Chapter 2.
7
Wet Abrasive Blast and Pressurized Water Cleaning
(Waterjetting)
Lydia M. Frenzel, Ph.D.
Introduction
In the past ten years, wet abrasive blasting
(WAB) and waterjetting (WJ) have evolved as surface
preparation methods. This attitude and cultural change
is driven by environmental regulations, safety and
health concerns, economics, and enhanced perfor-
mance. Since 1994, SSPC has issued these docu-
ments about WAB and WJ:
• SSPC SP 12/NACE 5. Surface Preparation and
Cleaning of Steel and Other Hard Materials
• SSPC-TR 2/NACE 6G198. Wet Abrasive Blast
Cleaning
• SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7.Guide and Reference
Photographs for Steel Cleaned by Waterjetting
•SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9.Guide and Reference
Photographs for Steel Cleaned by Wet Abrasive Blast
Cleaning
Wet abrasive blast cleaning encompasses
several different methods in which water, air, and
abrasives are used to clean the substrate. The pro-
cesses range from injecting water into abrasive
streams propelled by air (air/water/abrasive blast
cleaning) to adding abrasive into a pressurized water
stream (water/abrasive blast cleaning). Wet abrasive
blasting has been found to be an increasingly popular
application where dust cannot be tolerated in new and
maintenance projects.
Waterjetting or water cleaning (WC) is the use
of water alone to clean the substrate; in other words,
to remove unwanted materials such as rust, dust,
grime, paint, scale, grease, oil, or salt to expose the
existing profile. The coatings industry uses WJ prima-
rily for recoating or relining projects where there is an
adequate preexisting profile.
Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning
There are a large variety of systems for WAB
ranging from almost all abrasive with a little water to
mostly water with a little abrasive. Generic terms to
describe specific air/water/abrasive blast cleaning
methods are “water shroud” or “wet-head” blasting,
wet blasting, low-volume water abrasive blasting, and
slurry blasting. Generic terms to describe specific
water/abrasive blast cleaning methods are slurry
blasting, abrasive waterjetting (AWJ), or abrasive
injected waterjetting/blasting (AIWJ or AIWB).
SSPC-TR 2/NACE 6G198 describes pro-
cesses and equipment but does not redefine the
cleaning standards previously defined for dry abrasive
blasting: SSPC SP 5/NACE 1, SSPC SP 10/NACE 2,
SSPC SP 6/NACE 3, SSPC SP 7/NACE 4, and SSPC
SP 14/NACE 8.
Surfaces cleaned by WAB typically appear
darker and duller than surfaces cleaned by the same
abrasive in dry blasting. When the surface is examined
in a wet condition, it appears darker with defects and
variations in shading magnified. Thus, it is advised that
a small area be examined in a dry condition to deter-
mine the level of cleanliness. As the surfaces dry,
streaks may form. Whether or not these streaks are
acceptable should be addressed by the contracting
parties.
The variety of water/abrasive combinations
allows WAB to be used in cleaning sensitive sub-
strates, cutting steel and concrete, dismantling and
demolishing tanks and concrete, and removing coat-
ings. Abrasive waterjet cutting systems are used in
areas where hot work is not allowed.1 The water helps
wet the abrasive and reduce dispersion of respirable
particles. When substantial amounts of water are
used, the flow can assist in dissolving soluble contami-
nants. Conventional dry blast equipment can be fitted
with a head to introduce pressurized or tap water.
Specialized equipment combines air/abrasive streams
with pressurized water from 5,000 up to 40,000 psig.
Pressurized water equipment is modified so
that the abrasive can be added under pressure or via a
suction head. There are systems where the mixed
water and abrasive steam is pressurized through the
water pump, but they are not commonly found in the
paint removal industry. Figure 1 illustrates an abrasive
pot and induction head for use on a pressure washer.
Figure 1. Wet abrasive blast cleaning. Induction head,
two-stack blast pot, soft soluble abrasive for LP W.
Cleaning graffiti from concrete. Courtesy Universal
Minerals.
Any type of abrasive commonly used with dry
blast cleaning can be used with WAB with limitations
on the duration of wetting and solubility. Some of the
abrasives used in WAB or AWJ cutting are sand,
magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, natural iron oxides,
aluminum oxide, garnet, copper, slag, coal slag,
sodium bicarbonate, and Kieserite. Use of expensive
abrasives is generally limited because the abrasive
is wetted and normally not recycled. In recent years,
equipment to collect the wetted abrasive,
hydrocyclones to separate the water and solids,
filter presses to dewater the solids, and filters and
pressure pumps to recycle the water are becoming
more popular. Complete recycling systems are more
commonplace.
