ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- coordinates and directs the activity of the body’s
cells
- hormones - the more slowly acting endocrine
system uses chemical messengers
o released into the blood to be transported
leisurely throughout the body
- endocrinology - scientific study of hormones and
endocrine organs
- key to the incredible power is the hormones they
produce and secrete
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE FUNCTION—
AN OVERVIEW
The Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones - chemical substances that are secreted by
endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids and regulate
the metabolic activity of other cells in the body
Classification
- amino acid–based molecules - (including proteins,
peptides, and amines
- steroids - made from cholesterol ; include the sex
hormones and the hormones produced by the
adrenal cortex
prostaglandins - local hormones
Hormone Action
target cells or target organs - given hormone affects
only certain tissue cells or organs
Hormone - from a Greek word meaning “to arouse.”
o increasing or decreasing the rate of a
normal, or usual, metabolic process
Changes which can occur:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules
(such as enzymes) in the cell
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis
5. Promotion of secretory activity
Direct Gene Activation
Steroid hormones (and, strangely, thyroid hormone) -
use the mechanism of direct gene activation
o lipid-soluble molecules
steroid – diffuse – plasma membrane – nucleus – binds
– receptor – complex – binds – cell’s DNA – activate
genes – transcribe (mRNA) – translate – cytoplasm –
complex move to nucleus to activate certain genes
Second-Messenger System
- Water-soluble, nonsteroid hormones—protein and
peptide hormones—are unable to enter the target
cells
- bind to hormone receptors
hormone bind – receptor – activates enzyme – catalyze
reaction – produce SMS – response
- possible messenger - cyclic guanosine
monophosphate, or cGMP and calcium ions
Control of Hormone Release
negative feedback - mechanisms are the chief means of
regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
- three major categories :
o hormonal - most common
 endocrine organs are prodded into
action by other hormones
 bloodborne chemicals
o Humoral Stimuli - Changing blood levels of
certain ions and nutrients may also
stimulate hormone release
 ancient use of the word humor to
indicate the various body fluids
(blood, bile, and others).
 calcitonin, released by the thyroid
gland, and insulin, produced by the
pancreas
o Neural Stimuli - nerve fibers stimulate
hormone release, and the target cells
The Major Endocrine Organs
major endocrine organs:
o pituitary - pineal glands
o thyroid - thymus
o parathyroid - pancreas
o adrenal - gonads (ovaries and testes)
hypothalamus - major endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones
- two additional hormones - transported along the
axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells
o oxytocin
o antidiuretic hormone
hormone-producing glands - purely endocrine functions
mixed glands. - both endocrine and exocrine functions
endocrine glands - ductless glands that produce
hormones that they release into the blood or lymph
exocrine glands - release their products at the body’s
surface or into body cavities through ducts.
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
pituitary gland – size of pea
- two functional lobes:
o anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
o posterior pituitary (nervous tissue)
Pituitary-Hypothalamus Relationships
anterior pituitary gland - “master endocrine gland.”
releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones – controls
the release of A.P.
liberates these regulatory hormones into the blood of
the portal circulation, which connects the blood supply
of the hypothalamus with that of the anterior pituitary
Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormones
posterior pituitary - not an endocrine gland
- does not make the peptide hormone
- acts as a storage area for hormones made by
hypothalamic neurons
Oxytocin - released in significant amounts only during
childbirth and in nursing women
- stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine
muscle during labor, sexual relations, and
breastfeeding
- causes milk ejection and postpartum bleeding
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - causes the kidneys to
reabsorb more water from the forming urine
- Diuresis - urine production
- Antidiuretic - chemical that inhibits or prevents
urine production
- urine volume decreases, and blood volume
increases
- increases blood pressure by causing constriction of
the arterioles; “vasopressin”
Homeostatic Imbalance 9.1
diabetes insipidus - Hyposecretion of ADH leads to a
condition of excessive urine output
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
growth hormone and prolactin - exert their major
effects on nonendocrine targets
tropic - thyrotropic hormone, adrenocorticotropic
hormone, folliclestimulating hormone, and luteinizing
hormone
All anterior pituitary hormones
- are proteins (or peptides)
- act through secondmessenger systems
- regulated by hormonal stimuli and, in most cases,
negative feedback
Growth hormone (GH) - general metabolic hormone
- protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes
the building of amino acids into proteins and
- stimulates most target cells to grow in size and
divide
- causes fats to be broken down and used for energy
while it spares glucose
- helping to maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Homeostatic Imbalance 9.2
pituitary dwarfism - Hyposecretion of GH during
childhood leads to
gigantism - Hypersecretion during childhood results
acromegaly - hypersecretion occurs after long-bone
growth has ended
Prolactin (PRL) - protein hormone structurally similar to
growth hormone
- known target in humans is the breast (pro = for; lact
= milk)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - regulates the
endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal
gland
Thyrotropic hormone (TH)/thyroidstimulating hormone
(TSH) - influences the growth and activity of the thyroid
gland
gonadotropic hormones - regulate the hormonal
activity of the gonads
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - stimulates follicle
development in the ovaries
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - triggers ovulation of an egg
from the ovary and causes the ruptured follicle to
produce progesterone and some estrogen
- In men, timulates testosterone production by the
interstitial cells of the testes
Homeostatic Imbalance 9.3
Sterility - Hyposecretion of FSH or LH
Thyroid Gland
- hormone-producing gland
- imbalances that lead to excessive weight gain or
loss are present only in a small number of people
- just inferior to the Adam’s apple
- consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass, or
isthmus
- two hormones
o thyroid hormone
o calcitonin - (produced by the parafollicular
cells
- follicles - hollow structures; store a sticky colloidal
material
- referred to as the body’s major metabolic hormone
- two active iodine-containing hormones
o thyroxine (T4) - major hormone secreted by
the thyroid follicles. 4 bound iodine
o triiodothyronine (T3) formed at the target
tissues by conversion of thyroxine to
triiodothyronine. 3 bound iodine
- controls the rate at which glucose is “burned,” or
oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical
energy
- important for normal tissue growth and
development (reproductive & nervous)
Homeostatic Imbalance 9.4
Goiters - an enlargement of the thyroid gland that
results when the diet is deficient in iodine
Cretinism - Hyposecretion of thyroxine may indicate
problems other than iodine deficiency, such as lack of
stimulation by TSH
Myxedema - Hypothyroidism occurring in adults
Graves’ disease - one form of hyperthyroidism
- the thyroid gland enlarges and the eyes may bulge,
or protrude anteriorly (a condition called
exophthalmos)
calcitonin - decreases blood calcium levels by causing
calcium to be deposited in the bones
- acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone
- made by the so-called parafollicular cells
o released directly to the blood in response to
increasing levels of blood calcium
Parathyroid Glands
- tiny masses of glandular tissue most often found on
the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
- parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone -
important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+)
homeostasis of the blood
o hypercalcemic - it acts to increase blood
levels of calcium
o hypocalcemic
- Homeostatic Imbalance 9.5
o Tetany or uncontrollable spasm - deliver
impulses to the muscles so rapidly
Adrenal Glands
- two bean-shaped
-