REVISION

Example-1

A vehicle is known to have skidded on a level asphalt surface (F=0.50), and then on the adjacent
gravel shoulder (F=0.60), where finally it came to a halt. The average length of the skid marks on
the asphalt surface was 120 feet (36m), and on the gravel shoulder 40 feet (12m). What was the
speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid?

Solution-1

𝑈2
𝑑 = 254𝑓 ; U2 = 254 x f (gravel) x d (gravel) = 254 x 0.6 x 12 = 1828.8m

∴ 𝑈 = 42.76 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

𝑉𝐴2 −𝑈𝐺2
𝑑= ; 𝑉𝐴2 = 254𝑓𝐴 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑈𝐺2
254𝑓

𝑉𝐴2 = 254 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 36 + 1828.8

= 4572 + 1828 80

∴ VA = 80 km per hour

Providing Camber

To develop or provide desired amount and shape of the camber, wooden camber boards or
templates are prepared. During construction they are used to check the lateral finished
profile of the road. In parabolic camber boards, the following equation should be used to
determine the offsets from the horizontal line drawn through the crown.

2𝑥 2
𝑦=
𝑛𝐵
Where B = Width of pavement

n = camber (for 1 in 20 camber, value of n is 20)

x = horizontal distance of the point where offset or ordinate is being determined

from the centre of the pavement.

y = offset or ordinate of wooden baulk,

Worked Examples Page 1

 Example-2: The bituminous road has 3.8m wide carriageway. Calculate height of crown
above the edges. Provide camber 1 in 48.

Solution-2:
3.8 1
Height of centre of point above edges = 𝑥
2 48

3.8 𝑥 100
= = 3.96 𝑐𝑚 = 𝑠𝑎𝑦 4 𝑐𝑚.
2 𝑥 48

Example-3: Camber boards are to be prepared for following conditions. Give dimensioned
sketches.

a) Cement concrete road 7m wide in area having heavy rains. Straight sloping camber is to be
provided.
b) Bituminous road 7m wide in area of heavy rains. Parabolic camber is to be provided.

Solution-3:

Case (a). Width of carriageway 7m. Adopt camber 1 in 60 as area has heavy rains. Height at
7 𝑥 100
crown above edges, = = 5.83 𝑐𝑚
2 𝑥 60

Case (b) Adopt camber of 1 in 60 since area is having heavy rains.

7 𝑥 100
Height of crown above edges = = 5.83 𝑐𝑚
2 𝑥 60

Worked Examples Page 2

 Use equation,

2𝑥 2
𝑦=
𝑛𝐵
B = 7m, n=60
7 2
7 2𝑥( )
8
Ordinate 8 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = = 0.365 cm
60 𝑥 7

7 2
7 2𝑥( )
4
Ordinate 4 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = = 1.46 𝑐𝑚
60 𝑥 7

21 2
21 2𝑥( )
8
Ordinate 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = = 3.3 𝑐𝑚
8 60 𝑥 7

7 2
7 2𝑥( )
2
Ordinate 2 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = = 5.83𝑐𝑚
60 𝑥 7

Example-4:

Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 60 km/hr for:

a) Two way traffic on a two lane road

b) Two way traffic on a single lane road
Assume coefficient of friction to be 0.38 and reaction time as 2.5 seconds.

Solution-4:
Stopping Distance = Lag Distance + Braking Distance

𝑣2
= vt ± 2𝑔𝑓 − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑉2
Or use = 0.278Vt + 254𝑓 ----------------------------(2)

From Equation (1),

60 𝑥 1000 50
V = 60km/hr; Hence v = = 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60 𝑥 60 3

Worked Examples Page 3

T = 2.5sec; g = 9.8 and f= 0.38

Hence from Equation-1,

50 2
50 ( )
3
Stopping Sight Distance = 𝑥 2.5 +
3 2 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.38

= 41.70 + 37.3

= 79.0m

Let’s use Equation-2;

