Types of Traffic Flow

Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of flow is occurring
in a given situation will help you decide which analysis methods and descriptions are the most
relevant.

The first type is called uninterrupted flow, and is flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions
and interactions between vehicles and the roadway. For example, vehicles traveling on an
interstate highway are participating in uninterrupted flow.

The second type of traffic flow is called interrupted flow. Interrupted flow is flow regulated by
an external means, such as a traffic signal. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle
interactions and vehicle-roadway interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

Traffic Flow Parameters

Traffic flow is a difficult phenomenon to describe without the use of a common set of terms. The
following paragraphs will introduce most of the common terms that are used in discussions about
traffic flow.

Speed (v)

The speed of a vehicle is defined as the distance it travels per unit of time. Most of the time, each
vehicle on the roadway will have a speed that is somewhat different from those around it. In
quantifying the traffic flow, the average speed of the traffic is the significant variable. The
average speed, called the space mean speed, can be found by averaging the individual speeds of
all of the vehicles in the study area.

Volume

Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway in a specified
period of time. By counting the number of vehicles that pass a point on the roadway during a 15-
minute period, you can arrive at the 15-minute volume. Volume is commonly converted directly
to flow (q), which is a more useful parameter.

Flow (q)

Flow is one of the most common traffic parameters. Flow is the rate at which vehicles pass a
given point on the roadway, and is normally given in terms of vehicles per hour. The 15-minute
volume can be converted to a flow by multiplying the volume by four. If our 15-minute volume
were 100 cars, we would report the flow as 400 vehicles per hour. For that 15-minute interval of
time, the vehicles were crossing our designated point at a rate of 400 vehicles/hour.

Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

The ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by the peak 15 minute rate of flow expressed as an
hourly flow (q15). PHF= q60/ q15

Density (k)

Density refers to the number of vehicles present on a given length of roadway. Normally, density
is reported in terms of vehicles per mile or vehicles per kilometer. High densities indicate that
individual vehicles are very close together, while low densities imply greater distances between
vehicles.

Headway, spacing, gap, and clearance are all various measures for describing the space between
vehicles. These parameters are discussed in the paragraphs below and are shown graphically in
figure 1.0.

Headway (h)

Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two vehicles. Specifically, the headway is
the time that elapses between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the following vehicle at the
designated test point. You can measure the headway between two vehicles by starting a
chronograph when the front bumper of the first vehicle crosses the selected point, and
subsequently recording the time that the second vehicle’s front bumper crosses over the
designated point. Headway is usually reported in units of seconds.

Spacing (s)

Spacing is the physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters, between the front bumper of
the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle. Spacing complements
headway, as it describes the same space in another way. Spacing is the product of speed and
headway.

Gap (g)

Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that elapses between the
departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the designated test point. Gap is a
measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the front bumper of the
second vehicle, where headway focuses on front-to-front times. Gap is usually reported in units
of seconds.

Clearance (c)

Clearance is similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the distance between the rear bumper
of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle. The clearance is equivalent
to the spacing minus the length of the leading vehicle. Clearance, like spacing, is usually
reported in units of feet or meters.

Figure 1.0: Explanation of Parameters

Speed-Flow-Density Relationship

Speed, flow, and density are all related to each other. The relationships between speed and
density are not difficult to observe in the real world, while the effects of speed and density on
flow are not quite as apparent.

Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed, density, and flow are all related by the following
equation:

q = k*v

Where
q = Flow (vehicles/hour)
v = Speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
k = Density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Because flow is the product of speed and density, the flow is equal to zero when one or both of
these terms is zero. It is also possible to deduce that the flow is maximized at some critical
combination of speed and density.

Two common traffic conditions illustrate these points. The first is the modern traffic jam, where
traffic densities are very high and speeds are very low. This combination produces a very low
flow. The second condition occurs when traffic densities are very low and drivers can obtain free
flow speed without any undue stress caused by other vehicles on the roadway. The extremely
low density compensates for the high speeds, and the resulting flow is very low.

Special Speed & Density Conditions

The discussion of the speed-flow-density relationship mentioned several speed-density

conditions. Two of these conditions are extremely significant and have been given special
names.

Free Flow Speed

This is the mean speed that vehicles will travel on a roadway when the density of vehicles is low.
Under low-density conditions, drivers no longer worry about other vehicles. They subsequently
proceed at speeds that are controlled by the performance of their vehicles, the conditions of the
roadway, and the posted speed limit.

Jam Density

Extremely high densities can bring traffic on a roadway to a complete stop. The density at which
traffic stops is called the jam density.
Greenshield’s Model

Greenshield was able to develop a model of uninterrupted traffic flow that predicts and explains
the trends that are observed in real traffic flows. While Greenshield’s model is not perfect, it is
fairly accurate and relatively simple.

Greenshield made the assumption that, under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed and density
are linearly related. This relationship is expressed mathematically and graphically below. See
figure 1.0.

v=A-B*k

Where:
v = speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined from field observations
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

As noted above, you can determine the values of the constants A and B through field
observations. This is normally done by collecting velocity and density data in the field, plotting
the data, and then using linear regression to fit a line through the data points. The constant A
represents the free flow speed, while A/B represents the jam density.

