EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by rapid movement of the Earth’s rocky
outer layer. Earthquakes occur when energy stored within the Earth, usually in the form
of strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy is transmitted to the surface of the Earth
by Earthquake waves.

Seismic- pertains earthquakes

Tremor- a sudden shaking or vibration, a state of agitation or excitement.

The study of Earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the Greek
seismos, “to shake”). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists.

Seismology, basically, the science of earthquakes, involving observations of natural

ground vibrations and artificially generated seismic signals, with many theoretical and
practical ramifications (see Earthquake). A branch of geophysics, seismology has made
vital contributions to understanding the structure of the earth’s interior.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Volcanic Earthquake
2. Tectonic Earthquake
3. Induced Earthquake
4. Collapsed Earthquake

VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE
Those associated with volcanic eruption or sub -terranean movement of magma. Volcanic
earthquakes occur near active volcanoes but have the same fault slip mechanism as tectonic
earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes are caused by the upward movement of magma under the
volcano, which strains the rock locally and leads to an earthquakes. As fluid magma rises to the
surface of the volcano, it moves and fractures rock masses and causes continuous tremors that
can last up to several hours or days. Volcanic Earthquakes occur in areas that are associated
with volcanic eruptions, such as in the Cascade Mountain Rage of the Pacific Northwest, Japan,
Iceland, and at isolated hot spots such as Hawaii.
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
A. FAULT MOVEMENT
Earthquake or waves of distribution resulting from rupture or sudden movement
along an existing fault in the earth crust.

B. PLATE MOVEMENT OR ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Earthquake due to the relatively sudden release of accumulated strains in the crystal
rocks through fracture along areas of weakness or the release of energy produce
waves of distortion on with propagate earth surface as well as reflections and
refractions as they transverse the earth interior.

The rocky tectonic plates move very slowly, floating on top of a weaker rocky layer.
As the plates collide with each other or slide past each other, pressure builds up
within the rocky crust. Earthquakes occur when pressure within the crust increases
slowly over hundreds of years and finally exceeds the strength of the rocks.
Earthquakes also occur when human activities such as the filling of reservoirs,
increases free in the Earth’s crust.

Different kinds of seismic waves

A. P-WAVES
A sudden slip along a fault, produces longitudinal push-pull (P)
Compressional trains of P waves, set up by an abrupt push (or pull) in the
direction of wave propagation cause surface formation to shake back and
forth.
P-waves velocities in strong rocks is 6 to 7 km/sec (4.2 mi/sec)
B. S-WAVES

A sudden slip along a fault, produces transverse shear (S) waves.

