"Oral Communications 1.

0"

Oral – is verbal way of communication more on words than action

Communication

– is a basic human activity. It is a mean to import one though or solicit the other idea which may
eventually lead.

–It involves a speaker who sends his message to a recipient. This listener may either accepts, reject or
retort positively or negatively in different manners of expression as verbal or non-verbal.

"The Process of Communication"

Decode – He must have to interpret/ understand the message of the sender.

Feedback – form of question to clarify some information received in a message.

The Components to build a Model of the Communication Process:

1. A sender encodes information

2. The sender selects a channel of communication by which to send the message.

3. The receiver receives the message.

4. The receiver decodes the message.

5. The receiver may provide feedback to the sender.

5 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. PHYSICAL CONTEXT
2. SOCIAL CONTEXT -nature of relationship, sets formality, includes religion, government, culture,
education, health
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT- Mental functions, feelings or emotions,
4. CULTURAL CONTEXT- inherit, culture-based
5. HISTORICAL CONTEXT- Summary

Verbal Communication – refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message. For
effective and successful verbal communication, use words to express idea which can be easily
understood by the person you are talking to.
Non-verbal Communication – refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and represent
meanings. All kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are classified as nonverbal
communication.

Example of nonverbal communication are stares, smiles, tone of voice, movements, manner of walking,
etc.

Nature of Communication

– Communication is a process.

– Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).

– Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, action (non-verbal), or both
spoken words and non-verbal actions at the same time.

"Oral Communications 2.0"

"The Process of Communication"

The speaker generates an idea.

The speaker encodes an idea or convert the idea into words or actions.

The speaker transmits or send out a message.

The receiver decodes or interprets the message based on the context.

The receiver sends or provides feedback.

"The Elements of Communication"

Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or process.
These elements are the following:
1. Speaker – the source of information or message.

2. Message – the information, ideas or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions.

3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that the
speaker understands.

4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or non-verbal, in which
the encoded message is conveyed.

5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver.

6. Receiver – the recipient of the message or someone who decodes the message.

7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver.

8. Context – the environment where communication takes place.

9. Barrier – the factors that affects the flow of communication.

9 models of communication

1. The linear communication model is a straight-line approach to delivering a message. In this lesson,
you'll learn more about this model and its components and see examples of it in action.

Linear Communication

You open your email inbox to a slew of e-blasts from some of your favorite retailers. Each one has a
different message: a new product, a sale, new log-in credentials for a redesigned website. You also have
an email from your doctor's office asking you to confirm your appointment and a message from a friend
trying to set up dinner plans for the weekend.

You respond to the latter two - the doctor's office and your friend, but you simply read the others from
your favorite stores and move on. Why? Because the model of communication is different. While your
friends and associates may expect a response from you, department stores sending you marketing
messages do not. It's a communication style known as the linear communication model.

The linear communication model is easy to remember if you think about it in terms of a line. A line is
straight, typically with a starting point and ending point. In this linear communication model, the
communication being put out happens in a straight line, coming from a sender to a receiver. In this
model, each component plays its own role:

The sender prepares the messageThe message is the information being conveyedThe message is
encoded, or converted, to fit the channel being usedVarious channels (email, radio, television, etc.)
deliver the messageThe receiver decodes and reviews the message

This model of communication is also impacted by two other components: the absence of feedback,
meaning the receiver is not able to immediately respond, and noise, anything that can cause a
disruption in the way the message is received or understood. Noise might be the wide range of choices
consumers have in television programming that can prevent an advertisement from reaching its
intended audience. Noise can also be things like how the receiver is feeling, external influences, and
more.

As consumers, we're growing more accustomed to two-way forms of communication, such as

interacting with brands online and through social media, but the linear model is like a one-way street:
information flows in only one direction, from the sender to the receiver.

2. Lasswell Communication Model

What is the Ladder of Abstraction?

American sociologist and psychologist, Harold Lasswell is best known for his linear model of
communication that he developed in 1948. This model of communication describes who is saying
something, which channel is used to convey the messages, who the message is aimed at and what effect
the message has. Communication sciences and public relations still often use this model, making this a
classic sender receiver model.

Five components

The Lasswell Communication Model describes verbal communication and consists of five elements. Who
says What, in Which channel, to Whom, with What effect? This model is also called a ‘linear model of
communication’, ‘uni-directional process’ or ‘action model, because it describes a one-way process
within communication. It is seen as one of the most influential communication models. The model
consists of five components, that are used as an analysis tool for evaluating the entire communication
process. The previous ‘W’ questions are the basis for these components. The answers to these questions
provide insight into the communication between people.