Production rates for WAB are similar to dry
blasting. All traces of wetted abrasive should be
removed from the surface before painting. This is
typically accomplished with a power wash that might
contain inhibitors. The removal step and subsequent
time for the water to dry can reduce the overall
production rate. Contractors experienced with WAB
can increase the overall production rate by employing
waste minimization and pollution prevention
techniques.
112
Table 1. Air/Water Abrasive Parameters.
In systems where water is added to the air/
abrasive stream, the safety precautions of dry blasting
prevail. The largest waste stream in dry blasting is the
abrasive. WAB offers the potential to reduce the size
of the abrasive waste stream. The advantages include
the ability to be able to work close together and to
decrease the amount of ricochet and the amount of
respirable dust. The disadvantages include having to
wash off the wetted abrasive and to collect the water
and wet abrasive.
Water Cleaning or Waterjetting
SSPC SP 12/NACE 5 defines low-pressure
(LP) (<5,000 psig), high-pressure (HP) (>5,000 psig),
ultra high-pressure (UHP) (>30,000 psig) water
cleaning and waterjetting (>10,000 psig). Water
blasting is a generic term originating from the trade
name Water Blaster. SSPC limits the terms “blasting”
or “blast cleaning” to describe activities where
abrasives are present.
Table 2. Abrasive Injected Waterjetting.
When water is used alone, the water stream
does not create the primary profile for paint systems.
However, WJ opens the profile under the existing paint
or rust and removes the detritus. Just as in abrasive
blasting, the key to cleaning by water is to get the
energy of the pressurized water transferred to the
substrate efficiently. When moving from low-pressure
water cleaning to UHP WJ, the energy density in-
creases.
SSPC SP 12/NACE 5 defines four levels of
visible cleanliness (WJ-1, WJ-2, WJ-3, and WJ-4) to
correlate to the four levels of cleanliness defined for
abrasive blast cleaning (SP 5/NACE 1, SP 10/NACE 2,
SP 6/NACE 3, and SP 7/NACE 4). The WJ levels of
cleanliness are not exactly the same, especially for the
WJ-2 and WJ-3 as tightly adhering foreign matter,
including welding residues, coating, rust, or mill scale Figure 2. Waterjet cleaning operations showing
are allowed to remain on the surface. WJ-2 and WJ-3 system components. Courtesy Waterjet Technology
are closer in concept to SP 14. Experienced jetters Association.
can remove coatings one layer at a time, create
surface roughness in the intermediate coatings, or the potable water can affect the pump life, as well as
clean to bare metal. the final cleaned substrate. UHP WJ systems are more
WJ can remove all materials to the bare sensitive to general water quality than the LP WC or
substrate. However, as it is used in refurbishment, HP WJ systems.
coatings manufacturers prefer removing coating that Pressure and flow are varied within LP WC,
has minimal adherence or cohesion while maintaining HP WC, HP WJ, and UHP WJ to provide comfort for
the material that is still good. WJ can reveal many the user while maximizing production. The back thrust
defects in the surface—from scratches to heat spots to should be no more than 1/3 the body weight. Figure
differences in the steel composition and prior corrosion 3 illustrates that the back thrust for UHP WJ does
under the existing paint system. This can challenge not appear tiring. Details concerning flow rates,
someone trained in traditional dry blast techniques pressures, and energy intensity are found in SSPC SP
who is seeing WJ for the first time, especially when 12/NACE 5.
general education and training material is limited.
SSPC-VIS 4 illustrates a series of of unpainted
and painted surfaces. The Advisory Council also
provides educational and training modules for contrac-
tors, engineers, and inspectors. Consult these sources
to learn more.
At levels below 10,000 psig, the cleaning
action of the water is determined predominately by the
hydraulic characteristic (gal./min.); above 30,000 psig,
the action of the water is determined predominately by
the velocity (pressure). Both low and high-pressure
systems use engines, pumps, hoses, and guns. Clean,
filtered water is driven through a pump and the pres-
surized water conveyed through hoses to guns with Figure 3. UHP WJ with manually held gun. Illustrates
small diameter orifice(s) in a nozzle (Figure 2). In lack of back thrust and the water mist the rewets the
addition, WAB systems have some means of mixing steel. Courtesy Flow International.
abrasive into the water stream or water into an abra-
sive stream as shown earlier in Figure 1. Pressurized water systems are also used in
The size of the cleaning job dictates the mining, food preparation, sculpture, quarrying, restora-
equipment required. The volume of the water and the tion, graffiti cleanup, concrete demolition, sewage and
pressure influences the cleaning rate. The quality of environmental cleaning, internal and external pipeline

113
rehabilitation, and airport maintenance. Specialized
equipment and heads are available from a number of
sources.
