The Journal of The Textile Institute

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A Mechanical Approach to the Determination

of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric and to the
Analysis of Subsequent Changes in This Geometry
Part II: The Development of a Geometry of Plain-
woven Fabric in the Loomstate and a Theory of
Weaving Contractions

G. Baser

To cite this article: G. Baser (1989) A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the
Geometry of a Woven Fabric and to the Analysis of Subsequent Changes in This Geometry
Part II: The Development of a Geometry of Plain-woven Fabric in the Loomstate and a
Theory of Weaving Contractions, The Journal of The Textile Institute, 80:4, 521-535, DOI:
10.1080/00405008908658304

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405008908658304

Published online: 01 Dec 2008.

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 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

A Mechanical Approach to the

Determination of the Geometry of a
Woven Fabric and to the Analysis of
Subsequent Changes in This Geometry
Part II: The Development of a
Geometry of Plain-woven Fabric in
the Loomstate and a Theory of
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 09:51 05 December 2015

Weaving Contractions
G. Baser
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Received 10.3.1988 Received in revised version 9.3.1989 Accepted for
publication 8.6.1989
On the basis of theories developed in Part I of this series, it is shown that the
geometry of a plain-woven cloth in its tight state on the loom can be calculated
from the deformations of the warp and weft yams in the process of weaving.
Simulating tbe state of tbe grey clotb as tbe tension components of the forces on
tbe loomstate fabric vanisb, two tbeories of weaving contraction are developed.
Tbe approximate linear theory is tested experimentally on a physical model of
the plain-weave cloth formed with rubber filaments. It is also sbown hy actual
weaving experiments tbat botb tbeories can be successfully applied to real
fabrics.

1. INTRODUCTION
The length and width contractions that occur in cloths after they have been taken
off the loom are an important problem in the design and production planning of
woven cloths. In order to predict the amounts of the warp and weft yams needed
or to obtain given dimensions in thefinalcloth, as well as to set the loom to obtain
a cloth of the required characteristics, the relations between the yam dimensions
and the cloth par£uneters should be known. The cloth parameters to be considered
are first those of the loomstate fabric, secondly those of the grey cloth, £ind finedly
those of the finished fabric.
Although some practical formulae, such as those reported by Strong\ have
been proposed to calculate weaving contractions, no theoretical or experimental
work of a general character has so far heen reported on the subject. It has,
however, been shown previously^ that the shape of the weft yam can be
determined analytically if the force bending it is known. The same will apply for
the warp yam. It can thus be argued that these forces, which must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to each other, ought to be theoretically
calculable from the yam and cloth parameters, together with the mechanical
conditions of weaving. These conditions are provided by the loom settings, such
as the warp tension, the reed width,the rate of take-up, etc.
Once the tight state of the cloth on the loom is defined, the lengths of warp and

J. Text. In$l.. 1989. 80 No. 4 0 TtxtiU Iiutitute 621

 Baser

weft per repeat of the cloth may he obtained. The problem of the dimensional
changes subsequent to weaving can then be tackled by reconsidering the changing
conditions of equilibrium of the forces.
2. THEORETICAL
2.1 A Large-deformations Theory of Weaving Contraction
The formulae derived earlier^ for the shape parameters of the weft yam can be
refomaulated for both warp and weft yams by using the subscript i, with i=l for
the warp and i=2 for the weft as follows:

k = l\iJjRi (I)
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(2)
(3)
(4)
where In = F(fc,-,<^oi) (5)

^i'0oi) — 2E(fci,0oi)] — 2/Ci sin a, cos 0oi (7)

(8)

' Bi cos a^ (9)

Gi = 1 - T (10)
ki COS (Zj ^ '
a, = tan-',?i (11)

(12)

(13)
a,

where B and X are the flexural rigidity and the tensile modulus, respectively.
These fifteen equations, which become 30 when both warp and weft are
considered, relate 39 quantities. Even with the eight known parameters, namely,
B,, B-, X^, XgjPpPg' hz^~f*2^' ^^^ -^1' °^® further relation is required to obtain a
solution. This relation may be provided by the condition that

hi + h2^ constant (16)