Figure 1.0: Speed vs. Density

Inserting Greenshield’s speed-density relationship into the general speed-flow-density

relationship yields the following equations:

q = (A-B*k)*k or q = A*k – B*k2

Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)
Figure 2.0: Flow vs. Density

This new relationship between flow and density provides an avenue for finding the density at
which the flow is maximized.

dq/dk = A – 2*B*k

setting dq/dK = 0 yields:

k = A/(2*B)

Therefore, at the density given above, the flow will be maximized. Substituting this maximized
value of k into the original speed-density relationship yields the speed at which the flow is
maximized.

v = A – B*(A/(2*B)) or v = A/2

This indicates that the maximum flow occurs when traffic is flowing at half of free-flow speed
(A). Substituting the optimum speed and density into the speed-flow-density relationship yields
the maximum flow.

q = (A/2)*(A/(2*B)) or q = A2/(4*B)

Figure 3.0 shows the relationship between flow and speed graphically.

Figure 3.0: Flow vs. Speed

As you can see, Greenshield’s model is quite powerful. The following can be derived from
Greenshield’s model:

 When the density is zero, the flow is zero because there are no vehicles on the roadway.
 As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum flow conditions.
 When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density, the flow must be
zero because the vehicles tend to line up end to end (parking lot conditions).

As the density increases the flow increases to some maximum value, but a continual increase in
density will cause the flow to decrease until jam density and zero flow conditions are reached.

Time-Space Diagrams

A time–space diagram is commonly used to solve a number of transportation- related problems.

Typically, time is drawn on the horizontal axis and distance from a reference point on the
vertical axis. The trajectories of individual vehicles in motion are portrayed in this diagram by
sloping lines, and stationary vehicles are represented by horizontal lines. The slope of the line
represents the speed of the vehicle. Curved portions of the trajectories represent vehicles
undergoing speed changes such as deceleration.

Diagrams that show the position of individual vehicles in time and in space are very useful for
understanding traffic flow. These diagrams are especially useful for discussions of shock waves
and wave propagation.

The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location of
vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway. The
following diagram is an example of a time-space diagram.
Time-space diagrams are created by plotting the position of each vehicle, given as a distance
from a reference point, against time. The first vehicle will probably start at the origin, while the
vehicles that follow won’t reach the reference point until slightly later times. Reductions in speed
cause the slopes of the lines to flatten, while increases in speed cause the slopes to become
greater. Acceleration causes the time-space curve for the accelerating vehicle to bend until the
new speed is attained. Curves that cross indicate that the vehicles both shared the same position
at the same time. Unless passing is permitted, crossed curves indicate collisions.

Shock Waves

Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced by dropping stones
in water. A shock wave propagates along a line of vehicles in response to changing conditions at
the front of the line. Shock waves can be generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed
caused by entering free flow conditions, or by a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave
exists whenever the traffic conditions change.

The equation that is used to estimate the propagation velocity of shock waves is given below.

vsw = (qb – qa)/(kb – ka)

Where
vsw = propagation velocity of shock wave (miles/hour)
qb = flow prior to change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
qa = flow after change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
kb = traffic density prior to change in conditions (vehicles/mile)
ka = traffic density after change in conditions (vehicles/mile)

Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave.

(+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.

(-) Shock wave is traveling upstream or against the traffic stream.
For example, let’s assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after the accident is
reduced to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also, the density is much
greater after the accident. Substituting these values into the shock wave equation yields a
negative (-) propagation velocity. This means that the shock wave is traveling against the traffic.
If you could look down on this accident, you would see a wave front, at which vehicles began to
slow from their initial speed, passing from vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic stream. The first
car would notice the accident first, followed an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle
begins slowing after its driver recognizes that the preceding vehicle is slowing.

Glossery
Density-- the number of vehicles occupying a road lane per unit length at a given instant.

Flow-- the number of vehicles passing a point per unit of time; often called volume when the
time unit is one hour.

Gap-- the time interval between the passage of consecutive vehicles moving in the same stream,
measured between the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the following vehicle.

Headway-- the time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles moving in the same
stream, measured between corresponding points (e.g. front bumper) on successive vehicles.

Interrupted Flow-- occurs when flow is periodically interrupted by external fixtures, primarily
traffic control devices.

Jam Density-- the density when speed and flow are zero.

PHF (Peak Hour Factor)-- This describes the relationship between hourly volume and the
maximum rate of flow within the hour: PHF = hourly volume/maximum rate of flow. For the 15
minute periods, PHF = volume/4 x (maximum 15 minute volume within the hour)

Shockwaves-- Shockwaves occur as a result of differences in flow and density which occur
when there are constrictions in traffic flow. These constrictions are called bottlenecks. The speed
of growth of the ensuing queue is the shockwave, and is the difference in flow divided by the
difference in density.

Space Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of those vehicles occupying a given
length of road at a given instant.

Spacing-- the distance between vehicles moving in the same lane, measured between
corresponding points (front to front) of consecutive vehicles.

Speed-- the time rate of change of distance.

Time Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles passing a point during a given
time interval.
Travel Time-- the total time required for a vehicle to travel from one point to another over a
specified route under prevailing conditions.

Uninterrupted Flow-- occurs when vehicles traversing a length of roadway are not required to
stop by any cause external to the traffic stream, such as traffic control devices.

Volume-- Traffic volume is the most basic and widely used parameter in traffic engineering,
vehicles per mile, or vehicles per kilometer.