Low-Pressure Water Cleaning
LP WC, also called pressure or power wash-
ing, is usually below 3,500 psig. It is used to remove
loosely adhered materials such as chalk, dirt, dust,
weak concrete laitance, marine growth, and light scale.
Pressure washers are used in conjunction with chemi-
cals or detergents to remove oil and grease accumula-
tions. LP WC is prevelant in sidewalk cleaning, car
washes, wood restoration, shipyards, and bridge
cleaning. Typically LP WC utilizes a fixed orifice, or a
rotating nozzle with fixed orifices. Thus, the production
rate is generally increased by increasing the flow.
Abrasives of all sorts may be injected into low-pres-
sure water cleaning or pressure washing in order to
increase the effectiveness of removing materials.
High-Pressure Water Cleaning and High-Pressure
Waterjetting
Pressurized water pumps are available in
ranges from 5,000 psig up to about 24,000 psig. At
10,000 psig, the velocity of the water is close to 1,100
ft./sec., or a fluid jet. The velocity then starts to change
the amount of cutting or cleaning from a hydraulic
action to an erosion action.
Table 3. Water Cleaning and Jetting at High Pressures.
High-pressure water cleaning (HP WC) and
high-pressure waterjetting (HP WJ) are used to
remove or clean all types of substrates. Nominally
filtered potable water as well as filtered river, lake, or
salt (sea) water are used in these pumps.
Typical cleaning applications for at various
pressures include:
• 4,000 psig: weak concrete, medium marine growth,
sandstone and mudstone, loose scale, loose rust and
paint, product accumulation on floors, and clear pipes
• 6,000 psig: concrete in pipes, severe marine fouling,
runway rubber, lime scale, burnt oil deposits, petro-
chemicals, exposed aggregate, stains, building
114
restoration, vegetation, tar, cement, asphalt on
vehicles, sewers, and drain pipes
• 10,000-24,000 psig: concrete cutting, most paints,
mill scale, burnt carbon deposits, tube bundles,
clinkers, expansion joints or paint stripes on highways,
concrete demolition, tube cleaning, decontamination of
tools and equipment
Flow, pressure, and tip combinations are
selected to suit the job. Pressure and volume must
provide maximum removal rates while limiting back
thrust and fatigue. If the gun is to be held manually,
then the combination of pressure and flow are selected
so that the back thrust is around 25 to 30 pounds, or
less than 1/3 the body mass of the jetter.
There are several different types of pumps
and guns available. The length of the gun barrels
range from 15 inches to 3 ft. The head may consist of
a single orifice with a diffusion pattern or a multiple
orifice nozzle rotating up to 3,000 rpm. Pumps are
available in a range of horsepower. In HP WC, HP WJ,
or UHP WJ, the production rate is generally enhanced
by increasing the pressure but not necessarily the flow.
Figure 4. UHP WJ. Remote-controlled crawler with full
vacuum recovery. Welding in the same vicinity. Courtesy
Flow International.
Ultra High-Pressure Waterjetting
UHP WJ has been used for cutting or abrasive
waterjet cutting since the 1970s. The small diameter
orifice transforms the water into a high-energy stream
that erodes the material. Since 1990, development of
longer lasting seals and rotating heads with multiple
orifices to diffuse the pattern has opened UHP WJ
cleaning applications.
Equipment is now available to remove up to
2,000 ft2/hr of thick non-skid coatings. As Figure 4
shows, welding and other trades can work in close
proximity with WJ applications. Manually held equip-
ment at 40,000 psig (270 MPa) is operated around 2.5
gallons/min. (gpm) with a total back thrust 25 pounds
compared to 6 gpm total for remote heads in crawlers
and mower configurations. At SSPC 2001, field
equipment operating at 55,000 psig was exhibited.
Figure 5. HP and UHP WJ. 78-inch wide path for fast
removal of heavy coatings and concrete repair. Courtesy
NLB Corp.