The Lasswell Communication Model consists of the basic questions below, aimed at a component and
the gaining of an analysis:

Who?

Component: This is the communicator, also called the sender, who formulates and spreads a message.
The sender can also be an intermediary.

Analysis: This is about a management and audit analysis, that helps the sender to have the power to
communicate.

What?

Component: This is the content of the message or the message that the sender spreads.

Analysis: The content analysis is related to the aim of the message and/or the secondary intent.

Which channel?
Component: The channel describes the medium or media that is/are used to convey and spread the
message. The medium can consist of several communication tools, mass media and social media.

Analysis: The media analysis shows which medium is best used to convey a message to the receivers as
effectively as possible.

To whom?

Component: This describes the receiver(s), such as a target group or an individual. With mass
communication, there’s an audience.

Analysis: The target analysis shows who the message is meant for and how they are best reached and/or
influenced.

Which effect?

Component: The effect is the result the message leads to. The so-called triangle of success ‘knowledge,
attitude, behaviour’ is often used to describe the desired effect.

Analysis: The effect analysis will need to be started beforehand, so the messages can be aimed at and
fitted to the target audience.

A Lasswell Communication Model example

Communication can be understood as more than Lasswell’s linear communication model. The model can
work really well when providing communication advice for organisations, by answering all five
questions. This way, a communications advisor or marketer more easily gets an idea in advance about
which concrete campaign should be carried out. Such a campaign plan states which message is sent via
which channels and to which specific target audience in order to reach the desired effect and keep the
lines of communication open between the organisation and its target groups. This is illustrated by the
practical example below:

Imagine a large perfume chain that wants to reach a younger audience aged between 15 and 25 years
old. Up until now, their customer base has been women between 25 and approximately 55 years old.
Research has shown that especially young girls and women are also interested in make-up and perfume,
but that they prefer not to visit shops, but rather prefer to look for products online.
For the perfume chain, this is a new challenge that Lasswell’s communication model can help them with.
The five components of the Laswell Communication Model are used and each corresponding question is
answered. In doing so, advice is formed and can be used to develop the campaign:

1. Who is communicating?

The perfume chain themselves. They want to present themselves as a modern company that also offers
products online.

2. What needs to be communicated?

The perfume chain has opened an online shop and is now active on social media. The online shop offers
a wide range of make-up and perfumes from well-known brands and orders are delivered within 24
hours. The language use will be hip and short and in the 2nd person singular (you), to make a connection
and make the young target group feel involved.

3. Which channel is going to be used?

Other than large billboards advertising the opening of the online shop, there will also be investment in
Facebook advertising as well as other social media, such as Twitter and Instagram.

4. Who is the message intended for?

These are girls and women between 15 and 25 years old who don’t go to perfume shops, but often
order things online.

5. What effect does the campaign need to have?

The goal is for the target group to subscribe to the newsletter via Facebook or the website, so they will
receive weekly offers and more quickly decide to order via the Internet.
Mass communication

The Lasswell Communication Model was primarily deigned to analyse mass communication. However, it
is also applied to interpersonal and group communication; as is also clear from the previous example.

When Lasswell developed the model in 1984, it was meant to study media propaganda from countries
and businesses. In that time, only the rich could use mass media like television and radio.

Newspapers were not read by everyone, simply because subscriptions were too expensive. It was from
this perspective that Lasswell came up with the concept of effective mass communication; the
relationship between the presentation of the message and how this generates different effects. The
effect of a message can also be seen as feedback.

Despite the fact that the model was specifically designed for mass communication, it can nowadays also
be applied to different media and new fields, such as the Internet, social media and campaigning.

3. Shannon Weaver model of communication was created in 1948 when Claude Elwood Shannon wrote
an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” in Bell System Technical Journal with Warren
Weaver.

Shannon was an American mathematician whereas Weaver was a scientist. The Mathematical theory
later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model of communication or “mother of all models.” This
model is more technological than other linear models.

Concepts in Shannon Weaver Model

Sender (Information source) – Sender is the person who makes the message, chooses the channel and
sends the message.

Encoder (Transmitter) –Encoder is the sender who uses machine, which converts message into signals or
binary data. It might also directly refer to the machine.

Channel –Channel is the medium used to send message.

