffic density D:
choosing to use the highway (demand) and the maximum
volume that can be served (supply) depend on driver 𝑁
D = 𝐿𝑥𝑛
behavior. Congestion results from too many people
attempting to reach their destinations at the same time
using the same highways. The combination of demand,
capacity, and certain infrastructure features determines

where D is measured in vehicles per mile per one lane, L
is the length of the segment expressed in miles, and n is
the number of traffic lanes.
Measuring Techniques
 Instantaneous Observations
 Spot Observations
An instantaneous observation requires an observer to
be at a sufficient elevation to see all vehicles on an
observed highway segment. A tall building located near
the highway segment is the least expensive solution.
However, in many cases tall buildings are not available,
so aerial photography is used. An equipped aircraft takes
two photographs in short succession and the vehicle
speeds are estimated from their shifts along the highway
segment. Instantaneous observations are expensive and
are not often used. As has been shown, spot
observations may be used to estimate space-mean
speed and density.
Spot Observations
In manual techniques, human observers count and
classify vehicles and sometimes measure their speeds.
This technique is accurate but expensive. Machine
measurements are less expensive, and numerous
techniques and technologies are available.
This section briefly overviews several commonly used
alternatives. Vehicles are detected by devices called
detectors, which utilize various physical phenomena
such as:
 perturbation of electromagnetic or magnetic fields
 changes of pressure in rubbers tubes
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 generation of electrical field in piezoelectric
materials detection of energy reflected or
generated by a vehicle
 the Doppler phenomenon caused by a vehicle
The types of energy used in vehicle detection include
almost all ranges of electromagnetic and acoustic waves.
The most popular detectors are:
 electromagnetic loops installed in the pavement
 video detectors that use the visible range of
electromagnetic waves are becoming popular
SPEED, FLOW AND DENSITY
The traffic flow (q), a measure of the volume of traffic on
a highway, is defined as the number of vehicles (n),
passing some given point on the highway in a given time
interval (t):
q = n/t
In general terms, q is expressed in vehicles per unit time.
The number of vehicles on a given section of highway
can also be computed in terms of the density or
concentration of traffic as follows:
k = n/l
where the traffic density (k), is a measure of the number
of vehicles (n), occupying a length of roadway (l).
For a given section of road containing k vehicles per unit
length l, the average speed of the k vehicles is termed
the space mean speed u (the average speed for all
vehicles in a given space at a given discrete point in
time).

where li is the length of road used for measuring the
speed of the ith vehicle.
It can be seen that if the expression for q is divided by the
expression for k, the expression for u is obtained:
Thus, the three parameters u, k and q are directly related
under stable traffic conditions:
q = uk
Speed-density relationship
In a situation where only one car is travelling along a
stretch of highway, densities (in vehicles per kilometre)
will by definition be near to zero and the speed at which
the car can be driven is determined solely by the
geometric design and layout of the road; such a speed is
termed free-flow speed as it is in no way hindered by the
presence of other vehicles on the highway. As more
vehicles use the section of highway, the density of the
flow will increase and their speed will decrease from their
maximum free-flow value (uf) as they are increasingly
more inhibited by the driving manoeuvres of others. If
traffic volumes continue to increase, a point is reached
where traffic will be brought to a stop, thus speeds will
equal zero (u=0), with the density at its maximum point as
cars are jammed bumper to bumper (termed jam density,
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kj). Thus, the limiting values of the relationship between
speed and density are as follows:
and density between these two limiting points.
Greenshields (1934) proposed the simplest
representation between the two variables, assuming a
linear relationship between the two.
In mathematical terms, this linear relationship gives rise
to the following equation:
This assumption of linearity allows a direct mathematical
linkage to be formed between the speed, flow and density
of a stream of traffic. This linear relationship between
speed and density, put forward by Greenshields (1934),
leads to a set of mathematical relationships between
speed, flow and density as outlined in the next section.
The general form of Greenshields’ speed-density
relationship can be expressed as:

However, certain researchers (Pipes, 1967; Greenberg,
1959) have observed non-linear behaviour at each
extreme of the speed-density relationship, i.e. near the
free-flow and jam density conditions. Underwood (1961)
proposed an exponential relationship of the following
form:
The simple linear relationship between speed and density
will be assumed in all the analyses below.
FLOW DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
km, the density at maximum flow, is thus equal to half the
jam density, kj. Its location is shown.
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SPEED FLOW RELATIONSHIP
um, the speed at maximum flow,
is thus equal to half the free-flow speed, uf. Its location is
shown.
Combining Equations of Flow Density and Speed Flow,
the following expression for maximum flow is derived:
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
There are two differing approaches to determining the
capacity of a highway.
‘Level of Service’ Approach, involves establishing, from
the perspective of the road user, the quality of service
delivered by a highway at a given rate of vehicular flow
per lane of traffic. The methodology is predominant in the
US and other countries.
The second approach, used in Britain, puts forward
practical capacities for roads of various sizes and width
carrying different types of traffic. Within this method,
economic assessments are used to indicate the lower
border of a flow range, the level at which a given road
width is likely to be preferable to a narrower one. An