522 J. Teat. IIUL. 1989. 8ONO. 4 O TextUe Jjutitutt

 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry ofa Woven Fabric. Part II

which means that the interlacing warp and weft yams are in contact with each
other. Thus the problem will theoretically have a solution that can be obtained as
an approximation by numerical methods.
Now, since the geometry of the cloth in its tight state on the loom in equilibrium
with the pressure and tension components of the forces acting may be obtained
completely, the subsequent changes under differing conditions of equilibrium
may also be defined.
It may therefore be assumed that, when the cloth is taken off the loom, the
tension components of the forces will vanish altogether. This phenomenon may
be simulated by the action of an external force on the cloth equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the warp tension. This will not change the value of the
between-yams pressure P but will result in a new fabric geometry as analysed by
Peirce^ in his elastic-thread theory. Thus the geometry of the grey cloth may be
defined, in a similar way, as:
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(17)

(18)
(19)

where

(20)
(21)
(22)

(23)

(24)

the index 0 denoting the relaxed state of the fabric.

Since the relaxed lengths of the warp and weft yams in one repeat of the plain
weave are the same in both the loomstate fabric and the grey fabric, the condition,
from Equations (4) and (17), that

will lead to a solution of the above formulae by the application of a numerical

method. From the dimensions of the loomstate and grey cloths and from the
calculated values of the free lengths of warp and weft in one repeat of the weave,
four contraction parameters may be defined as:

(26)

J, Tat liut. 1989. BONOL 4 O nxtiU Inatitutt 628

 Baser

{11)
Coi = ( P i -POIVPI (28)

C02 = (P2 - PO2)/P2 (29)

where c, and c, express the over-all wai^) and weft contractions, whereas c^j and
CQ2 show the relation of the grey cloth to tiie loomstate fabric. Herep^' is the warp-
spacing measured on the loomstate fabric in front of the reed as distinct from p^
,calcuated from the reed construction.

2^ The Approximate Linear Theory of Weavix^ Contraction

The formulae derived for the approximate linear theory of weft-crimping^ may be
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generalized by employing the index i to denote either the warp or the weft as:

(30)

Since B^, B^ \ , \ , p^, p^, and l^^^p^ are known parameters, two further
equations are needed to solve for the value ofP. One of these will be the condition
that the sum of the crimp amplitudes is constant as expressed by Equation (16).
Another equation may be obtained by considering the extension of the warp yam.
The horizontal component of the force causing the extension of the warp
yam is balanced by the warp tension T^, given by the equation:

Putting cos Q^=p/K^, this equation becomes:

Thus the geometry of the cloth in its tight state on the loom is defined by
Equations (16) and (30)-(32) completely.
In the grey cloth, in which the tension components of the forces vanish, the
problem is that of pure bending, and thus the crimp amplitudes hg. in the grey
cloth may be expressed as:
PI 3
(33)

and the thread-spacingsp^ will be given by:

Poi = (loi - hli)"^ ,34j
With all the parameters defined, the four contraction parameters Cj, c^, c™., c^^
can now be calculatedfrx)mthe Equations (26M29) and the equation
h, + h2 = D (35)
where D is the sum of the yam diameters.

524 J. Teat. In»t.. 1989. 80No.4e TatiUInstitute

 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry ofa Woven Fabric, Part II

3. EXPERIMENTAL
3.1 Model Experiment
For a model-contraction experiment, a physical model of a plain-weave cloth,
simulating its tight state on the loom, was devised as follows.
The equally spaced rubber filaments of the test specimen prepared on the
holder frame for the compression test as described previouslj^ were later
interlaced with another set of rubber filaments of the same material, just as the
warp yams interlace with the weft yams in a plain cloth. To do this, an
appropriate number of these rubber filaments of equal length werefirstfixedat
one end between two metal holder pieces in equally spaced channels cut in one
of the pieces as shown in Fig.l. They were then woven by hand, with the aid ofa
pair of tweezers, into a plain-cloth structure, startingfromthe two sides and the
middle and at the same time working in opposite directions to fill in the empty
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spaces. It was thus made possible to balance the tension on eachfilamentand ^so
the length taken up by each. Some tension was applied to the filaments in doing
this, but it ensured that equal lengths of the filaments were woven into the
structure. The structure was perfected later by distributing the tension and
adjusting the spacings along eachfilamentby using the pair of tweezers. The free
ends were later placed in the channels between two metal holder piecesfixedin
position by means of three adjusting screws andfinallyglued up. The protruding
ends of the filaments were cut off and measured. The physiceil model of a
loomstate cloth thus prepared with known dimensions is shown diagremimatically
in Fig.2.