Figure 6. HP and UHP WJ. Cleaning concrete with typical
mower. Operates from 7,000 to 35,000 psig. Courtesy of
NLB Corp.
WJ equipment and accessories are changing
115
rapidly in much the same manner as the computer
industry has changed. By the time equipment is
purchased and integrated, it seems obsolete. Produc-
tion rates continue to increase each year. The overall
production rate does not appear to be limited by the
equipment capability but rather by mechanical consid-
erations: how fast the jetter can move the guns or
push the mower; how much time is spent in inspecting
the cleaned area; or movement of scaffolding or the
anchor points of heads hung on the side of structures.
Figure 5 is a head that cleans 78-inch wide swaths.
Figure 6 shows removing coatings from concrete prior
to repainting. Figure 7 illustrates a hand-held tool with
a 6-inch nozzle and a “shop vac” or simple Venturi
head vaccum source mounted on a 55-gallon drum.
The move to higher and higher pressures is
driven by the use of less and less water (less back
thrust), higher production rates, and cleaner surfaces.
The higher the pressure, the more critical the water
quality becomes.
Figure 7. Six-inch diameter hand-held head with small
vacuum source attached. Courtesy Advisory Council
and Aqua-Dyne, Inc.
Flash Rust
Flash rust, or water bloom, is oxidation that
occurs on steel within minutes as water dries (defined
in SSPC SP 12). Steel naturally oxidizes when water is
present. Flash rust quickly changes appearance to a
rust bloom over a large surface area. The color of the
flash rust may vary depending on the age and compo-
sition of the steel and how long the substrate was wet
prior to drying. Drying with hot air blowers or the
vacuum systems can reduce or eliminate flash rust.
The problem can become a major obstacle inside
confined spaces where it is difficult to reduce the
humidity or remove the standing water. Figure 4
illustrates water mist that rewets the substrate to
create flash rust.
If light-to-moderate flash rust is relatively free
of soluble salts, many coatings manufacturers will
allow paint to be applied over it. Heavy flash rust is a
loose powder or dust that should not be painted over.
Selecting coatings with good wetting characteristics
can encapsulate the loose dust. When flash rust is too
heavy for coating application, it may be reduced or be
removed with clean hand-held wire brushes or by
pressure washing with fresh water.
Some questions to ask when rusting
appears are:
• What is the source and accelerant of the rust?
• Is the surface clean and the iron oxides relatively
pure?
• Does the rust contain salt, acid, chloride, sulfate, or
other contaminants?
Corrosion is accelerated by temperature, and
the presence of dissolved oxygen or conductive
species. Osmotic blistering is made more severe by
leaving conductive, water-soluble species on the
substrate under the coating.
Inhibitors and Salt Removers
Inhibitors and salt removers are used exten-
sively in industrial cleaning operations to reduce or
prevent rusting on wetted steel. Some additives
possess both inhibitor and salt remover properties. If
water-soluble ionic materials are reduced, then the
problem of osmotic blistering as water is transported
through the coating is also decreased.
Originally, inhibitors were a permanent part of
the coating used to protect against the presence of
invisible contaminants. Currently, the philosophy is that
inhibitors should not remain on the surface because
the long-term effects of any residual contaminants on
the coating system are not known. There are presum-
ably no invisible contaminants left on the surface if the
WJ job is done correctly; therefore inhibitors, salt
removers, and detergents are transitory.
Overall, chemical additives are should reduce
flash rust, leave no detectible residue, be environmen-
tally safe, and be effective at a low concentration. To
avoid “pooling” of chemical-treated water on flat
surface, the excess should be blown away with oil-
free compressed air or thoroughly washed off with
116
freshwater.
There is no clear consensus concerning
inhibitors and salt removers. In 2001, coatings manu-
facturers typically recommend painting over light-to-
moderate tight flash rust rather than risk incompatibility
additive and paint or the possibility of leaving water-
soluble materials on the surface. It is strongly recom-
mended that the coatings manufacturer be contacted
to assure that the rust inhibitor or salt remover is
compatible with the specific coating system being
applied.
Salts
One of the greatest benefits of water is to
remove invisible soluble contaminants. Waterjetting
can be effective in removing water-soluble surface
contaminants that may not be removed by dry abra-
sive blasting alone; specifically, those contaminants
found at the bottom of pits and craters on severely
corroded metallic substrates. Waterjetting, with and
without detergents, also helps to remove surface
grease and oil.
