Fall 2021/202 Lecture 2

CVLE 463: Transportation Planning & Traffic Engineering

Components of Transportation System

Source: https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=247
 Functions of a Highway
 It is important to realize
that the primary function
of a highway is to
provide mobility.

 This mobility must be

provided with safety in
mind while achieving an
acceptable level of
performance (such as
acceptable vehicle
speeds, comfort,
convenience, economy,
environmental impact,
Level of service).
 Mobility vs. Accessibility
 Mobility: the ability to
travel to many different
destinations

 Accessibility: the ability

to gain entry to a
particular site or area.

A transportation system must provide for both mobility and

accessibility ensuring both safety and efficiency
The analysis of vehicle traffic provides the basis for
measuring the operating performance of highways.
 Vehicle Traffic
Dimensions of traffic include:
- Number of vehicles per unit time (flow)
- Vehicle types,
- Vehicle speeds
- Variation in traffic flow over time

These dimensions must be addressed because they all influence

highway design (the selection of the number of lanes, pavement
types, and geometric design) and highway operations (selection of
traffic control devices, including signs, markings, and traffic
signals), both of which impact the performance of the highway
 Types of Traffic Streams

• Traffic stream that operates free from the

influence of traffic control devices as signals and
Uninterrupted stop signs
Flow • Influenced primarily by roadway characteristics
and the interactions of the vehicles in the traffic
stream

• Traffic streams that operate under the

Interrupted influence of signals and stop signs
• Flows in which vehicles are required to stop
Flow by any cause outside the traffic stream

In both cases, the concepts of flow, speed, and density are important for traffic analysis.
There are some additional complexities involved in the analysis of interrupted flow which will
be discussed later in the course.
 Types of Traffic Streams

Interrupted Uninterrupted
Flow Flow
 Traffic Flow
 Traffic flow, speed, and density are variables that form the underpinnings of traffic
analysis.
 Traffic flow, q, is defined as the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point
on a highway during a time period less than 1 hour. It can be determined as:

𝑵
𝒒=
𝒕
where
q = traffic flow in vehicles per unit time,
N = number of vehicles passing some designated roadway point during
time t, and
t = duration of time interval.
Flow is often measured over the course of an hour, in which case the resulting value is
typically referred to as volume. Thus, when the term “volume” is used, it is generally
understood that the corresponding value is in units of vehicles per hour (veh/h). The
definition of flow is more generalized to account for the measurement of vehicles
 Time Headway
 Aside from traffic flow, the amount of time between the passing of successive vehicles
(or time between the arrival of successive vehicles) is also of interest.
 The time between the passage of the front bumpers of successive vehicles, at some
designated highway point, is known as the time headway.

 The time headway is related to t by:

where
t = duration of time interval,
hi = time headway of the ith vehicle (the elapsed time between the arrivals of vehicles i
and i - 1),
n = number of measured vehicle time headways at some designated roadway point.
 Average headway is related to q by:
 Traffic Density
 Density (k), sometimes referred to as concentration, is the number of vehicles traveling
over a unit length of highway at an instant in time. The unit length is usually 1
kilometer (km) thereby making vehicles per kilometer (veh/km) the unit of density.

 It can be defined as:

where
k = traffic density in vehicles per unit distance,
n = number of vehicles occupying some length of roadway at some specified time
l = length of roadway

 The density can also be related to the individual spacing between successive vehicles
(measured from front bumper to front bumper). The roadway length, l, can be
defined as:

where
si = spacing of the ith vehicle (the distance between vehicles i and i -1, measured from
front bumper to front bumper)
n = number of measured vehicle spacings.
 Space headways
 Space headway (s) is the distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle and is usually expressed in feet.

 Space headways and traffic density can be related by:

 Traffic Speed

 There are two types of mean speeds: time mean speed and space mean speed.

 Time mean speed: is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time. The time mean speed is found by:

where
n number of vehicles passing a point on the highway
ui speed of the ith vehicle (m /sec)

 Space mean speed: is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time. This definition of speed is more useful in the context
of traffic analysis and is determined on the basis of the time necessary for a vehicle to
travel some known length of roadway.
 Traffic Speed
 Space mean speed is given by:

 Space mean speed is given by:

 Example
Assume that an observer is standing at a point along a one-lane roadway. All
vehicles are traveling at 30 km/h. There is also a constant spacing of 200 meters
between vehicles. What is the number of vehicles that will pass at the point in a
period of 30 minutes?