Decoder (Receiver) – Decoder is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the
receiver who translates the message from signals.

Receiver (Destination) –Receiver is the person who gets the message or the place where the message
must reach. The receiver provides feedback according to the message.

Noise –Noise is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc. which does not let the message
get to the receiver as what is sent.

Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model

The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a technological channel like
telephone and telegraph. The sender converts the message into codes understandable to the machine.
The message is sent in codes through a medium.

The receiver has to decode the message before understanding it and interpreting it. The receptor
machine can also act as a decoder in some cases. The channel can have noise and the receiver might not
have the capacity to decode which might cause problems in communication process.

Here, for instance, brain might be the sender, mouth might be the encoder which encodes to a
particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and his brain
might be the decoder and receiver.
Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in his environment that disturbs them is
the noise whereas his response is the feedback. There were only 5 components when the model was
made. Noise was added later.

As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical communication, mainly for
telephonic communication. It was made to to maximize telephone capacity with minimum noise.

Later, Weaver applied it for all kind of communications to develop effective communication and the
model became famous as Shannon Weaver model. In engineering, Shannon’s model is also called
information theory and is used academically to calculate transmission through machines and also has a
formula.

Example of Shannon Weaver Model

A businessman sends a message via phone text to his worker about a meeting happening about their
brand promotion. The worker does not receive the full message because of noise. It goes like this:

Businessman: We have a meeting at the office (“at 8 am” goes missing due to phone network disruption
or noise)

Worker (feedback) : At what time?

Cite this article as: businesstopia, "Shannon and Weaver Model Of Communication," in Businesstopia,
January 6, 2018, https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/shannon-and-weaver-model-
communication.

Here,

Sender: Businessman

Encoder: Telephone network company

Channel: Mobile network

Noise: Missing text due to disruption

Decoder: Mobile phone

Receiver: Worker

The transmission error is the noise in this case. The feedback lets the businessman know that the
message reached incomplete. The receiver gets the chance to get the full message only after his
feedback.

Levels of Communication Problems

There are three levels of problems of communication according to Shannon Weaver. They are:

Technical problem –How a channel causes a problemSemantic problem –Is the meaning of message sent
and received very differentEffectiveness problem –How effectively does the message cause reaction

Advantages of Shannon Weaver Model

Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the noise or problem
causing noise.This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the model applicable in
general communication.Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Criticisms of Shannon Weaver Model

It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group communication and mass
communication.Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender plays the
primary role that sends messages.Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages
sent by the sender.The model is taken by some critics as a “misleading misrepresentation of the nature
of human communication” as human communication is not mathematical in nature.

4. Gerbner’s General Model

Introduction:

Mr. George Gerbner is one of the pioneers in the field of communication research. His works are
descriptive as well as very easy to understand any other before. He is working as a professor and head of
the Annenberg School of Communications in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1956, Gerbner
attempted the general purpose of communication models. He stressed the dynamic nature of
communication in his work and also the factor which affecting the reliability of communication.

(Note: This model can be best understood when read along with the diagram beginning at E – Event.)

(i) Perceptual Dimension:

An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or
a Machine). After Perceives the message from “E” by “M” is known as “E1”. E1 is not same as like ‘E’.
Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they perceives only the part of the
event (E1). This is known as “Perceptual Dimension”.

These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’

M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event “E”. So M selects the interesting or
needed content from the entire event and filtering the others. The context occurs in the event
and Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and personality. (For eg. How a journalist
perceives the messages from the event and also can’t focus the whole event so they filter the unwanted
or unrelated content from the event. This filtered content is not same as like the actual event content
because the journalist edits the content based on his attitude, mood and cultural background or press
policies).
(ii) Means and Controls dimension:

E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M becomes the source of a message about
E to send someone else. M creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed its
Form and content as “SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is
structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways or based on the structured
ways.

M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he has a greater or lesser degree of
control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using
a verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new
technology and words?

This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2, M3etc.) who have further
perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about perceived events.

Important Note:

Message at every level is altered or changed.

Example:

In case of news reporting, E can be any event that has happened and the reporter (M) selects a
particular part of event (E1) that may be provide his channel higher TRP ratings or the news may boost
the particular party which his channel supports. This SE2 is sent through a medium to the mass
audience. Then the audience distributed the message (SE2) and he (M1) sends to his friends with his
interpretation and the process continues.
5. OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

in COMMUNICATION MODELS,INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends the message (message originates)

Decoder – Who receives the message

Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret

Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on. Based on this
interpretation only the message is received.