Three levels of “non-visible” contaminants are
described in SSPC SP 12. There is no consensus on
what levels of salt cause premature failure in the field.
When a coating is placed in laboratory testing where
vapor-phase transmission is the driving force, a given
formulation from the same manufacturer at the same
thickness exhibits less blistering when there is less salt
on the substrate. The amount of blistering can vary for
the same formulation from different manufacturers.
In a comparison on the USS Paul Foster in
1995, the Navy reported the following results for 13
salt species:
• Hand-held grit blasting unit: 120.71 µg/cm2 left on
surface
• Hand-held waterjetting unit: 2.61 µg/cm2 left on
surface
Select a process appropriate for the task: use
pressure washing to wash down painted surfaces that
have been contaminated with salt spray; use HP or
UHP WJ to remove salt at the bottom of deep pits.
Recycling—Environmental
Just as respirable dust must be contained and
collected in abrasive blasting, the water must be
collected and contained in WJ and WC. Droplets of
water and wetted abrasive fall to the ground within a
short space of the actual blasting. Typically, the
containment walls are made of breathable cloth or
plastic; the ground is bermed with impervious plastic
sheets; and the water/solid mixture is collected in a
low spot and moved to the treatment process by
diaphragm trash pumps.
Since 1995, equipment for collection, solid
separation, oil removal, and recycling water has
become prominent. For WJ, mechanical separation of
solids from the water is handled by filters or settling
tanks. Removing solids and sending water to a publicly
owned treatment facility after a single use oftentimes is
more economically than recycling. Depending on the
specific project, water is recycled routinely in the
<25,000 psig range. Equipment is available for
recycling water in the >30,000 psig range.
WAB generates wetted abrasives that gener-
ally cannot be reused nor recycled. Fluid
hydrocyclones, simple chemicals, or electrical tech-
niques are used to “drop out” or flocculate the solids
and de-watering filter presses are employed where the
effluent water is of “drinking-water” quality. The abra-
sive-paint mixture becomes a solid cake or is dried for
reclamation.
The waste streams are divided into the solids
associated with the coatings and dirt; the paint solids/
solvents; and the water. With vacuum collection
techniques the water does not enter the environment
but can recycled throughout the entire project, so that
only water lost to evaporation must be replaced. As an
example, in 1994, a pump system operating at 10 gpm
and 40,000 psi with a closed-cycle recovery system
was demonstrated at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard.
Over time, it was established that the consumption
rate was only 50 gallons (200 liters) per day.
Production Rates
Production rates, which vary tremendously
with the experience of the jetter, can range from 30 ft.2/
hr to 2,000 ft.2/hr. Cleaning speed is dependent on the
highest manageable working pressure, volume of
water, and abrasive injection. Heads range from a
single orifice to rotating 2-inch nozzles to wide paths.
As with other processes, WJ has been successful in
removing some mill scale while other mill scale does
not come off as readily.
The size of the work crew and how many
different tasks can be completed within the same area
will further impact the production rate. Figure 4 illus-
117
trates welding in close proximity to WJ. The problem of
linear task sequencing becomes non-linear in this
process. When turnaround time is important, it is
possible for a contractor to have one WJ crew cleaning
complex shapes, one crew applying the stripe coat,
one crew using a crawler on the flat surfaces (with
optional vaccuum), one crew painting the flat surface,
and welding or engine repair going on in the same
vicinity. Published WJ production rates also factor in
the time required to set-up and build the containment
and collect spent abrasive/water as well as ease of
disposal and clean-up time.
Production rates for WAB compare favorably
with dry blasting. Wet abrasive blasting requires an
additional step of rinsing the surface to remove the
wetted abrasive. However, the requirements for
engineering controls may be less than for dry blasting,
particularly where paint with toxic materials are being
removed.
Cost Comparison
There are two obstacles to adopting WJ: the
cost to replace capital equipment (i.e., moving from
blast pots and abrasive blasting hoses/lines to HP WJ
pumps and lines and nozzles), and training required
for efficient equipment use. New equipment costs are
approximately the same and production rates vary.
Contractors who perform both dry blasting and
WJ confirm that whether or not WJ and WAB are more
economical than traditional blasting depends on the
specific project. Sometimes the cost differences are
close; sometimes there is clear advantage to either.
Historically, only part of the surface preparation and
repainting costs were included in any comparisons
since set-up and disposal costs were left to the owner.