𝑢 30 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝑞=𝑢𝑘= = = 150
𝑠ҧ 0.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑣𝑒ℎ ℎ𝑟

In a period of 30 minutes: Count = 150 veh/hr x 0.5 hr = 75 veh

 Microscopic and Macroscopic Relationships

 Time headway and spacing are referred to as microscopic measures because they
describe characteristics specific to individual pairs of vehicles within the traffic
stream.

 Measures that describe the traffic stream as a whole, such as flow, average speed,
and density, are referred to as macroscopic measures.

 As indicated by the preceding equations, the microscopic measures can be

aggregated and related to the macroscopic measures.
 Time-Space Diagram
The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location of
vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway.

At time zero, vehicles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are at respective distances d1, d2, d3, and d4 from a reference
point whereas vehicles 5 and 6 cross the reference point later at times t5 and t6, respectively.
 Fundamental Traffic Flow Relationship
The fundamental relationship among traffic flow, density, and speed is given by:

q = uk
where
q = flow, typically in units of veh/h,
u = speed (space-mean speed), typically in units of km/hr,
k = density, typically in units of veh/km.
 Speed-Density Model
 Consider a section of highway with only a single vehicle on it. Under these
conditions, the density (veh/km) will be very low and the driver will be able to
travel freely at a speed close to the design speed of the highway. This speed is
referred to as the free flow speed.

 As more and more vehicles begin to use a section of highway, the traffic density
will increase and the average operating speed of vehicles will decline from the
free-flow value as drivers slow to allow for the maneuvers of other vehicles.

 Eventually, the highway section will become so congested (will have such a high
density) that the traffic will come to a stop (u = 0), and the density will be
determined by the length of the vehicles and the spaces that drivers leave between
them. This high-density condition is referred to as the jam density.
 Speed-Density Model
 Consider a section of highway with only a single vehicle on it. Under these

where
u = space-mean speed in km/hr,
uf = free-flow speed in km/hr,
k = density in veh/km, and
kj = jam density in veh/km.

The advantage of using a linear representation of the speed-density relationship is

that it provides a basic insight into the relationships among traffic flow, speed, and
density interactions without clouding these insights by the additional complexity that
a nonlinear speed-density relationship introduces.
Speed-Density Model
 Flow -Density Model
 For the linear speed-density model, we get:
 Speed-Flow Model
 For the linear speed-density model, we get:

• Two speeds are possible for

flows, q, up to the highway’s
capacity, qcap

• It is desirable, for any given

flow, to keep the average
space-mean speed on the
upper portion of the speed-
flow curve (above ucap).

• When speeds drop below ucap,

traffic is in a highly congested
and unstable condition.
Density-Speed-Flow Relationships
 Derivation Exercise
Derive the equation of the flow, density, and speed of a highway at capacity
assuming a linear speed-density model.

Note that the maximum flow rate, qcap, represents the highest rate of traffic flow that
the highway is capable of handling.
This is referred to as the traffic flow at capacity, or simply the capacity of the
roadway. The traffic density that corresponds to this capacity flow rate is kcap, and
the corresponding speed is ucap.
Equations for qcap, kcap, and ucap can be derived as:
free-flow speed (uf)
is not equal to zero

and
 Example
A section of highway is known to have a free-flow speed of 55 km/hr and a capacity
of 3300 veh/hr. In a given hour, 2100 vehicles were counted at a specified point
along this highway section. If the linear speed-density relationship applies, what
would you estimate the space-mean speed of these 2100 vehicles to be?

4𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑝 4(3300)
𝑘𝑗 = = = 240 veh/km
𝑢𝑓 55

𝑢2 𝑢2
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑗 (𝑢 − ) 2100 = 240(𝑢 − )
𝑢𝑓 55
240𝑢2
240𝑢 − − 2100 = 0
55

𝑢1 = 44.08 km/hr and 𝑢2 = 10.92 km/hr

 Example
For a specific roadway, the speed-density relationship is given by a non-linear
relationship as:
𝐤 𝟑.𝟓
𝐮 = 𝐮𝐟 [𝟏 − ( ) ]
𝐤𝐣
Given: – Capacity is 5000 veh/h – Jam density is 200 veh/km
Find: Density of roadway at capacity, space-mean speed of the traffic at
capacity, free-flow speed

