Civil Engineering Department

AKWA IBOM STATE UNIVERSITY

Transportation Engineering
CIV 421

Lecture 2A_ Traffic Flow

Traffic Flow

Traffic Flow Theory

Traffic flow theories deal with the mathematical relationship between the primary
elements of the traffic stream which include flow, speed and density

Traffic Flow Facilities

For the analyses of traffic streams the movement is categorized as interrupted
flows or uninterrupted flows. Volume or traffic flow is a parameter common to
both uninterrupted- and interrupted-flow facilities, but speed and density apply
primarily to uninterrupted flow.

Uninterrupted Flow
A category of facilities that have no fixed causes of delay or interruption external to
the traffic stream; examples include freeways and unsignalised sections of
multilane and two-lane rural highways.

Interrupted Flow
A category of traffic facilities characterized by traffic signals, stop signs, or other
fixed causes of periodic delay or interruption to the traffic stream.
Primary Elements of Traffic
Volume and Flow

Volume (v)- The total number of vehicles that pass over a given point or
section of a lane or roadway during a given time interval; volumes can be
expressed in terms of annual, daily, hourly, or sub hourly periods.
Flow (q)- The equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given point
or section of a lane or roadway during a given time interval of less than 1 h,
usually 15 min.
Flow rate(veh/h)= number (veh)
time(h)
Qn: For four continuous 15 minutes interval
counts that were made on a section of highway
between 5 and 6 pm the following volumes
were observed; 1000 veh, 1100 veh, 1200 veh
and 900 veh. Determine the Volume per hour
and the Flow.

Volume(V)=1000+1200+1100+1000=4,300
veh/hr
Flow (q) = 1200/0.25= 4800 veh/hr
 Primary Elements of Traffic
Flow

While hourly traffic volumes form the basis for many forms of traffic design and analysis, the
variation of traffic within a given hour is also of considerable interest. The quality of traffic flow is
often related to short-term fluctuations in traffic demand. A facility may have sufficient capacity to
serve the peak-hour demand, but short term peaks of flow within the hour may exceed capacity
and create a breakdown. For instance consider the diagram below;

Even though the capacity of this segment over the full hour is equal to the peak-hour demand
volume (4,200 veh/h), at the end of the hour, there remains a queue of 50 vehicles that has not
been served. While this illustration shows that a queue exists for three out of four 15-minute
periods within the peak hour, the dynamics of queue clearance may continue to negatively affect
traffic for far longer. Because of these types of impacts, it is often necessary to design facilities
and analyze traffic conditions for a period of maximum rate of flow within the peak hour. For most
practical purposes, 15 minutes is considered to be the minimum period of time over which
conditions are statistically stable.
 Primary Elements of Traffic Stream
Speed

Speed - It is the distance travelled by a vehicle during a unit time, often expressed in kilometres
per hour (km/hr). There are two main types of speed known as time mean speed and space
mean speed. The other speeds include average running speed, average travel speed and free
flow speed.

Average Running Speed- It is the length of the segment divided by the average running time of
vehicles to traverse the segment. Running time includes only time that vehicles are in motion.

Average Running Speed = Length of Segment

Running Time

Average Travel Speed (Journey Speed) - It is the length of the segment divided by the
average travel time of vehicles traversing the segment, including all stopped delay times. It is
also a space mean speed.

Average Journey Speed = Length of Segment .

Total Journey Time (including delays)

Free Flow Speed - The average speed of vehicles on a given facility, measured under low-
volume conditions, when drivers tend to drive at their desired speed and are not constrained by
control delay.
 Primary Elements of Traffic Stream
Speed

Time Mean Speed ( TMS) is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a
point on a highway during an interval of time. The time mean speed is found by:

where n = number of vehicles passing a point on highway

Ui= speed of ith vehicle in m/sec

Space Mean Speed ( SMS) is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing
a point on a highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total
distance traveled by two or more vehicles on a section of highway by the total time
required by these vehicles to travel that distance.

n = number of vehicles
ui = speed of the ith vehicle m/s
L =length of section of highway (ft)
 Primary Elements of Traffic Stream
Speed

Three cars are travelling with speeds 20km/hr, 40km/hr and 60km/hr are traversing a distance of
length L. Determine the TMS and SMS.

TMS = = 1 (20+40+60) = 40km/hr

3

SMS = = 1 . = 32.7km/hr
1(1+1+1 )
3 20 40 60

Try these.
1. Three vehicles are recorded with speeds of 20, 10, and 8 m/s. The time to traverse 100 m is
5sec, 10 sec, and 15 sec, respectively. Determine the SMS and the TMS. Ans TMS =
12.67m/sec, SMS=10m/sec
2. 25 speed observations were taken and were as under;
spot50,40,60,54,45,31,72,58,43,52,46,56,43,65,33,69,34,51,47,41,62,43,55,40,49. Determine
the SMS and the TMS. Ans TMS=49.56 and SMS=47.26
 Primary Elements of Traffic Stream
Relationship between TMS and SMS

The time mean speed is always higher than the space mean speed. The difference between
these speeds tends to decrease as the absolute values of speeds increase. It has been shown
from field data that the relationship between time mean speed and space mean speed can be
given as;

Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed
divided by the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean
speed since standard deviation cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same,
then spot speed, time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.
 Time Space Diagram

From the time – space diagram it can be observed that the speed of a vehicle at any
time t is the slope of the time – space diagram for that vehicle at time t. It is observed
that Vehicles 1 and 2 are moving at constant speeds because the slopes of the
associated graphs are constant. Vehicle 3 moves at a constant speed between time
zero and time t3 , then stops for the period t3 to t”3 and then accelerates and eventually
moves at a constant speed.
 Primary Elements of Traffic Stream
Density and Headway

Density/Concentration (k) is the number of vehicles (or pedestrians) occupying a

given length of a lane or roadway at a particular instant. It is averaged over time and
is usually expressed as vehicles per kilometer (veh/km) or passenger cars per
kilometer (pc/km).