Fig.l The method of formation of the physical model ofa loomstate plain-woven cloth

FigJ! Diagrammatic representation of the loomstate ofa plain-woven cloth

J. Text. Inat.. 1989. SONo. 4 e TextiU Institutt 526

 Baser

Table I
Results of the Contraction Experiments

Expt No.
Parameter

Filament diameter (cm) 0.1400 0.1400 0.2000

Filament tensile modxilus (gf) 1538 1666 6074
Filament flexural rigidity (gf cm^) 2.13 1.82 14.85
Free length of warp (/j^) 0.5170 0.4227 0.5400
Free length of weft (iji 0.5000 0.4000 0.5000
Initial pick-spacing (p^) 0.5000 0.4000 0.5000
Initial end-Bpacing (Pj) 0.5000 0.4000 0.5000
Final pick-spacing (p ) 0.4864 0.4000 0.5000
Final end-spacing (p^ 0.4818 0.3818 0.4818
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Total warp contraction (c.) 0.0592 0.0537 0.0741

Total weft contraction (Cj) 0.0364 0.0455 0.0364
Partial warp contraction (c^) 0.0272 0.0000 0.0000

Table n
Fabric Specifications and Experimental Design
for tbe Weaving E!xperiments
Fabric Specification Fahric I Fahric II

Yam characteristics: 52/2 Nm worsted 48/2 Nm worsted

45/55 wool/polyester-fihre 45/55 wool/polyester-fihre
warp and weft warp and weft
Reed numher 70/3 dents/10 cm 70/3 dents/10 cm
Reed width 156.5 cm 157.0 cm
Unit mass 257 g/m 275 g/m
Experimental design Roll I Roll I: Normal
Roun tension
Roum Roll H: Higher
RoUIV tension
(3 determinations (5 determinations
on each roll) on each roll)

For the contraction experiment, the intersection points nearest to the sides of
the holder frame were fixed by using a polymer adhesive. One day later, the
structure was taken out of the holderframeby cutting each filament at the sides
by means of razor blade, first in the warp direction and afterwards in the weft
direction, as happens in real weaving. Two such model grey cloths are shown in
Fig.3.

Fig.3 Physical models of plain-woven grey cloths made of ruhber filaments

526 J. Tixt. Inst.. 1989. SO No. 4 C Ttxtilt Institute
 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

Three contraction experiments were carried out as described above. The

structural parameters of the model cloths in both their tight and free states and
the tensile moduli and flexural rigidities of the filaments used, measured as
described in the preceding paper^, are shown in Table I together with the test
results. I
3 ^ Weaving Experiments
Weaving experiments Involving the use of real yams were also designed to verify
the theories developed and to discuss their practical value in predicting the
weaving contractions.
Two worsted cloths were woven under mill conditions on a Saurer 100 W loom.
The technical specifications of the cloths woven and the experimented design are
shown in Table IL
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As can be seenfromTable II, it was intended to test the theories with different
values of the parameters B, \,p^,p^, and T. Two levels of tension were employed
for Fabric II, one being the normal tension used in the mill and the other a higher
tension. In order to obtain good estimates of the measured values, four rolls of
Fabric I in approximately 80-m lengths were woven and three determinations
made on each. Since two rolls of Fabric II of the same length were woven, the
number of determinations was raised from three tofivein this case.
3 ^ Measurements on Loomstate Fabrics
5.3.1 Measurements Made
A number of measurements were made on the loomstate fabric after the loom was
stopped each time and brought to the closed-shed position with the reed some
distance awayfromthe cloth fell. It could thus be assumed that all the forces were
in static equilibrium and the warp tension was equal to the cloth tension in the
plane of the cloth. A set of fabric and loom parameters, which included the warp
tension, the fabric width, the pick-spacing, and thefreelength of warp woven into
one unit of weave, were determined as described below.
3.3.2 Measurement of the Warp Tension
The tension on a single warp yam in both thefrontand back sheds was measured
at six different positions along the width of the cloth by using a spring-type hand-
held tension meter. At each determination, care was taken to make a measurement
at a different thread.
3.3.3 Measurement of a Free Length of Warp
A length of about 30 cm of a group of warp yams was marked by ink at both ends
in the back shed when the healds were level. This length was also measuored
accurately with a ruler. Each mark was observed until it emerged in the front
shed and was woven into the cloth. The loom was stopped each time, and the
blurred mark was made more distinct by using a pencil.
3.3.4 Measurement of the Pick-spacing on the Loom
The loom was stopped in each determination, and an indicating red continuous-
filament yam was inserted within a group of warp yams. The loom was started
to run again until afler a length of some 2-3 cm of cloth was woven. A second
indicating yam was inserted, and the loom was allowed to run to insert two more
picks. The loom was brought to the closed-shed position, and the distance
between the two marking threads was measured by a ruler. It was thus possible
to measure the pick-spacing when the cloth was in its tightest state under the
J. Tat. IntL. 1989. 80 No. 4 9 Textiit InstUute 627
 Baser