This model breaks the sender and receiver model it seems communication in a practical way. It is not a
traditional model.

It can happen within our self or two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence use
interpretation. It is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding, interpret and decoding.

Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply different meaning
to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases for e.g. Technical Language, So
certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of the communication.

Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and people get
deviated from the actual message.

Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can changeIt shows why redundancy is an essential partThere is
no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same personAssume communication to be
circular in natureFeedback – central feature.

Disadvantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding and decoding.

6. Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and
Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of
communication, which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous orientation in a two way
communication. It also consisted of some concepts from Lewin’s model.

Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that communication does not begin
when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to something from his/her
surroundings. The person must first receive message from the environment and then, he/she responds
according to his/her object of orientation.

The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and mass
communication, the point of difference being the feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in interpersonal
communication and indirect and slow in mass communication. The model also differentiates message as
purposive and non-purposive.

Components of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The major components in the communication process for the model are

Source (A) – Source is the message creator and sender.Environment (X) – Environment is the physical
and psychological situation where the message is being created and sent.Sensory experience (X1…) –
Sensory experience is the first thing that the source sees by which the source gets the idea for the
formation of the message.Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) – Objects of orientation is the person’s
social and cultural reality that has formed from his/her past experiences and teachings.Message
Interpretation or Coding (X’) – Message is interpreted with the objects of orientation of the receiver of
the message.Receiver (B) – The person who gets the message sent by the source and the person who
interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) – The views
and ideas of the receiver or his/her social reality is his/her object of orientation. That is how the receiver
interprets the message.Feedback (f) – The receiver forms another message after interpreting the
message and sends it back to the sender. It is known as feedback.Gatekeeper (C) – Gatekeepers are
found in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of
the audience and media institution.Opinion Leader – Opinion leaders are well known and recognized
people who can influence public opinions.

Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean’s model of communication starts when the
source creates a message from his/her environment. The communicator acts and creates the message
as a response to the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation.

Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response. The coded message is
transmitted to a second respondent who interprets the message differently according to his/her objects
of orientation and provide feedback to the sender.

Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in mass communication. They
are the editors, proofreaders, etc. who choose which message should be published and what effect will
it have on the audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors.

Gatekeeping is done in these levels:

Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc.Routine practice level:
Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular type of work to be doneCommunication
organizations: The policies of the organization that is publishing the workSocial institutions: The social
systems by which the message is formedSocieties: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms,
etc.

Example of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

A person ‘A’ is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms ‘X1’ and heavy rains ‘X2’ start. The roads ‘X3’ are all
blocked. ‘A’ will have to convey the message to the people who are conducting the meeting that he/she
will not be reaching on time. ‘A’ can inform all others through phone.
Here, the message is conceived from the environmental message through the person’s sensory
experience. The object of orientation of the person makes him call others because he thinks that
reaching late is impolite. Sender ‘A’ creates the message as a courteous request.

The message is coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver ‘B’. ‘B’ interprets according to
his/her own object of orientation like the receiver can still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The
feedback is given accordingly.

Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the editor. ‘C’ acts as a gatekeeper
and publishes the news after proper editing. There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to which are in the form
of letters or directly face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer takes a long time whereas
direct review reaches fast.

In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get them published. But the
editor chooses the articles that are relevant. The comment box is the place where the audience can give
feedback.

Here,

X1 is any articleX2 is the audience commentsX3 is the websitef is feedbackA is writersB is the audienceC
is the gatekeeper or the editor

So,

there is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after sending the article for publishing,
which is known as “fBC”.There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving response to
the writers, which is known as “fCA”.There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the
Writers (A) in the comments, which is known as “fBA”.

The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so might not be intentional.
So, the signals can be received anytime and message is formed anytime.

Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

There is the concept of feedback.As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves
the message formation.Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.The model can be
applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as mass communication.The model is very
descriptive.

Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the model very complicated.The
model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication which involves multiple messages
and complicated messages.The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the
receiver as there can be noise. The model does not account for noise in communication.

7. Helical Model of Communication

“If you’re born today, you’ve limited expressions”- Frank Dance

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as Helical Model of
Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to existence or existing
moment. Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication. The model is linear as well as
circular combined and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where continuousness of the
communication process and relational interactions are very important. Communication is taken as a
dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as our experience and
vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the communication progresses. The
same effect can be seen with communication of humans, where you know nothing about a person at
first and the knowledge grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of
the person, from the past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past behavior and
experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and grows upward in a new way. It
always depends on the lowest level to form the message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches
to the next level in which people share more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always growing and accumulative.

