5.

OPTICAL FIBRE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials such as silica
glass. It has a central core in which the light is guided, embedded in an outer cladding of slightly
lower refractive index. Light rays incident on the core-cladding boundary at angles greater than
the critical angle undergo total internal reflection and are guided through the core without
refraction. Rays of greater inclination to the fiber axis lose part of their power into the cladding at
each reflection and are not guided.
As a result of recent technological advances in fabrication, light can be guided through 1 km of
glass fiber with a loss as low as = 0.16 dB (= 3.6 %). Optical fibers are replacing copper coaxial
cables as the preferred transmission medium for electromagnetic waves, thereby revolutionizing
terrestrial communications. Applications range from long-distance telephone and data
communications to computer communications in a local area network.
These principles are essentially the same as those that apply in planar dielectric waveguides except
for the cylindrical geometry. In both types of waveguide light propagates in the form of modes.
Each mode travels along the axis of the waveguide with a distinct propagation constant and group
velocity, maintaining its transverse spatial distribution and its polarization. In planar waveguides,
we found that each mode was the sum of the multiple reflections of a TEM wave bouncing within
the slab in the direction of an optical ray at a certain bounce angle. This approach is approximately
applicable to cylindrical waveguides as well. When the core diameter is small, only a single mode
is permitted and the fiber is said to be a single-mode fiber.
Fibers with large core diameters are multimode fibers. One of the difficulties associated with light
propagation in multimode fibers arises from the differences among the group velocities of the
modes. This results in a variety of travel times so that light pulses are broadened as they travel
through the fiber. This effect, called modal dispersion, limits the speed at which adjacent pulses
can be sent without overlapping and therefore the speed at which a fiber-optic communication
system can operate. Modal dispersion can be reduced by grading the refractive index of the fiber
core from a maximum value at its center to a minimum value at the core-cladding boundary.The
Fibre is then called Graded index Fibre.

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In graded index fibre velocity increases with increase in distance from the core axis (since the
refractive index decreases). Although rays of greater inclination to the fiber axis must travel
farther, they travel faster, so that the travel times of the different rays are equalized. Optical fibers
are therefore classified as step-index or graded-index, and multimode or single-mode.

5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Given the speed and bandwidth advantages optical fiber has over copper cable, it also contains
some drawbacks. Here are advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable.

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Greater Bandwidth & Faster Speed—Optical fiber cable supports extremely high bandwidth
and speed. The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit of optical fiber cable is its
most significant advantage.

Cheap—Several miles of optical fiber cable can be made cheaper than equivalent lengths of
copper wire. With numerous vendors swarm to compete for the market share, optical cable
price would sure to drop.

Thinner and Light-weighted—Optical fiber is thinner, and can be drawn to smaller diameters
than copper wire. They are of smaller size and light weight than a comparable copper wire cable,
offering a better fit for places where space is a concern.

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Higher carrying capacity—Because optical fibers are much thinner than copper wires, more
fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable. This allows more phone lines to go over the
same cable or more channels to come through the cable into your cable TV box.

Less signal degradation—The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than that in copper wire.

Light signals—Unlike electrical signals transmitted in copper wires, light signals from one fiber
do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same fiber cable. This means clearer phone
conversations or TV reception.

Long Lifespan—Optical fibers usually have a longer life cycle for over 100 years.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Limited Application—Fiber optic cable can only be used on ground, and it cannot leave the
ground or work with the mobile communication.

Low Power—Light emitting sources are limited to low power. Although high power emitters are
available to improve power supply, it would add extra cost.

Fragility—Optical fiber is rather fragile and more vulnerable to damage compared to copper
wires. You’d better not to twist or bend fiber optic cables.

Distance—The distance between the transmitter and receiver should keep short or repeaters are
needed to boost the signal.

5.3 FIBRE OPTIC SPLICING

Rather than using optical fibre connectors, it is possible to splice two optical fibres together. An
fibre optic splice is defined by the fact that it gives a permanent or relatively permanent connection
between two fibre optic cables. That said, some manufacturers do offer fibre optic splices that can
be disconnected, but nevertheless they are not intended for repeated connection and disconnection.

There are many occasions when fibre optic splices are needed. One of the most common occurs
when a fibre optic cable that is available is not sufficiently long for the required run. In this case it

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is possible to splice together two cables to make a permanent connection. As fibre optic cables are
generally only manufactured in lengths up to about 5 km, when lengths of 10 km are required, for
example, then it is necessary to splice two lengths together.

Fibre optic splices can be undertaken in two ways:

 Mechanical splices
 Fusion splices

The mechanical splices are normally used when splices need to be made quickly and easily. To
undertaken a mechanical fibre optic splice it is necessary to strip back the outer protective layer
on the fibre optic cable, clean it and then perform a precision cleave or cut. When cleaving (cutting)
the fibre optic cable it is necessary to obtain a very clean cut, and one in which the cut on the fibre
is exactly at right angles to the axis of the fibre.