influence of the temples.

5.3.5 Measurement of the Fabric Width between Temples
It was observed that at the closed-shed position, when the reed was some distance
awayfromthe cloth fell, the fabric width between the temples was smaller than
the reed width. It was therefore measured with a steel ruler.

3.4 Measurement on Grey Cloths

The measurements on the grey cloths were carried out after allowing them to
relax in the inspection room for at least one day afler they were taken off the loom.
The cloth was put on a cloth-inspection machine and manipulated by hand while
measurements were being made. These measurements were:
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(i) the cloth width as measured with a steel ruler;

(ii) the warp sett as measured by using a l-in.-square piece-glass;
(iii) the free length of cloth between the pencil marks, corresponding to the
measured free length of warp;
(iv) the length of cloth woven between the red marker threads;
(v) the number of picks inserted between the red marker threads as counted
with the aid of a piece glass.
3.5 Results of the Weaving Experiments
The results of the weaving experiments are shown in Table III together with the
calculated cloth p£irameters.
The parameterspgpPg2 ^^^PyP2 were calculatedfromthe warp and wefl setts
as measured on loomstate fabrics and in the grey cloths, respectively. The unit
free lengths of warp, I , were calculated by multiplying the value of/j^^ by the
ratio LJL, where L is the length measured on the grey cloth corresponding to the
free length of warp as marked and measin^d during weaving and L. is this length
corrected for the extension under the tension in the back shed by applying
Hooke's Law.
The unitfreelengths of weft were, however, calculated directlyfromthe warp
sett on the reed as indicated by the reed number, which was 70/3. The experimental
values of the contraction parameters c,, c,, c^^fC^^ are calculatedfromthese cloth
p£irameters by using Equations (26)-(29).
The experimental contraction parameters c^ and c^^ calculatedfromthe cloth-
width measurements during and after weaving are also shown in Table III. These
smaller values of c^ and c^^ reflect the effect of the selvedge in opposing
contraction.
3.5 Measurements on Yams
3.6.1 Measurements Made
Measurements to determine the yam parameters, such as the count, the twist,
the tensile moduli, and the bendingrigidities,whose results are shown in Table
IV, were made as described below.
3.6.2 Measurements of the Yam Count and Twist
The counts were determined by weighing 50-m hanks of yam. The twist was
measured by the method of twisting and untwisting. The values of the yam
diameters in centimetres as calculated by Ashenhurst's formula^ are also shown
in Table IV.