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents that he/she is alive. After
some years, the child cries whenever the child needs anything like food or attention. He/she learns
words and starts communicating with words.

The child learns specific languages and communicates with the people who know the language that
he/she knows. Communication becomes more complex as the child grows into adult and to the existing
moment. The adult uses the same pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that he/she
learned when he/she was a child. Communication is directly dependent on his/her past behavior as a
child but can also modify as the person grows.

In this example, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where the helix is small at the
bottom. And he continues communication, the helix gradually grows. When the communication
becomes more complex, the spiral grows wider. From then on, it grows steadily as his life goes on.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes communication process to be
two way.The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

The model is taken as more simple than it should be.Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has
very few variables.It is not testable because it is abstract.It is not represent in a systematic and orderly
way.Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.Continuity may not always be true for
communication. There might be breaks in situations as well as events can be meaningless, forced or
unproductive.The purpose of communication is not always growth.

8. Everett rogers was a sociologist studie the society

While

Lawrence kincaid is a scientist

*Early models of communication were linear, one-way processes from sources to receivers in short its usually a
one on one convergence which is less efficient. dissatisfaction arised convergence began to shift from audience
members as individual objects or one one on one to audiences as social groups or more than one this is the time
when Rogers and Kincaid's Convergence model was born

*Model of communication that describes a process of dialogue, information sharing, mutual understanding and
agreement, and collective action. Second, it needs a model of social change based on community dialogue and
collective action that clearly specifies social outcomes as well as individual outcomes.

*The first noticeable feature of the model is that information is shared or exchanged between two or more
individuals rather that transmitted from one to the other.

*All participants act on the same information; none are passive receivers of information (when we say none are
passive it means everyone react in anyway possible). The information can be created by the action of any
participant.

***Explain the diagram***

(((( It represents a horizontal, symmetrical relationship among two or more participants (A, B,...n) that is created
by sharing information.

*And finally, the model implies a continuous, cyclical process as participants take turns creating information to
share with one another and then interpreting and reinterpreting its meaning until a sufficient degree of mutual
understanding and agreement has been reached for collective action to take place. )))
Ex: If women suddenly show up at a community meeting for the first time, this action by itself conveys information
that can be stronger than all of the verbal comments made about "allowing women to participate."

*Any action creates new information, which potentially can be interpreted by the other participants. For instance,
this means walking out of a meeting is also a form of information that can be interpreted.

*Over time most groups will converge toward a state of greater internal uniformity, also referred to as "local
culture" (Kincaid, 1988, 1993).

In summary, some initial amount of communication within a community or group is required to identify areas of
agreement and disagreement among those participating. When different points of view and beliefs arise
(divergence), further communication is required to reduce the level of diversity (convergence) to the point where
there is a sufficient level of mutual understanding and agreement to engage in collective action and solve mutual
problems.

9. Maletzke’s Model

Gerhard Maletzke is a clear example on the influence of Mass Communications Re-search in German
Mass Communication Science. In 1963 he translated several of these investigations to German in a
voluminous work entitled Psychologyof Mass Communication (translated to Spanish by Ciespal editorial
in 1970) in which he published his communication model.

Maletzke starts from an elemental scheme which progressively increases in complexity until it reaches
the model which graphs the process of social communication (See Figure).

Communication can be conceptualized, initially, as a message(M) issued by a communicator (C)which

results in an experience (an effect) on a receiver (R).

In social communication, the message reaches the receiver through a communication medium (CM).
Each medium has technological features that affect the perceptual process, on experience and on the
effects that it produces on the receiver. In today's society the media's communicative offer is enormous.
Therefore, the receiver must perform a selection of the medium he will pay attention to. Thus, the
receiver takes an active role in the social communication process, determining which messages are the
ones that will produce an experience on him.

The receiver is not an isolated individual. He is integrated, on one hand, in many social relations, and on
the other hand, he is part of a dispersed public.
Furthermore, the receiver's view of himself, of his situation, of his role and functions in the social system
also intervene on the effects. Likewise, the technological characteristics of the chosen medium
determine the modes of behavior and experience of the receiver. Maletzke points out that the receiver
is under the "pressure and constraint of the medium". Finally, the receiver has an image of the medium.