(60)2
Stopping Sight Distance = 0.278 x 60 x 2.5 + 254 𝑥 0.38

= 41.7 + 37.3 = 79 m

a) Hence the Stopping Sight Distance for two lane road = Stopping Distance =79 m.

b) Stopping Sight Distance for two way traffic with single lane = 2 x (Stopping distance)

= 2 x 79 = 158 m

Example-5:

a) Compute the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two buses
approaching from the opposite directions. The speed of both buses is 70 km/hr. Assume
a total perception and brake reaction time of 2.5 seconds. Coefficient of Friction is 0.4
and brake efficiency in 50%.
b) Compute the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two buses
approaching from the opposite directions. The speeds of both buses are 90km/hr and 70
km/hr respectively. Coefficient of Friction and brake efficiency for the vehicles are 0.4, 0.6
and 60%, 50% respectively.

Soultion-5

𝑉2
a) SSD = 0.278Vt + 254𝑓

As the brake efficiency is 50%, the wheels would skid through 50% of braking distance and
rotate through the remaining 50% distance.

Worked Examples Page 4

 (70)2
SD for one bus = 0.278 x 70 x 2.5 + 254 𝑥 0.40 𝑥 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

(70)2
= 48.61 + 254 𝑥 0.40 𝑥 0.5

= 48.61 + 96.45 = 145.06 m

SD to avoid head on collision of the two approaching buses = 2 x 145.06 = 290.12m = 290 m

𝑉𝑎2
b) SD(A) = 0.278𝑉𝑎 𝑡𝑎 + 254𝑓
𝑎 𝑥 (𝑏.𝑒)𝑎

𝑉𝑏2
SD(B) = 0.278𝑉𝑏 𝑡𝑏 + 254𝑓
𝑏 𝑥 (𝑏.𝑒)𝑏

Total Distance = SD(A) + SD(B)

Example-6:

Calculate the stopping sight distances on a graded highway for a design speed of 90 km/hr.
Reaction time is 2 seconds and value of f is 0.35

a) When grade is 3% descending

b) When grade is 3% ascending
c) When road is flat i.e. zero grade

Solution-6:

Use either of the following formulae:

𝑣2
SD = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑛 ------------------------------------------- (1)
2𝑔(𝜇 ± )
100

𝑉2
SD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + 254(𝑓±𝐺) ---------------------------------------- (2)

a) Given: V= 90km/hr; t= 2secs; f=0.35

902
From Equation 2; SD = SD = 0.278 𝑥 90 𝑥 2.5 + 254(0.35−0.03)

= 50.4 + 99.70 = 150.10

Worked Examples Page 5

 b) 0.4 + 83.92 = 134.32 m

c) 50.4 + 91.1 = 141.50 m

Example-7:
A road has an ascending gradient 4% with a design speed of 96 km/hr. Determine stopping
distance. Assume suitable data based on AASHTO guidelines.

Solution-7:

𝑉2
SD = 0.278𝑉𝑡 + 254(𝑓±𝐺)

962
0.278 𝑥 96 𝑥 2.5 +
254(𝑓 + 0.04)
9216
= 66.72 + 10.16 = 66.72 + 907.09 = 973.81m

Example-8: Design the rate of superelevation for a curve of radius 400 m and speed of 80
km/hr.

Solution-8:

Given; R = 400m; V= 80km/hr

𝑒
100 + 𝑓 = 𝑣 = 𝑉
2 2

𝑒 𝑔𝑅 127𝑅
1 − 100 (𝑓)

𝑒
1 - 100 (𝑓)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑒 𝑉2
+𝑓 =
100 127𝑅
𝑒 𝑉2
= − 𝑓; 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
100 127𝑅
(80)2
𝑒 = 100 [ ]
127 𝑥 400

= 100 [0.125] = 12.5%

Worked Examples Page 6

 Example-9: Design the rate of superelevation for a curve of radius 400 m and speed of 80
km/hr for a mixed traffic.