528 J- Text Intt.. 1989. 80 No. 4 0 TextiU TiutUute

 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

Table m
Reaults of the Weaving Experiments and the
Cloth Parameters as Calculated from Actual Measurementa
Measurements Fabric I Fahric n-1 Fahric n 2
Mean sd Mean sd Mean ad
Warp tension
(a) Front shed 60.9 15.1 59.3 11.9 83.7 12.8
(b) Back shed 58.5 15.4 62.7 11.7 81.5 12.9
Warp sett (cm->)
(a) LoomBtate 21.13 — 21.32 .— 21.32
(b) Grey state 22.50 0.21 22.13 0.16 22.20 0.18
Weft Bett (cm")
(a) Loomstate 19.32 0.23 19.55 0.62 19.80 0.76
(b) Grey state 19.98 0.39 20.26 0.70 20.71 0.93
Fabric width (cm)
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(a) Loomstate 154.5 155.0 155.0

(b) Grey state 148.9 0.3 150.3 0.1 50.1 0.3
Measured warp length (cm)
(a) Loomstate 30.00 — 30.00 30.02
(b) Grey state 27.41 0.18 27.27 0.22 27.64 0.26
Calculated
Parameters Fabric I Fahric n-1 Fabric n-!
LJL 1.0855 1.0909 1.0754
hi <cni) 0.0544 0.0539 0.0519
p, (cm) 0.0518 0.0512 0.0505
pp, (cm) 0.0501 0.4094 0.4083
^M (cni) 0.0476 0.0476 0.0476
Pa (cm) 0.0473 0.0469 0.0469
p^(cm) 0.0444 0.0452 0.0450
c, (%) 7.88 8^ 7.01
c, (%)
(fl) KP^'PM )yP» 6.72 6.04 5.46
(6) As calculated 4.86 472 4.39
from cloth widths
3.28 8.62 4.36
c" (%)
(a) (PJ-PM^PJ 6.13 8.62 4.05
(6) As calculated 3.62 8.80 3.16
from cloth widths

Tahle IV
Results of the Measurements on Yarns
Yam Characteristics Erperiment I Experiment II
Measured yam count (Nm)
Mean 25.6 28.7
Standard deviation 0.6 0.6
Calculated yam diameter (cm) 0.0250 0.0260
Measured yam twist
Mean 647 544
Standard deviation 29 101
Tensile modulus (gf)
Mean 7629 7636
Standard deviation 821 873
Flexural rigidity (mgf cm^)
Mean 6.02 8.76
Standard deviation 0.66 2.00

J. Tat lift.. 1989. 80 No. 4 e TextiU Institute 639

 Baser
3.6.3 Measurements of Yarn Rigidity and Tensile Modulus
The flexural rigidity of the yams used was determined by using the ring-loop
method as described by Peirce^ and Carlene^ and by applying the method of
calculation proposed by Grosberg and Swani^. Rings were formed on a rigid steel
rod of 16-mm diameter, wrapped in a cellophane sheet. They were deformed by
a 0.0225-gweighthungontheirlowerportions, and thedeflexions were measured
by obtaining their shade images on a screen by means of a slide projector as
explained in the preceding paper^. About 25-30 measurements were made for
each yam.
The tests to determine the tensile moduli of the yams were carried out on the
Textechno Statigraph R constant-rate-of-loading yam-strength tester by using a
full-scale load of 1000 gf. About 30-35 measurements were made on each yam,
and the moduli were calculated from the load/extension charts obtained.
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4. THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS
4.1 Application of the Approximate Linear Theory
For the application of the approximate linear theory to both the model-contraction
tests and the weaving experiments, two different approaches had to be adopted.
This is because, in the contraction experiment, the tension on the model cloth in
the warp direction is not known. The free unit length of the warp can be used
instead, as an alternative known parameter. The lengths were calculated from
the measurements made on rubber filaments during the preparation of the model
cloth. Thus two slightly different computer programs were developed to calculate
the theoreticEil values of the contraction parameters.
In the computer program prepared for the model-contraction experiment, a set
of values for both h and h^ increasing in equal steps, is generated by the
computer until the right combination of A, and h^ is reached that gives nearly
equal values for the load calcxilated separately for warp and weft, respectively,
from Equation (30). Since the value of/^ is not known, tofinda value for P, /^ has
to be calculated first by Equation (31), and h^ and ft^must satisfy the condition
that
h^=h^ = 2d (36)
where d is the diameter of the rubber filaments. Thus, if this condition is not
fulfilled, the computer will try the next value ofh^. Once the correct value of the
force P is calculated, the values of the parameters belonging to the relaxed cloth
may be found in the same way by generating a second set of values for h^. and h^^^
by using Equations (33) and (34) until the condition h^^ + h =2d is satisfied. The
control limits for the difference between the sum of amplitudes and twice the
diameter were chosen so as to lead to an easy solution and to allow for any slight
flattening that might occur, especially in the tight state of the model fabric. The
program also included instructions to calculate important parameters, such as
cloth thickness, weave angles, and warpway emd weflway tensions.
The program to calculate the theoretical values of the weaving contractions for
the experimental fabrics was prepared on the same lines. Since the warp tension
Tj is known in a real weaving experiment, the value of Z^^ is calculated here by
using Equation (32). For the yam diameters, the values given in Table IV are used
in the program as data. Their sum is controlled between limits chosen on the
bases of a maximum and a minimum value as the relevant criteria. The maximum
was set to 1.1 times the calculated value for the relaxed fabric and the minimum
to 0.4 times this value to allow for the maximum yam-flattening in the tight state
of the fabric. These estimations of extreme values were based on prior work on
530 J. Ttxt. ItuL, 1989. 80No. 4 « Textile InaUtute
 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