Sudden shear displacements move through materials with slower S-wave
velocity as vertical planes shake up and down.
S-wave velocities in strong rocks is 3.5 km/sec (2mi/sec)
C. SURFACE SEISMIC WAVES
Cause low frequency vibration.
These waves travel fast and are guided in their propagation by the Earth
surface.
C.1 Love Waves
 Named for the British geophysicist Augustus E. H. Love, Causes rock
to move horizontally, or side to side at right angles to the direction of
the traveling wave, with no vertical displacement.
C.2 Rayleigh Waves
Named after the British physicist John Rayleigh.
Rayleigh waves cause rock particles to move forward, up, backward,
And down in a path that contains the direction of the wave travel.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE
1. CIRCUM-PACIFIC SEISMIC ZONE
Accounts for 80 percent of all earthquake.
Its borders the ocean running up from the west coast of South,
Central and North America down the coast of Asia thru Japan,
Philippines and New Zealand.
2. ALPIDE ZONE
Accounts for 15 percent of all earthquake.
Its runs Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Northern India and turning South
Eastward thru Burma and Sumatra to join the Circum-Pacific belt in
New Guinea.
3. THIRD ZONE
Accounts for 5 percent of all earthquake. Along Mid-Oceanic Rift in
the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
TSUNAMI
Large sea waves due to earthquake where sea water are affected by the sudden movements of
the tectonic plates or faults.
Tsunamis are usually made up of several oceanic waves that travel out from the slipped fault
and arrive one after the other on shore.
They can strike without warning often in places very distant from the epicenter of the
earthquake. Tsunami waves are sometimes inaccurately referred to as tidal waves, but tidal
forces do not causes them. Rather, tsunamis occur when a major fault under the ocean floor
suddenly slips.
The displaced rock pushes water above it like a giant paddle, producing powerful water waves
at the ocean surface. The ocean waves spread out from the vicinity of the earthquake source
and move across the ocean until they reach the coastline, where their height increases as they
reach the continental shelf, the part of the earths crust that slopes , or rises from the ocean
floor up to the land. Tsunamis wash ashore with often disastrous effects such as severe
flooding loss of lives due to drowning and damage to property.
INSTRUMENT USED FOR EARTHQUAKE STUDY
1. ACCELEROGRAPH OR ACCELEROMETER
Instrument used to record ground motion close to epicenter.
It measures the rate at which the velocity of earthquake is changing.
2. SEISMIGRAPH
Instrument used to record motions resulting from distant earthquakes. They measure
the pattern of an earthquake. Using multiple seismographs around the world, they can
accurately locate the epicenter of the earthquake, as well as determine its magnitude, or size
and fault slip properties.
2.1 ANALOG SEISMOGRAPH
An analog seismograph consist of base that is anchored into the ground so that ti moves with
the ground during an earthquake and a spring or wire that suspends a weight, which remains
stationary during an earthquake. In older models, the base includes a rotating roll of paper, and
the stationary weight is attached to a stylus, or writing utensil, that rests on the roll of paper.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE

1. EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
It denotes potential destructiveness of an earthquake at a particular location. The
Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale is used.

Example

Intensity V Broken Dishes, Window etc.

Crack Plaster, Unstable Object overturn, Pendulum Clock
May stop.

Intensity VII Damage is Negligible in Building of good Design and Construction.

Noticed by persons driving cars.
Damage are considerable in ordinary substandard buildings
With partial collapse.
Damage are great in poorly built structures.
 2. RICHTER SCALE (Charles F. Richter in 1934)
Gutenberg Richter Scale is define in terms of the amplitude of the force of a
standard type seismograph located 100 km from the epicenter. It is concentrated
to the energy release and radiated in the form of seismic waves.

Log E= 11.4 + 1.5M

Where: E= Energy released
M= Magnitude on the Richter Scale

It used a formula based on amplitude of the largest wave recorded in a specific

type of seismometer and the distance between the earthquake and seismometer.

Moment Magnitude Scale; Nw (M8)

Magnitude 5 = 10x magnitude 4

( in level of ground shaking )
And 32 x much energy would be released.

M1 = 6 ounces TNT
M8 = 6 Million tons of TNT

( MM) MERALLI SALE ( GIUSEPPE MERRALLI 1902 )

- Uses the observation of the people who experiences the earthquake to
estimate its intensity.

INDUCED EARTHQUAKE
Induced seismicity refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused
by human activity that alters the stresses and strains on the Earth's crust. Most induced
seismicity is of a low magnitude. A few sites regularly have larger quakes, such as The
Geysers geothermal plant in California which averaged two M4 events and 15 M3
events every year from 2004 to 2009.
Induced seismicity can also be caused by the injection of carbon dioxide as the storage
step of carbon capture and storage, which aims to sequester carbon dioxide captured
from fossil fuel production or other sources in Earth's crust as a means of climate
change mitigation. This effect has been observed in Oklahoma and Saskatchewan.
Though safe practices and existing technologies can be utilized to reduce the risk of
induced seismicity due to injection of carbon dioxide, the risk is still significant if the
storage is large in scale. The consequences of the induced seismicity could disrupt
preexisting faults in the Earth's crust as well as compromise the seal integrity of the
storage locations.
COLLAPSED EARTHQUAKE
Collapse Earthquakes are small earthquakes in the underground and in mines that are
caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rock on the surface. The
immediate cause of ground shaking is the collapse of the roof of the mine or cavern. An
often- observed variation of this extraordinary event is called "mine burst".

