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Grinding
Honing
Lapping
Superfinishing
Polishing
Buffing
Abrasive water jet machining
Ultrasonic machining
Difference between grinding and milling
The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more
numerous than the teeth on a milling cutter.
---
Cross·feed. w
-----:d)Workspeed. v
(a) (b)
Horizontal Surface Grinding
(e) (d)
Wheel head -,
~--Column
Wor1<speed--..::-
~-4-+---Grindingwheel
Crossfeed ---"""""'~~
f!-':::::"'~<t---Wor1q>art
Wheel
speed
Work
speed
Freshly ground surface
Original work surface
(a) (b)
Regulating Direction 01
Work '-........_ . through 1eed
Grindi.n.;.!g~ whee I .
wheel -- -.
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Rest blade
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an gIe, I
(End view) (Side view)
Grinding Wheel and Workpiece Interaction
Grit-workpiece (forming chip) "
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Chip-bond
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Chip-workpiece
Bond-workpiece
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Except the grit-workpiece interaction, which is expected to
---
produce chip, the remaining three undesirably increase the total
grinding force and power requirement.
SiC abrasives are harder than friable Al2O3 but they are usually
inferior for grinding most ferrous materials.
In what conditions
these structures be
provided?
Ilo"J
Alll'hlOU$ wear
Wheel Grade
Indicates the strength of the binding material.
Work
Material plowed aside
L Friction against
work surface
(a) (b) (c)
Testing of Grinding Wheels
Strength of a bond: pass a sintered metal carbide or diamond
chisel over the wheel surface in such a way that it tears a layer of
grains from the bond.
The forces required to separate a layer of grains from the bond are
taken as a measure of the strength of the bond.
Hardness
a) Drill the wheel with a hard spade-type drill with a constant force.
The depth of penetration in a given time is a measure of wheel
hardness.
b) Use an air/abrasive jet to break the bond. The depth of
penetration of the jet erosion in a standard period of time is
used to determine equivalent wheel hardness.
c) Measure the resonant frequency of an isolated wheel after a
sharp blow with a rubber hammer and relate it to hardness.
Grinding Wheel Wear
Grain fracture: a portion of the grain breaks off, but the rest of
the grain remains bonded in the wheel.
Attritious wear: dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat
spots and rounded edges.
Bond fracture: the individual grains are pulled out of the
bonding material.
f.urlU."
~kmrrOlk'/
AtfritiDIJ} wear
Grinding Wheel Wear
G = Volume of material removed
Volume of wheel wear
(1): the grains are initially sharp, and wear is accelerated due to
grain fracture.
(2): characterized by attritious wear, with some grain and bond
fracture.
(3): the grains become dull and the amount of ploughing and
rubbing increases relative to cutting.
~ surface roughness, Ra 1 urn
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Grinding, fine grit size
Honing
Lapping
Superfinishing
Polishing
Buffing
Diagram of Height of micro
Process
resulting surface irregularity (pm)
Precision Rouyhnc$$
~-
""'f -
~ 1.25-12.50
Turning
Grinding ~ ~
0.90-5.00
Honing .,.............
'~'f'
(- ..'...- ......."'"-.....w~~·-·r - 0.13-1.25
Lapping f
,
~f'
I 0.08-0.25
Super
Finishing ~
~f:
5 0.01-0.25 4
Lapping
p
• In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based
fluid suspension of very small free abrasive grains
called a lapping compound is applied between the
workpiece and the lapping tool.
• Machine oil
• Rapeseed oil
• Grease
Honning
UnivefSaJ
I Joint
o
~_J--':=:!::~"" Bonded
~~J"Abrasive Slicks
: .
I
. .:.' (Hones)
:::
. Hones Of Slicks
.
(Made oj HaItI
ADrasives like
Ak.mIfUll oXlCle)
• Honing is a finishing process performed by a
honing tool, which contains a set of three to a
dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The
sticks are equally spaced about the periphery
of the honing tool.
J
I •
The critical
critlcal process
process parameters
parameters are:
1. rotation speed
2. oscillation speed
3. length and position of the stroke
4. honing stick pressure
Superfinishing
.'
osc illat 0 ry ,..._.c::;-----
motion ~ feed motion along
the work part
workpart
• Superfinishing is a finishing operation similar
to honing, but it involves the use of a single
abrasive stick.
• The reciprocating motion of the stick is
performed at higher frequency and smaller
amplitudes.
• Grit size (400 to 600) of abrasive used in case
of super finishing is smaller than that is used
with hones.