yam compression^.
The solution is obtained by controlling the value of the inter-yam pressure P
calculated for the weft against that calculated initially for the warp.
4^ Computer Program for the Exact Theory
The flow of the calculations in the computer program developed to predict the
weaving contractions of the experimental fabrics, based on the exact theory, is
shown in Fig.4. Here a solution to satisfy all the conditions is searched for a
partiailar combination of the arbitrary values of the parameters q^, q^, Q^, Q^,
generated by the computer within specified ranges. Astiieinput values, p andp^
are fed in the program along with T^, but they are used only for the control of the
calculated theoretical values in the initial stages of computing. These calculated
values ofp, and p^ are used in the following steps to obtain a unique solution.
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Zl
OS
LUO I
ILU
tx>

J
CD
IU.

r"
olo! li ^- o

II
!I 1

i ! ill
w" • \ o
L_J1_T ILf

Diagrammatic representation of the flow of calculations in the computer program to

apply the exact theory
J. Text. Intt. 1989. 8ON0. 4 0 Ttxtite IrutUutt 631
 Baser

On running the program with the experimental data, a nttmber of solutions

were obtained that converged within a certain area of q^ and q^. The condition
that the sum of crimp amplitudes be constant was not included in the program,
firstly because it is not necessary for the exact theory and secondly because too
many controls increase the computer time and make it difficult to reach a
solution. By the same point of view, it was considered unwise to work out a
program for the model-contraction experiment based on the exact theory because,
since T^ is not known, a set of values for P should have been generated to control
the calculated value of ZQJ besides the values for the parameters q^ and q^, which
greatly increased the computer time.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 The Application of the Approximate Theory to the Model-
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contraction Experiments
The results obtained by application of the approximate linear theory to the
model-contraction experiments are shown in Table V. More than one solution
satisfying all conditions is usually obtained. By altering the control limits for P,
the number of solutions could be reduced to only a few. Here the control limits of
±2% for the difference in P as calculated for the warp and weft separately were
used.
Table V
Results of the Model-contraction Elxperlments

Filament- Filament- Warp Weft

Experiment Diameter spacing Result Contraction Contraction
No. (cm) (cm) No. Theory Expt Theory Expt

0.14 0.5 1 0.0365 0.0340

2 0.0383 0.0366
Mean 0.037 0.059 0.035 0.036
0.14 0.4 1 0.0545 0.0600
2 0.0570 0.0648
Mean 0.056 0.054 0.062 0.046
0.20 0.5 1 0.0781 0.0597
2 0.0812 0.0631
3 0.0845 0.0666

Mean 0.081 0.074 0.063 0.041

5^ The Application of the Approximate Theory to the Weaving

Experiments
The results obtained by the application of the approximate linear theory to the
weaving experiments are shown in Table VI. By using the control limits of ±5%
for the difference in P, betweenfiveand seven solutions were obtained for each
fabric. Table VI shows the mean values of the contraction parameters together
with those of the parameters g^, Sj, Q^, 9gj, G^g, and 2P, which were to be used later
to facilitate the application of the program developed for the exact theory. The
values of the warp tensions measured are also included in the table.