There are generally two types of headway, time headway and space headway.
Generally when it is used in the generic as headway the time headway is the one
being referred to.

Headway(h) – It is the time between successive vehicles as they pass a point along
the lane, also measured between common reference points. Going back to the space
time diagram identify the headway between vehicles 3 and 4 at d1 .
Space headway/Spacing (d) – The distance between successive vehicles in a traffic
lane, measured from some common reference point on the vehicle such as the front
bumper or front wheel. Identify the space headway between vehicles 3 and 4 at time
t5 in the space time diagram.
Headway, Flow and Density

Travel Time ( T) or Distance (X)

Speed, Flow and Density
Speed, Flow, Density and Headway

Traffic in a congested multilane highway

lane is observed to have an average
spacing of 80m and an average headway of
3.8s. Estimate the rate of flow, density and
speed of traffic in this lane.

Ans. All working is per lane.

Average Spacing = 80m/veh
Average Headway = 3.8s/veh
Flow =3600 = 947.37veh/h/lane
3.8
Density = 1000 =
12.5veh/km/lane
80
Speed=Flow rate=947.37 =75.79km/hr/lane
Density 12.5
Assignment

Qn 1. At a given location, the space mean speed is

measured as 70km/h and the rate of flow as 1,600
pc/h/lane. What is the density at this location for the
analysis period? Ans: k= 22.86pc/km/lane

Qn 2. A traffic stream displays average vehicle

headways of 2.2sec at 80km/hr. Compute the
density and rate of flow for this traffic stream.
Ans: k= 20.45veh/km; q=1636veh/hr
Lane of occupancy I

Is
  a measure on a freeway surveillance. If one could measure
the lengths of vehicles on a given roadway section and compute
the ratio.

R=

R could be divided by the average length of a vehicle to give an

estimate of the density(k)

Question
Four vehicles, 5.5,6,6.4 and 6.7m long are distributed over a
length of a freeway lane 152m long. What is the lane of
occupancy and density. Ans: R=0.162; k=99.51veh/km
 Lane of occupancy II

Lane of occupancy(LO) can also be described as the ratio of the time vehicles are
 present at a detection station in a traffic lane compared to the time of sampling.
LO=; ; K=
 Lane of occupancy II

Question
During a 60sec period, a detector is occupied by vehicles
for the following times: 0.34,0.38,0.40,0.32, and 0.52sec.
Estimate the values of q, k, and v. (assume that the loop-
detector length is 3m and that the average length of
vehicles is 6m.
Ans: q=300veh/hr; k=3.63veh/km; v=82.65km/hr
 Relationship Between Speed and
Density

Greenshield Relationship
Greenshields (1934) proposed the simplest representation between the two variables, assuming
a linear relationship. U = a+bk
Where densities are near to zero and the speed at which the car can be driven is determined
solely by the geometric design and layout of the road; such a speed is termed free-flow speed
As more vehicles use the section of highway, the density of the flow will increase and their speed
will decrease from their maximum free-flow value (uf) as they are increasingly more inhibited by
the driving manoeuvres of others.

If traffic volumes continue to increase, a point is reached

where traffic will be brought to a stop, thus speeds will
equal zero (u = 0), with the density at its maximum
point as cars are jammed bumper to bumper (termed)
jam density, kj). Thus, the limiting values of the
relationship between speed and density are as follows:
When k = 0, u = uf, When u = 0, k = kj.
 Relationship Between Speed and
Density

Greenberg Logarithm Relationship

Greenberg notes that the relationship is not quite linear Greenberg Relationship
but slightly concave. This is given by an equation;
u = a loge bk
However in this formula uf has a value of infinity

Underwood Exponential Relationship

Underwood also expresses another relationship in
the exponential form. This is given by an equation;

u =ae-bk
Here kj has a value of infinity. Underwood Relationship
 Relationship Between Flow and
Density

Combining Equation 1 with the fundamental flow equation;

Establishing the density at which maximum

flow occurs;

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

 Relationship Between Speed and
Flow

In order to derive this relationship, Equation 1 is turned upside down

Combining this equation with the fundamental flow equation;

In order to determine the speed at maximum flow;

 Maximum Flows I

Combining equations 3 and 5 the following is obtained for maximum flow;

QUESTION
Two platoons of cars are timed over a distance of 0.5km. Their flows are recorded.
The first group is timed at 40 seconds, with the flow at 1350 vehicles per hour. The
second group take 45 seconds, with a flow of 1800 vehicles per hour. Determine the
maximum flow of the traffic stream.
Maximum Flows II

Question 1 Where k1= 30 veh/km and u1=45km/h equation 2

Distance = 0.5km becomes;
First Group, t1 = q1 = 1350veh/h
40s q2 = 1800veh/h 45 = a -30b………….3
2 Group , t2 =
nd

45s Group, u1= D/t1 = 0.5x3600/40 = 45km/h

First Where k2 = 45veh/km and u2=40km/h equation 2
2nd Group , u2= D/t2 = 0.5x3600/45 = 40km/h becomes;

First Group, k1= q1/u1=1350/45 = 30 veh/km 40 = a – 45b………..4

2nd Group , k2= q2/u2=1800/40 = 45veh/km
Solving the equations simultaneously ;

a = 55 and b = 1/3

Therefore uf = 55 and

Uf = 1/3 , hence kj =
165 Kj

Using the normal linear relationship

q max = UfxKj = 55x165 =
2269veh/h
4