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Powered by Joomlal

PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity
Scale (PEIS)
Friday 09 May 2008 09:14

INTENSITY
SCALE DESCRIPTION
Scarcely Perceptible -- Perceptible to people under favorable
I circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
water in containers oscillates slowly.
II Slightly Felt -- Felt by the few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects
swing slightly Water in containers oscillates noticeably.
Weak – Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of
buildings. Vibrations is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and
III nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing
moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately.
Moderately Strong – Felt generally by people indoors and by some
people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a
passing of heavy truck hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates,
IV glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed
buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in
containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly.
Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
Strong – Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many
sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors.
Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging object swing
V violently. Dinning utensils clatter and click; some are broken. Small, light
and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open
containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs
of trees are noticeable.
Very Strong – Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some
people lost their balance. Motorist feel like driving flat tires. Heavy
objects or furniture or maybe shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall
VI plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made
 structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rock falls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to
mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
Destructive – Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it
difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or
VII topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer
considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged.
Some block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides
are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by
which loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and
behave like liquid).
Very Destructive – People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete
dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or
toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be
displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments
VIII mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken.
Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man-made structure to sink, tilt
or topple. Numerous landslides and rock falls occur in mountainous and
hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near
the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are
violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or banks of rivers.
Devastating – People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake
with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and elevated
concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts,
towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes
IX are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral
spreading and sand boils are widespread. The ground is distorted into
undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken.
Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on
slops over dikes and banks.
X Completely Devastating – Practically all man-made structures are
destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence
and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed.
Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur.
Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.
What causes Earthquake ?
Earthquake is formed when plates underneath the Earth’s surface move in diff.
Directions. These plates open form friction between each other in areas called FAULTS. Once
the impact of the collision becomes significant, it sends a signal on an outward direction
commonly known as seismic waves.

Depending on the intensity, earth quakes may cause minor disruption or significant damage in
properties. Here are the history’ Top 5 strongest earthquakes that caused major destruction in
the Philippines:

1. BOHOL EARTHQUAKE (2013 )

A 7.2- magnitude tremor that kill more than 150 people, destroy century old church and
affected more than 3 million families in Central Visayas.
 2. MINDORO EARTHQUAKE ( 1994 )

A total of 1530 houses in the coastal areas of Baco and Calapan, Oriental Mindoro were
swept away by a tsunami generated by 7.1- magnitude earthquake. Tragedy also killed 78
people.

3. CASIGURSN EARTHQUAKE (1968 )

This 7.3-magnitude earthquake killed a total of 270 people and also caused massive landslide
and tsunami in Casiguran, Aurora. Almost 300 people were also killed when the Ruby Tower
in Binondo collapsed as a result of the tremor.
 4. LUZON EARTHQUAKE ( 1990 )

On July 16, 1990, one of the strongest earthquakes to ever struck in the country occurred in
several areas of Central Luzon and Cordillera Region. This 7.8-magnitude tremor resulted to a
total of 1,621 deaths and serious damage in properties.

5. MORO GULF EARTHQUAKES ( 1976 )

With 7.9-magnitude and almost 3000 casualties, this Mindanao Earthquake is officially the
strongest and deadliest earthquake in the Philippine History, Almost 40,000 people in Regions
9 an 12 were also left homeless by the tragedy.
During the passage of a seismic wave, the stationary weight and stylus record the motion of
the jostling base and attached roll of paper. The stylus records the information of the shaking
seismographic onto the paper as a seismogram.
2.2 DIGITAL SEISMOGRAPHS
Computerized seismic monitoring system that record seismic events. Digital seismographs
use rewriteable or multiple-use, disk to record data. They usually incorporate a clock to
accurately record the information recorded, and power supply. Some digital seismographs
are portable; seismologist can transport these devices with them to study aftershocks
monitoring stations depend have been damaged.

HYPOCENTER OR FOCUS - The point where the initial slip or rupture occurs.
EICENTER - The point at the ground surface directly above the focus.