532 J. 7k<l IiuL, 1989, 90 No, 4 C Tatih InttUuU

 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

Table VI
Results of the Weaving Experiments
Based on the Approximate Linear Theory

^""""•---.Slxptl Fabric No. I n-1 n-2

Expt Theory Expt Theory Expt Theory

Warp tension (gf) 61.7 59.3 83.7
Warp contraction 0.079 0.088 0.083 0.074 0.070 0.082
Weft contraction 0.067 0.059 0.050 0.050 0.066 0.062
9i 6.0 6.0 4.3 6.7
e, (deg) 6.9 8.4 7.2
e, (deg) 6.9 7.4 7.6
9. (deg) 28.6 21.7 22.6
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9n- (deg) 19.4 17.9 19.6

Inter-yam pressure, 2P (gf) 21.3 29.2 31.6

5.3 The Application of the Large-deformations Theory to the Weaving

Experiments
The results of the application of the exact theory to tJie weaving experiments are
shown in Table VII. The warp tension and the calculated unitfreelength (U.F.L.)
of the warp are also shown in the table. It can be seen that nine results were
obtained for Fabric I, four for Fabric II-l, and only one for Fabric II-2 by using the
control limits shown in Table VIII. More results could be obtained for Fabric II-
2 to obtain better estimates of the csilculated parameters by using wider control
limits, but this was not considered very appropriate, since the limits used for this
fabric were already quite wide.
Table vn
Computer Results for the Weaving Elxperiments
by the EzHct Theory
Contractions
Warp UFL
Fabric Tension Warp
No. (gf) (cm)
I 60.9 0.0546 0.127 0.123 0.081 0.118
0.0526 0.121 0.113 0.107 0.108
0.0551 0.128 0.119 0.073 0.113
0.0529 0.119 0.109 0.100 0.104
0.0553 0.124 0.116 0.065 0.110
0.0628 0.124 0.107 0.108 0.101
0.0650 0.126 0.114 0.072 0.108
0.0523 0.112 0.106 0.104 0.100
0.0667 0.127 0.106 0.044 0.100
Mean 0.0641 0.123 0.112 0.084 0.107
Expt 0.0644 0.079 0.067 0.033 0.061
n-1 69.3 0.0515 0.101 0.112 0.096 0.099
0.0528 0.116 0.104 0.088 0.091
0.0519 0.104 0.113 0.092 0.100
0.0531 0.118 0.106 0.084 0.092
Mean 0.0523 0.110 0.109 0.090 0.096
Expt 0.0639 0.083 0.050 0.036 0.036
n-2 83.7 0.0636 0.124 0.116 0.070 0.102
Expt 0.0619 0.070 0.055 0.044 0.041
J. TKCL Int., isaa, 8ON0.4 e TextiU Institute 633
 Baser

Table V m
Control Limits Used in Applying the Exact Theory
to the Weaviz^; Experiments

Condition Control Limits (%)

Fabric I Fabrie II-l Fabrie n-2

±0.2 ±2 ±2
±0.8 ±2 ±1
±0.2 ±2 ±2
0 0 ±10
±1.6 ±3 ±3
±1.5 ±3
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5.4 General Discussion

The results of the theoretical calailations and comparisons made between the
experimental and theoretical values of the weaving contractions show that the
method of approach adopted in hoth the approximate and exact theories is on the
right lines.
The agreement obtained between the theoretical and experimental values for
the model experiment is reasonable. Furthermore, the very closefitobtained in
the three contraction values out of six can be treated as good evidence in view of
the complexity of the problem and the experimental difficulties involved.
As for the real weaving experiments, the approximate linear theory give
smaller values, which are closer to the experimental ones than those calculated
by the application of the exact theory. These values, being sometimes lower than
the experimental ones, however, cast some doubt on the success of the
approximation. The application of the large-deformations theory, on the other
hand, although very difficult mathematically, seems to give mesuungfiil results,
especially for the warp contraction values. The exact theory converges better to
reach an optimum solution, as can be observed in Table VTI.
The values of the parameters g^,Q^, %, Q^^, 602' ^^^ ^ obtained from the two
apphcations are shown in Table DC for comparison. It can be seen that the
approximate linear theory predicts greater deformations, especially in the grey
fabrics, as demonstrated by the higher values of B^j and Q^^. Notwithstanding this,
the linear theory predicts smaller contraction values than the exact theory. There
are also large differences between the values of 2P as calculated by the two
theories.
Table IX
Comparative Results for Some Parameters
Sxpt. Fabrie
Parameter No. n-1 n-2
Approx. Exact Approx. Exact Approx. Exact
Theory Theory Theory Theory Theory Theory