upper limit is also arrived at using both economic and
operational assessments. Together these boundaries
indicate the maximum flow that can be accommodated by
a given carriageway width under given traffic conditions.
THE ‘LEVEL OF SERVICE’ APPROACH
‘Level of service’ describes in a qualitative way
the operational conditions for traffic from the viewpoint of
the road user. It gauges the level of congestion on a
highway in terms of variables such as travel time and
traffic speed.
The Highway Capacity Manual in the US (TRB, 1985)
lists six levels of service ranging from A (best) to F
(worst).
Service A:
• free-flow conditions where traffic flow is virtually
zero
• Only the geometric design features of the
highway, therefore, limit the speed of the car.
• Comfort and convenience levels for road users
are very high
Service B:
• Represents reasonable free-flow conditions
• Comfort and convenience levels for road users
are still relatively high as vehicles have only
slightly reduced freedom to manoeuvre.
• Minor accidents are accommodated with ease
although local deterioration in traffic flow
conditions would be more discernible than in
service A.
Service C:
• Delivers stable flow conditions.
• Flows are at a level where small increases will
cause a considerable reduction in the
performance or ‘service’ of the highway.
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• There are marked restrictions in the ability to
manoeuvre and care is required when changing
lane.
• Driver comfort and convenience have decreased
perceptibly at this level.
Service D:
• The highway is operating at high-density levels
but stable flow still prevails.
• Small increases in flow levels will result in
significant operational difficulties on the highway.
• There are severe restrictions on a driver’s ability
to manoeuvre, with poor levels of comfort and
convenience.
Service E:
• Represents the level at which the capacity ofthe
highway has been reached.
• Traffic flow conditions are best described as
unstable with any traffic incident causing
extensive queuing and even breakdown.
• Levels of comfort and convenience are very poor
and all speeds are low if relatively uniform.
Service F:
• Describes a state of breakdown or forced flow
with flows exceeding capacity.
• The operating conditions are highly unstable with
constant queuing and traffic moving on a ‘stop-
go’ basis.
These operating conditions can be expressed graphically
with reference to the basic speed-flow relationship.
At the level of service A, speed is near its maximum
value, restricted only by the geometry of the road, and
flows are low relative to the capacity of the highway,
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given the small number of vehicles present. At the level of

service D, flows are maximised, with speed at
approximately 50% ofits maximum value.Level ofservice
F denotes the ‘breakdown’ condition at which both
speeds and flow levels tend towards zero.
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FORECASTING ON RURAL ROAD

In the past, predicted flows in the fifteenth year after opening were used as a reference for the selection of a carriageway
standard most likely to be operationally acceptable (DoT, 1985). The most recent advice note (DoT, 1997a) now advocates
using opening year flows as a starting point for assessing new rural trunk road links. Under the British system, The process
for the selection of carriageway standard can be summarized as:

 Determine the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) estimate (high and low growth values) for the opening
scheme. These estimates must allow for the effects of induced traffic levels.
 Compare the quantities flow derived with the ranges of flow specified for a number of carriageway standards.
 Choose those carriageway standards within those value ranges where either or both of the above flow prediction.
 Having taken account of any potentially important local factors such as the cost of construction and maintenance,
network effects or severe assessments can be carried out in order to select the optimal standard.

Estimation of AADT for a rural road in its year of opening

Selection of the appropriate layout for a rural road requires that the high and low forecast for the opening year is
estimated. This is undertaken using the factors supplied in Table 4.13 that are used in conjunction with present day AADT
figures to produce future flows. These are then matched with the appropriate AADT range in Table 4.12 in order to choose
the right carriageway type. Traffic
growth factors were issued in the
COBA Manual (DoT,1997b).This
document contained traffic growth
profiles over the years 1981 to 1996
along with forecasts of low and high
traffic profiles for each year from
1997 to 2031 expressed as annual
percentage growth rates.
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Forecasting on urban roads

The maximum flows can be used as starting points in the design and evaluation of new proposed urban links.
These capacities can also be utilised as a guide for assessing the adequacy of existing urban highways and the effect that
any changes to their basic features (such as carriageway width) will have on the safe and efficient operation of the highway.

For the purposes of assigning capacity of different urban road types, five different highway types are considered:
 Motorways (UM)
 Urban all-purpose road Type 1 (UAP1)
 Urban all-purpose road Type 2 (UAP2)
 Urban all-purpose road Type 3 (UAP3)
 Urban all-purpose road Type 4 (UAP4)