𝑘 4.5
𝑞 = 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑢𝑓 [𝑘 − 3.5 ]
𝑘𝑗
𝜕𝑞
At capacity, =0
𝜕𝑘
𝑘 3.5
3.5 = 𝑘 3.5
4.5𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑝 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 130.13 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚
𝑢𝑓 1 − 4.5 =0 𝑗
𝑘𝑗3.5
𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑝 5000
𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑝 = = = 38.42 km/hr
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑝 130.13

𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑝 4.5 5000= 𝑢𝑓 [130.13 −

130.134.5
] 𝑢𝑓 = 49.4 km/hr
𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑢𝑓 [𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑝 − ] 2003.5
𝑘𝑗3.5
 Calibration Exercise
For a specific roadway, the speed-density relationship is given as shown in the figure
below:
70

60
Speed (km/hr)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Density (veh/km)

It is required to determine the traffic density in the case of jam, free flow
speed, and maximum flow of the given roadway.
 Calibration Exercise
For a specific roadway, the speed-density relationship is given as shown in the figure
below:
70

60
Speed (km/hr)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Density (veh/km)

It is required to determine the traffic density in the case of jam, free flow
speed, and maximum flow of the given roadway.

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑓 = 70 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟

𝑘
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 0, 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑢𝑓 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑗 = 105 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚
𝑘𝑗
𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 1837.5 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ𝑟
 Level of Service Concept

 The objective of applied traffic analysis is to provide a

practical method of quantifying the degree of traffic
congestion and to relate this to the overall traffic-related
performance of the roadway.

 The level of service represents a qualitative ranking of

the traffic operational conditions experienced by users of
a facility under specified roadway, traffic, and traffic
control (if present) conditions.

 Current practice designates six levels of service ranging

from A to F, with level of service A representing the best
operating conditions and level of service F the worst.
 Level of Service Concept
Traffic congestion is expressed in terms of Level of Service (LOS).
Level of service is a letter from “A” for excellent conditions to “F” for
failure conditions.
Level of M/C
Flow condition
service ratio
A Free flow, with low volumes and high speeds. < 0.4
The zone of stable flow, with operating speeds beginning to be
B restricted somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers still have reasonable 0.4 - 0.6
freedom to select their speed and lane of operation.
Level of Service C is still in the zone of stable flow, but speeds and
C 0.6 - 0.8
maneuverability are more closely controlled by the higher volumes.
Level of Service D approaches unstable flow, with tolerable operating
D speeds being maintained, though considerably affected by changes in 0.8 - 0.9
operating conditions.
Level of Service E cannot be described by speed alone, but represents
E operations at even lower operating speeds than in Level D, with 0.9 - 1.0
volumes at or near the capacity of the highway.
Level of Service F describes forced flow operation at low speeds, >1.0
F
where volumes are below capacity (stop-and-go mechanisms). (for k>kcap)
 Level of Service Concept
Traffic congestion is expressed in terms of Level of Service (LOS).
Level of service is a letter from “A” for excellent conditions to “F” for
failure conditions.
 Level of Service Concept
Speed
 LOS Representation (Freeways)

A basic freeway segment is defined as a section of a divided roadway having two

or
more lanes in each direction, full access control, and traffic that is unaffected by
merging or diverging movements near ramps.
Intersections LOS
Pedestrians LOS
 Design Level of Service
This is the desired quality of traffic conditions from a driver’s
perspective (used to determine number of lanes):
 Design LOS is higher for higher functional classes
 Design LOS is higher for rural areas
 LOS is higher for level/rolling than mountainous terrain
 Other factors include: adjacent land use type and
development intensity, environmental factors, and aesthetic
and historic values
 Design all elements to same LOS (use HCM to analyze)
Design Level of Service
 Capacity
• Capacity: Maximum hourly rate of vehicles or persons that
can reasonably be expected to pass a point, or traverse a
uniform section of lane or roadway, during a specified time
period under prevailing conditions (traffic and roadway)
• Different for different facilities (freeway, multilane, 2-lane
rural, signals)
Multilane Suburban/Rural
Freeways: Capacity (Free-
Flow Speed) 2,200 pcu/hr/ln (96.6 km/hr)
2,400 pcu/hr/ln (112.7 km/hr) 2,100 pcu/hr/ln (88.5 km/hr)
2,350 pcu/hr/ln (104.6 km/hr) 2,000 pcu/hr/ln (80.5 km/hr)
2,300 pcu/hr/ln (96.6 km/hr)
1,900 pcu/hr/ln (72.4 km/hr)
2,250 pcu/hr/ln (88.5 km/hr)
2-lane rural – 2,800 pcu/hr