Once cut the ends of the fibres to be spliced are placed into a precision made sleeve. They are
accurately aligned to maximise the level of light transmission and then they are clamped in place.
A clear, index matching gel may sometimes be used to enhance the light transmission across the
joint.

Mechanical fibre optic splices can take as little as five minutes to make, although the level of light
loss is around ten percent. However this level of better than that which can be obtained using a
connector.

Fusion splices form the other type of fibre optic splice that can be made. This type of connection
is made by fusing or melting the two ends together. This type of splice uses an electric arc to weld
two fibre optic cables together and it requires specialised equipment to perform the splice. The
protective coating from the fibres to be spliced is removed from the ends of the fibres. The ends
of the fibre optic cable are then cut, or to give the correct term they are cleaved with a precision
cleaver to ensure that the cuts are exactly perpendicular. The next stage involves placing the two
optical fibres into a holder in the fibre optic splicer. First the ends if the cable are inspected using
a magnifying viewer. Then the ends of the fibre are automatically aligned within the fibre optic
splicer. Then the area to be spliced is cleaned of any dust often by a process using small electrical

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sparks. Once complete the fibre optic splicer then uses a much larger spark to enable the
temperature of the glass in the optical fibre to be raised above its melting point and thereby
allowing the two ends to fuse together. The location spark and the energy it contains are very
closely controlled so that the molten core and cladding do not mix to ensure that any light loss in
the fibre optic splice is minimised.

Once the fibre optic splice has been made, an estimate of the loss is made by the fibre optic splicer.
This is achieved by directing light through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking
from the cladding on the other side of the splice.

The equipment that performs these splices provides computer controlled alignment of the optical
fibres and it is able to achieve very low levels of loss, possibly a quarter of the levels of mechanical
splices. However this comes at a process as fusion welders for fibre optic splices are very
expensive.

5.4 MECHANICAL AND FUSION SPLICES

The two types of fibre optic splices are used in different applications. The mechanical ones are
used for applications where splices need to be made very quickly and where the expensive
equipment for fusion splices may not be available. Some of the sleeves for mechanical fibre optic
splices are advertised as allowing connection and disconnection. In this way a mechanical splice
may be used in applications where the splice may be less permanent.

Fusion splices offer a lower level of loss and a high degree of permanence. However they require
the use of the expensive fusion splicing equipment. In view of this they tend to be used more for
the long high data rate lines that are installed that are unlikely to be changed once installed.

5.5 WHAT IS FUSION SPLICING ?

Fiber splicing is the process of permanently joining two fibers together. Unlike fiber connectors,
which are designed for easy reconfiguration on cross-connect or patch panels.

There are two types of fiber splicing – mechanical splicing and fusion splicing.

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Mechanical splicing doesn’t physically fuse two optical fibers together, rather two fibers are held
butt-to-butt inside a sleeve with some mechanical mechanism. You will get worse insertion loss
and back reflection in mechanical splices than in fusion splices (the second type we are introducing
below).Mechanical splicing is mostly used for emergency repairs and fiber testing.

The second type splicing is called fusion splicing. In fusion splicing, two fibers are literally welded
(fused) together by an electric arc. Fusion splicing is the most widely used method of splicing as
it provides for the lowest insertion loss and virtually no back reflection. Fusion splicing provides
the most reliable joint between two fibers. Fusion splicing is done by an automatic machine called
fusion splicer (fusion splicing machines).

5.6 WHAT IS FUSION SPLICER ?

As we said above, fusion splicer is the machine used to weld (fuse) two optical fibers together.
This process is called fusion splicing. The fiber ends are prepared, cleaved, and placed in alignment
fixtures on the fusion splicer. At the press of a button, the fiber ends are heated with electrodes,
brought together, and fused.

Fusion splicers are automatic machines that you need to either choose factory recommended
settings or you set the splicing parameters yourself. There are five basic steps to fusion splicing
with a splicing machine.

1. Put on the fusion splice protection sleeve.

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1. Strip the fiber. Strip back all fiber coatings down to the 125um bare fiber. Clean the
bare fiber with 99% isopropyl alcohol.

2. Cleave the fiber. The fiber needs to be cleaved with a high precision cleaver. Most
splicing machines come with a recommended cleaver. Fiber cleaving is a very
important step as the quality of the splice will depend on the quality of the cleave.

3. Put the fibers into the fiber holders in the fusion splicer. Press the start button to start
the fusion splicing

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1. Heat shrink the protection sleeve to protect the splicing joint.

Fiber optic splicing is an important method in the installation of fiber optic networks. We
need to Choose fusion splice or mechanical splice depends on the applications. When you
do fiber splicing, you need to follow the specific instructions strictly for perfect splices.
Besides, keeping all splicing tools clean is also important.

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