Polishing and Buffing
• Polishing is used to remove scratches and burrs
from a machined surface.
buffing compound
NON
NON TRADITIONAL
TRADI'TIONAL MACHINING
IM,ACHIINING
Classification of Non Traditional Machining Processes
Mechanical Processes
⎯ Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
⎯ Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
⎯ Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Electrochemical Processes
⎯ Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
⎯ Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
Chemical Processes
⎯ Chemical Machining (CHM)
Electro-Thermal Processes
⎯ Electro-discharge machining (EDM)
⎯ Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
⎯ Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
⎯ Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
Traditional Machining Non Traditional Machining
1.Contact process ie Material removed by Non contact Process.
interference between tool and work
6. Tool should be harder than work piece. Soft tool can be used.
9. Stress can be induced in the work piece. No stress is induced in the work piece
nozzle
Stand off
distance 3 to 75 mm
P= 0.2 to 1.4MPa
Grit size 15-40 microns
work piece
Construction
exhaust
Mixing
Drier chamber
Nozzle
Electro-magnetic shaker
work piece
Air compressor
table
Basic components of AJM tool
• Compressor
• Mixing chamber
• Nozzle
• Abrasives
• Carrier gas
Nozzle
Generally nozzles are made of
• Tungsten carbide (life up to 12-30 hrs)
• Sapphire (up to 300 hrs)
• Diamond (up to 500 hrs)
• Aluminium (up to 20 min)
Abrasives
Some of the commonly used abrasive particles
are
• Aluminium dioxide.
• Silicon carbide.
• Diamond.
• Dolomite powder.
Carrier gas
• The carrier gas should be cheap & easy
available .
• It should not cause oxidation of the work
piece.
• It should also not react with the nozzle and
the abrasive materials.
• Some of the commonly used carrier gas are
1. Air
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Nitrogen
Advantages
• Ability to cut intricate hole shapes in
materials of any hardness and brittleness.
• Ability to cut fragile and heat sensitive
materials without damage.
• Low capital cost.
Disadvantages
• Material removal rate is slow and hence its
application is limited.
• Stray cutting can occur.
• Embedding of the abrasive in the work piece
surface may occur while machining softer
materials.
Applications
• Machining of brittle and heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz,
sapphire, semiconductor, materials, mica, and ceramics.
• Drilling holes
• Cutting slots
• Cleaning hard surfaces
• Cutting fine lines, deburring, grooving, polishing.
• Delicate cleaning such as removal of smudges from antique documents.
• Because of accuracy and reliability of AJM, some research laboratories
are using to test the abrasion resistance of different materials.
Electrical processes
Electrochemical Machining
• An electrolyte acts as a current
carrier which washes metal ions Pump for circulating
electrolyte
away from the workpiece (anode)
before they have a chance to plate on
(- )
the tool (cathode).
• The shaped tool is either solid or
tubular. ...._- Tool
65
(b) 86 mm
14 holes
T
112 mm
1
Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of
a nickel alloy, 360 HB; note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin
slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor
disk.
ECM
ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution
at atomic level of the work piece that is electrically
conductive by a shaped tool, due to flow of high
current at relatively low potential difference through an
electrolyte.
Process
Ionic dissociation
H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)-
• 2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode
• Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work
piece) as: Fe = Fe+ + + 2e-
(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces)
with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces) (b)
Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant.
Thermal processes
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Principle of operation
– Based on the erosion of metal by spark discharge
• Components of operation
– Shaped tool
• Electrode
– Workpiece
• Connected to a DC power supply
– Dielectric
• Nonconductive fluid
(a) (b) (c)
Currenl
Rcc~ilier cenirel Servo control
Tank
KI
MRR =
T 1.23
Electric Discharge Machining
• Movement in the X&Y
axis is controlled by
CNC systems
• Overcut (in the Z axis) is
the gap between the
electrode and the
workpiece
– Controlled by
servomechanisms
– Critical to maintain a
constant gap
Electric Discharge Machining
• Dielectric fluids
– Act as a dielectric
– Provide a cooling medium
– Provide a flushing medium
• Common fluids
– Mineral oils
– Distilled/Deionized water
– Kerosene
– Other clear low viscosity
fluids are available which are
easier to clean but more
expensive
Electric Discharge Machining
• Electrodes
– Graphite
– Brass
– Copper-tungsten alloys
– Formed by casting,
powder metallurgy, or
CNC machining
– On right, human hair
with a 0.0012 inch hole
drilled through
Electric Discharge Machining
• Electrode wear
– Important factor in maintaining the gap between
the electrode and the workpiece
– Wear ratio is defined as the amount of material
removed to the volume of electrode wear
• 3:1 to 100:1 is typical
– No-wear EDM is defined as the EDM process
with reversed polarity using copper electrodes
Electric Discharge Machining
• Process capabilities
– Used in the forming
of dies for forging,
extrusion, die
casting, and
injection molding
– Typically intricate
shapes
Electric Discharge Machining
• Material removal rates affect finish quality
– High removal rates produce very rough surface finish
with poor surface integrity
– Finishing cuts are often made at low removal rates so
surface finish can be improved
• Design considerations
– Design so that electrodes can be simple/economical to
produce
– Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided
– Conventional techniques should be used to remove the
bulk of material
Examples of EDM
Stepped cavities produced with a
square electrode by the EDM
process. The workpiece moves in
the two principal horizontal
directions (x-y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward
movement of the electrode to
produce these cavities. Also shown
is a round electrode capable of
producing round or elliptical
cavities.
(b)