Preamble

In the mixed traffic conditions, different vehicles move with wide range of speeds and hence
design of superelevation under such conditions becomes a complex problem. Superelevation
if provided according to maximum design speed may provide easy conditions for fast moving
traffic , but causes lot of inconvenience to slow moving traffic. Similarly if superelevation is
provided according to slow traffic, it will be inconvenient for fast moving traffic. To strike a
balance between two extreme conditions, and also by taking certain other factors into
consideration, it is recommended that the superelevation should be provided, to fully
counteract the centrifugal force according to 75% of the design speed, and also limiting the
maximum superelevation to 1 in 15. If calculated value of super elevation as per 75% of the
design speed is less than limiting value of 1/15 or 0.067 the full value of superelevation is
provided. If this value exceeds the limiting value of 1/15 or 0.067, provide maximum
superelevation equal to 1/15, but check for coefficient of friction so developed for maximum
value of e=0.067

𝑉2
𝑓=
127𝑅
If value of f works out to be less than 0.15, superelevation is safe for design speed. If not,
calculate the restricted speed by using the equation below:

1 𝑉𝑎2
𝑒+𝑓 = + 0.15 = 0.2107 =
15 127𝑅
Where Va = Restricted speed of the vehicle in km/hr which is less than the design speed.

Solution-9

For mixed traffic conditions super-elevations is given

(0.075𝑉)2 (0.75 𝑥 80)2

𝑒= = = 0.0708
127𝑅 127 𝑥 400
= 1 in 14.12

As the value is greater than the maximum superelevation of 1 in 15, the actual superelevation
to be provided is restricted to 1 in 15 or 0.067.

Check for coefficient of lateral frictions

Worked Examples Page 7

 𝑉2 802
𝑓= − 𝑒= − 0.067
127𝑅 127𝑥400
= 0.126 – 0.067

= 0.059

As the value is less than 0.15 the safe value, the design is safe with a super elevation of 1 in
15.

Example-10: The design speed of a highway is 80 km/hr. There is a horizontal curve of radius
150 m. Calculate the superelevation needed to maintain this speed. If maximum
superelevation of 1 in 15 is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum allowable
speed allowed on this horizontal curve.

Solution-10:

i) Consider 75% of design speed for the curve

(0.75𝑉)2 (0.75 𝑥 80)2

𝑒= = = 0.1889
127𝑅 127 𝑥 150
= 1 in 5.3

ii) Maximum allowable value of e is limited to 1 in 15 or 0.067

Check for the value of Friction Factor,
𝑉2
But 𝑒 + 𝑓= 127𝑅

𝑉2 802
𝑓= − 𝑒= − 0.067
127𝑅 127𝑥150
= 0.336 - 0.067

= 0.269

This value is greater than the maximum allowable value of 0.15; hence the design speed of
80 km/hr has to be reduced.

Let Va be the maximum allowable speed in km/hr.

Assuming the full value of design friction coefficient of 0.15,

𝑉2
𝑎
𝑒 + 𝑓= 127𝑥 𝑅

Worked Examples Page 8

 𝑉2
0.067 + 0.15 = 127𝑥𝑎150

Va = 64.3km/hr

Hence the speed may be restricted to less than 64.3 km/hr at this curve.

Example-11: Calculate the values of absolute minimum and ruling minimum radius of the
horizontal curve for a design speed of 80 km/hr.

Preamble:

It is clear that if speed of the vehicle is increased, amount of super-elevation also increases.
But with increase in radius of the curve amount of super-elevation decreases. In this
equation, maximum allowed rate of super elevation is 1/15 or 0.067 and coefficient of friction
0.15. Hence

e + f = 0.067 + 0.15 = 0.217

𝑉2 𝑉2
Put value of e + f = 0.217 in equation 𝑒 + 𝑓 = 127𝑅 we get 127𝑅 = 0.217

Now if design speed for a particular road is decided, the minimum radius (Rmin) of curve to
be adopted can be determined from this equation.