When the cost of the entire project is considered—
containment, mobilization, engineering controls,
inhibitors/rinsing, workers/activities occurring in close
proximity, turn-around time, waste minimization,
cleanup, and disposal—WAB and WJ may have an
edge.2
Health and Safety
Companies working with WJ cite these positive safety
aspects:
• Workers can see better
• Site is clean
• Respirable particulates are agglomerated in the
water mist and are no longer breathable
• Drift of the wetted particles is limited so they fall to
the ground within a short distance
• Incidence of personal accidents down
It is not easy to verify that personal accidents
have decreased. The information was gleaned from
panel safety discussions at WJTA meetings and talks
with contractors. Those accidents that do occur are
quite disastrous, making manufacturer training of
operators in the correct use and maintenance of
equipment essential at the time of purchase. Only
persons who have completed a proper training pro-
gram and have demonstrated knowledge, skill, and
experience should perform assigned tasks.
Injuries to hands and feet are the most com-
mon reported problems. Operators should treat the
high-velocity fluid jet just as carefully as a high-
pressure grease or airless spray gun. As stated in
WJTA’s Recommended Practices for the Use of
Manually Operated High-Pressure Waterjetting
Equipment: “A person injured by being hit with a
waterjet will not necessarily see the full extent of the
injury, particularly the internal damage and depth of
penetration. Even though the surface wound may be
small and may not even bleed, it is quite possible that
large quantities of water may have punctured the skin,
flesh, and internal organs through a very small hole.” 3
Safety for WAB incorporates the same consid-
erations important during dry abrasive blasting and in
the use of fluid jets. It also varies with specific pro-
cesses and ranges. In areas where sparks are a
hazard, abrasive waterjet (AWJ) cutting is used; UHP
WJ cutting of high explosive materials has been tested
up to 143,000 psig (1,000 MPa).1
Some safety tips include:
• Never point the equipment at anyone.
• Never put hands in front of the gun.
• Depressurize equipment not in use.
• The blast gun should have an automatic controlled-
release pressure and the operator should always be in
control of the pressure.
• Use clean, filtered water.
• The area around the work site should have controlled
access and proper signage.
• The higher the pressure, the smaller the orifice, the
shorter the effective distance.
118
Acknowledgements
The author and SSPC are grateful for editorial assis-
tance from Nancy Shaver of Cleaner Times magazine,
peer reviews by Ken Trimber and Joe Brandon, and for
these companies that have provided input and sup-
port: Aqua-Dyne, Inc; Flow International; NLB Corp.;
Ingersoll-Rand Corp.; HoldTight Solutions; Hydrochem
Industrial Services; UHP Projects, Inc.; Ameron
Protective Coatings; International Paint; Carolina
Equipment and Supply; Aulson Co.; Atlantic Marine,
Inc.; A-1 Able Services, Inc.; Nozl-Tech LLC; Freemyer
Industrial Pressure; Hammelmann Corp.; Hartman-
Walsh Painting Co.; Nor-Vac Industrial Services; John
Odwazny; Acquablast Tratamento De Superficies
Ltda.; Bridgecote Feroguard Technology Inc.; and
Universal Minerals.
References
1. Miller, Paul L. Fluid Jet Ignition Hazards Safety
Analysis. In Proceedings of 1999 American Waterjet
Conference; pp 873-893; Impact Initiation Mechanisms
of High Explosive Materials During Waterjet Demilitari-
zation. In Proceedings of 2001 American Waterjet
Conference; pp 425-438.
2. Lever, Guy. Hydroblasting Permits Safe, Cost-
Effective Dam Rehabilitation. Materials Performance,
April 1996, pp 38-41; Lever, Guy. WaterJetting Cuts
Hazardous Waste at Dam. Journal of Protective
Coatings and Linings, April, 1996, pp 37-41; Johnson,
Mark L. Get the Lead Out! Removing Lead-Based
Paint on Hydro Plant Structures. Hydro-Review, May
1996, pp 54-57.
3. WaterJet Technology Association. Recommended
Practices for The Use of Manually Operated High
Pressure Waterjetting Equipment; WJTA: St. Louis,
2000.
About the Author
Dr. Lydia Frenzel
Dr. Lydia Frenzel has been chair of the SSPC and
NACE water blasting committees almost every year
since 1985. She received the 1996 Technical Achieve-
ment Award, has been vice president of the Waterjet
Technology Association, written over 55 papers and
presented over 45 talks. She is passionate about
promoting emerging technology in continuous
improvement initiatives and is a professional speaker.