9i 6.0 9.6 4.3 12.1 5.7 10.2

9i — 11.4 — 13.3 — 10.8
9,(deg) 6.9 4.8 8.4 3.3 7.2 4.4
e,(dfig) 6.9 4.5 7.4 4.4 7,6 6,6
Qoitdeg) 23.6 17.3 21.7 8.8 22.6 15.0
19.4 13.6 17.9 7.3 19.5 12.0
2P(gf) 21.3 12.7 29.2 9.8 31.6 16.4

534 J. Text. liuL, 1989. 80N0. 4 O T^cdit Irutitute

 A Mechanical Approach to the Determination of the Geometry of a Woven Fabric. Part II

The lower weave angles calculated by the application of the exact theory for
grey fabrics show the importctnce of the tension component of the forces involved
in the problem. Since the linear theory based on a straight-line model for the yam
portions underestimates the effect of the tension component to reduce deformation
and thus increases the value ofh unduly, greater weave angles and higher inter-
yam pressure values are obtained.
The above argument also shows that the assumption of extensibility of the
yam is vital in the analysis of deformations during weaving. With regard to the
effect of frictional forces ignored in the present analyses, they may be playing an
important role by reducing the tension of the yams in the loomstate fabric and
thus resisting the contraction afterwards. It may also be assumed that these
forces will eventually disappar in finishing, which thereby will cause new
contractions.
The effect of yam-flattening, on the other hand, may be more stable, and it may
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be argued that the bending of the yams will be smaller under the forces developed
as a result of this phenomenon. This may be one of the causes for obtaining
smaller contraction values in the weaving experiments than those predicted by
the exact theory.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The work reported in this paper has shown that the geometry of a plain-woven
cloth in the loomstate can be completely determined by the two theories developed,
one based on small deformaitons and the other on large deformations, the
assumptions of yamflexibilityand extensibility being made. As a consequence,
the weaving contractions can be calculated from the geometry of the loomstate
fabric by taking due care of the mechanical conditions prevailaing in the weaving
process.
The approximate linear theory, based on a geometrical model of plain-woven
cloth similar to that of Kawabata, Niwa, and Kawai*, may be used satisfactorily
to make a prediction of weaving contractions for low-sett plain-woven cloths. For
a truer picture of cloth geometry both on the loom and in the grey state, and for
the prediction of weaving contractions of medium-to-high-sett fabrics, the lctrge-
deformations theory developed should be applied. Although the experimental
data obtained have not verifled this theory to ftill satisfaction, it has the
advantage of converging better than the linear theory and does not involve the
yam-diameter parameter, which is difficult to deflne or measure.
It seems that factors such as frictional effects and yam-flattening during and
after weaving may be playing important roles and may be the cause of the
contractions being smaller than predicted by the exact theory. These factors may
easily be Included in the theoretical treatment, and more data otainedfrombetter
controlled-weaving experiments will help to verify the theories to greater
satisfaction.
REFERENCES
' J.H. Strong. Textile Calculations Simplified', National Trade Preas, London, 1954, p.86.
' G. Baser. J. Text. Inst., 1989, 80, 507.
* F.T. Peirce. J. Text. Inst., 1937, 28, T45.
* S. Brierley. Text. Mfr, 1931, 67, 3.
» F.T. Peiree. J. Text. Inst., 1930,21, T409.
• P.W. Carlene. J. Text. Inst., 1960, 41, T159.
' P. Grosberg and N.M. Swani. Text. Res. J., 1966, 36, 332.
• G. Baser. Ph.D. TheBis, Univereity of Leeds, 1965.
• S. Kawabata, M. Niwa, and H. Kawai. J. Text. Inst., 1973,64, 21.

J. Ttst IiuL. 1089.80 No. 4 C TtxtiU Iiutitutt 635