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
0.217 𝑥 127 27.5
If V is expressed in m/sec (v) Rmin will be

𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
0.217 𝑥 𝑔 0.217 𝑥 9.8 2.12

Because of new advancements, it is likely that the standard of design speed may increase
and it is desirable to adopt more liberal radius of curve (Rruling) that the absolute minimum
(Rmin)value. Ruling value of radius of curve can be calculated by increasing the present
standards of speed by 16km/hr or 4.45 m/sec.

(𝑣+4.45)2 (𝑉+16)2
∴ Rruling = 𝑜𝑟
2.12 27.5

For hill roads, increase in speed may be 8km/hr or 2.23 m/sec and hence ruling radius may
(𝑣+2.23)2 (𝑉+8)2
be calculated by or expressions.
2.12 27.5

Worked Examples Page 9

 Solution-11:

𝑉2 (80)2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 232.73𝑚
27.5 27.5
= 233 m

The ruling minimum radius is calculated for the purpose of design of a new highway by
increasing the design speed of 16 km/hr.

(𝑉 + 16)2
𝑅𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
27.5
(96)2
= = 335.13 𝑚
27.5

Hence the absolute minimum radius = 233 m

Ruling minimum radius = 335 m

Example-12:

A -1.5 percent grade intersects a + 1.8 percent grade at station 3 + 440 and elevation of
182.786m. Given that a 200-m length of curve is utilized, determine the station and
elevations of the VC and VPT. Calculate the elevations of each whole 20-m station and
locate the station and elevation of the point of the curve. A sketch of the given conditions
is shown.

g1=-1.5%
x VPI station = 3+440m
g2 = +1.8%
VPI elevation =182.786m
PVT
PVC +G2
-G1 y E
PVI
L/2 L/2

G1 = -0.015 m/m L = 200m

L/2 = 100m
G2 = +0.018 m/m

Worked Examples Page 10

Solution-12

Station locations for the VPC and VPT are

VPC station = VPI station –L/2 = 3 + 440 -100 = 3 +340

VPT station = VPC station + L + 3 + 340 + 200 = 3 + 540

Elevations for the VPC and VPT are

EVPC = EVPI + G1 (L/2) = 182.786 + 0.015 (100) = 184.286 m

EVPT = EVPI + G2 (L/2) = 182.786 + 0.018 (100) = 184.586 m

Location of the low point can be calculated as follows:

𝑔1 𝐿 (−1.5)(200)
𝑥𝑚 = 𝑔 = 1.8− (−1.5)
= 90.909 𝑚 (Station 3 + 430.909)
2 −𝑔1

Elevation of the low point can be calculated as follows:

2
(𝐺2 − 𝐺1 )𝑥𝑚
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑉𝑃𝐶 + 𝐺1 𝑥𝑚 +
2𝐿
(0.018+0.015)(90.909)2
= 184.286 + (-0.015)(90.909) + 2(200)

= 184.286 – 1.364 + 0.682 = 183.604 m

Calculations for point elevations at even 20-m stations along the vertical curve can be tabulated as
follows:

Elevation Final
on Initial elevation on
Tangent curve
(EVPC + y= (elevation
Station x (m) G1x) Ax2/200L on tan + y)
3 + 340 0 184.286 0 184.286
3 + 360 20 183.986 -0.033 184.019
3 + 380 40 183.686 -0.132 183.818
3 + 400 60 183.386 -0.297 183.683
3 + 420 80 183.086 -0.528 183.614
3 + 440 100 182.786 -0.825 183.611
3 + 460 120 182.486 -1.188 183.674
3 + 480 140 182.186 -1.617 183.803
3 + 500 160 181.886 -2.112 183.998
3 + 520 180 181.586 -2.673 184.259
3 + 540 200 181.286 -3.3 184.586

Worked Examples Page 11

Example-13:

Given a highway circular curve with an intersection angle ∆ = 12o 30’, radius of curve = 580.000m,
and a PI (point of Intersection) station = 9 + 255.628, calculate the station of the point of
tangency.

Solution-13

Tangent Distance T = R tan 1/2∆

= 580.000 tan (6.25o) = 63.250m

PC (Point of Curvature) Station = PI station – T = 9 + 255.628 – 63.520

= 9 + 128.588

Curve length L = 2πR∆/360o = 2π(580.000)(12.5o)/360o

= 126.536

PT (Point of Tangency) station = PC station + L = 9 + 128.588 + 126.536

= 9 +255.124

Example-14

Compute the minimum sight distance required to avoid collision of two passenger cars
approaching each other at right angles. The speeds of the vehicles on the major and minor roads
are 90km/hr and 65 km/hr respectively. Make appropriate and rational assumptions.

Example-15
The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 65km/hr respectively on a two way
traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 3.6km/hr per second, calculate:
1) Safe overtaking sight distance
2) Minimum length of overtaking zone

Preamble:

Complete overtaking manoeuvre comprises three operations:

i) As the yellow vehicle (Vehicle-A) approaches the blue vehicle (Vehicle-B), Veh-A will
be forced to reduce its speed to the speed of veh-B. Veh-A will continue to follow veh-
B with veh-B’s speed till driver of A gets opportunity for safe overtaking. During this

Worked Examples Page 12

 time A has moved a distance d1 between positions A1 and A2. If t is the time in seconds
taken by driver to seize opportunity of overtaking (reaction time of driver) the
distance d1 will work out vbt. If reaction time of vehicle is say 2secs, d1 becomes 2vb.
Or d1 = vb x t = 2vb metre.

ii) As soon as veh-A’s driver gets opportunity he accelerates, shifts to adjoining lane,
overtakes Veh-B and comes back to its original lane at position A3 which is ahead of
vehicle B. Distance between A2 and A3 comprises of three parts. s1 is the distance
between A2 and B1 which may be taken as minimum spacing between vehicles and
can be found out by formula s1 = (0.69Vb + 6.1) meters. By the time B travels distance
b and occupies position B2, vehicle A after overtaking occupies position A3, If
overtaking manoeuvre time is denoted by T seconds.
Then b = vbT metres.
S2 distance can be assumed same as s1 and both denoted by say s.
If distance between A2 and A3 is denoted by d2 then
d2= b + s1 + s2 = b + 2s (since s1 = s2)
= vbT + 2s (since b = vbT)

Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways

Opposing Vehicle
Appears When Passing
Passing Vehicle
A FIRST PHASE Vehicle Reaches Point A
B
A1 A2

d1 1/3d2
SECOND PHASE

2/3d2
d1 d2 d3 d4

s1 b s2

Worked Examples Page 13

 Overtaking Manoeuvre Time

Time taken in overtaking manoeuvre (T) depends upon the speed of vehicle B and acceleration of A
and can be determined by equating d2 to vbT + 1/2fT2. Here f is the acceleration in m/sec2.

𝑓𝑇 2
d2 = b + 2s = (vbT + (𝑣𝑏 𝑇 + 2
)

In other words b = vbT and 2s = fT2/2

4𝑠
fT2/2 = 2s or 𝑇 = √ 𝑓 seconds

iii) From the instant driver of A started necessary manoeuvre and reached position A3, vehicle C
moving in opposite direction has moved distance d3 at design speed of v m/sec.
Hence d3 = vT

Solution-15
Vb = 65km/hr or vb = 18 m/sec
V = 80 km/hr or v = 22.2 m/sec
Adopt reaction time of 2 seconds and s = 0.69vb + 6.1
∴ d1 = vb x t =18 x 2 = 36 m
d2 = vb x T + 2s
s = 0.69vb + 6.1 = 0.69 x 18 + 6.1 = 18.52 m
f = 3.6 km/hr/sec = 3.6 x 1000/3600 m/sec2
= 1 m/sec2

4𝑠 4 𝑥 18.52
𝑇=√ =√ = 8.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
𝑓 1.0
d2 = 18 x 8.6 + 2 x 18.52
= 191.84m
d3 = vT = 22.2 x 8.6 = 190.92
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
= 36.00 + 191.84 + 190.92 = 418.76 m, ≈ 419

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 x 419 = 1257 m

Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 x 419 = 2095 m

Worked Examples Page 14