Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

DOI 10.1007/s11157-014-9336-4

REVIEWS

Reuse options for coal fired power plant bottom

ash and fly ash
Madawala Liyanage Duminda Jayaranjan •
Eric D. van Hullebusch • Ajit P. Annachhatre

Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract Reuse options for coal fly ash and coal

Abbreviations
bottom ash are reviewed in this paper. Although,
ASTM American Society of Testing of Materials
significant quantities of coal fly ash and coal bottom
CBA Coal bottom ash
ash are produced worldwide every year, less than
CFA Coal fly ash
30 % of coal ash produced is reused. Coal ash is
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
mainly reused in civil engineering applications such as
EU European Union
road construction, embankments, construction mate-
FGD Flue gas desulfurization
rials, geo-polymer applications and in cement pro-
GBA Ground bottom ash
duction. Other potential reuse options for coal ash
HeCB Heptachloro biphenyl
include applications such as glass ceramics, water and
LOI Loss on ignition
wastewater treatment, agriculture as well as for
OPC Ordinary Portland cement
making high value products (e.g. telescope mirrors,
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
break-liners, fire proof products etc.). Considering that
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
only a small fraction of coal ash is reused, other reuse
TCB Tri chloro biphenyl
options for commercial applications need to be
TOC Total organic carbon
explored.
TPPs Thermal power plants
TW Tinacal ore waste
Keywords Power plant
Bottom ash
Fly ash

ZFA Zeolited fly ash
Reuse
Materials recovery
USA United States of America

M. L. D. Jayaranjan
A. P. Annachhatre (&)

School of Environment, Resources and Development,
Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, KhlongLuang,
Pathumthani 12120, Thailand 1 Introduction
e-mail: ajit@ait.ac.th
M. L. D. Jayaranjan Economic growth is correlated with the use of energy.
e-mail: duminda@gmx.net However, clean energy with minimum environmental
impacts is vital for socioeconomic development,
E. D. van Hullebusch particularly in developing countries. Today, fossil
Laboratoire Géomatériaux et Environnement, Université
Paris-Est, EA 4508, 5 bd Descartes, 77454 Marne la fuels are the major source of energy generation.
Vallée Cedex 2, France Demand for fossil fuels is increasing at a rapid rate for

123

the last two decades due to increasing consumption of
fossil fuels by USA, India, China and EU (Chinda-
prasirt et al. 2009; IEA 2012). It is anticipated that
energy generation from nuclear sources in the EU
would decline (Kurama and Kaya 2008) due to
possibilities of nuclear accidents such as Fukushima
incident occurred in the year 2011 in Japan (Davies
2011; Vivoda 2012; Vujić et al. 2012).
Today coal still remains as a major source for
energy generation worldwide. Use of coal in power
plants generates fly ash as well as bottom ash in high
quantities. Typically burning of 15–18.75 tons of coal
generates 1 megawatt of electricity as well as
4.3–11 tons of bottom ash and fly ash (Asokan et al.
2005; EGAT 2010). Total ash generation from burning
of coal can be 25–60 % (Asokan et al. 2005; Kizgut
et al. 2010). Approximate total annual coal ash
generation in the world is in the range of 600–800 mil-
lion tons (Wang et al. 2005; Hui et al. 2009). Fly ash
and bottom ash contribution from the total ash varies
in ranges of 65–95 and 5–35 % respectively (Levan-
dowski and Kalkreuth 2009; Wang et al. 2005). Total
country wise annual ash generation is as follows:
USA: 125 million tons, Europe: 100 million tons
(Kizgut et al. 2010), China: 150 million tons (Cao
et al. 2008), India: 105 million tons (Asokan et al.
2005) and Thailand: 4 million tons (Chindaprasirt
et al. 2009).
Coal ash is disposed of in ash dumps either as wet or
in dry form (Lopez-Anton et al. 2007). Bottom ash and
fly ash are commonly disposed of as slurry after
mixing them with water (Chakraborty and Mukherjee
2009). The slurry is often discharged into ponds or
lagoons (Asokan et al. 2005; Prezzi and Kim 2008) or
sometimes into ocean (Horiuchi et al. 2000). In dry
disposal system, coal ash may be disposed of into
landfills often mixed with waste gypsum produced
from flue gas desulfurization (FGD) unit from the
power plant (Sathonsaowaphak et al. 2009).
Coal ashes contain heavy metals and metalloids, i.e.
Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Copper
(Cu), Manganese (Mn), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium
(Cr) and Selenium (Se) at trace levels (Dinçer et al.
2007; Pandey et al. 2011; Su and Wang 2011;
Jayaranjan and Annachhatre 2012). These elements
can be leached out under acidic conditions and can
contaminate the surrounding soils, surface water and
ground water sources (Bashkin and Wongyai 2002).
Furthermore coal fly ash also may contain polycyclic
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In some cases, radio-
active contamination can also be present (Popovic et al.
2001). Such contamination of heavy metals can enter
the food chain leading to genotoxic effects to DNA
(Chakraborty and Mukherjee 2009). Coal ash often is
considered as ‘‘non-hazardous’’. However, the effects
may be many-folds since high volumes of waste remain
in the dumps for a long time (Twardowska and
Szczepanska 2002). At present, coal ash disposal is a
major issue worldwide due to its possible adverse
environmental impacts as well as due to its high volume
of generation which requires large land area for
disposal. It is observed that wet ash disposal methods
lead to greater adverse environmental impact than dry
ash disposal methods (Hansen et al. 2002).
Coal ash and bottom ash are reused in sectors such
as, cement, concrete, structural fill, soil stabilization
and agriculture (Rifa et al. 2009; Chindaprasirt et al.
2009). It is estimated that about 2.2 billion tons of
cement is annually produced worldwide (Yang et al.
2007). Considering that fly ash and cement can be
mixed in proportion of 1:1 in concrete, up to 2.2 billion
tons of fly ash can be utilized for concrete production
(Mehta 1998). Therefore, reuse of fly ash and bottom
ash is a great challenge as only 30 % total ash
produced in the world is currently reused. Accord-
ingly, this paper reviews existing utilization and reuse
options for both fly ash and bottom ash. Use of fly ash
and bottom ash in sectors like wastewater treatment,
zeolites, adsorbents and material recovery options etc.,
are reviewed.
2 Properties of power station coal fly ash
Physical and chemical properties of coal fly ash are
influenced by the raw coal source, size, type of coal
burner and the operating conditions (Sharma et al.
1989). During the coal combustion process in the
power plant, the minerals in coal may undergo through
sequential conversion and eventually may be present
in the fly ash.
2.1 Physical properties of coal fly ash
The coal fly ash particles are generally grey in colour.
They can be light grey or dark grey in color depending
upon unburned carbon content and combustion tech-
nology applied (Collot 2006; Kimura et al. 1995). Other
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

Table 1 Composition of fly ash classes as per ASTM SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2 and CaO (Iyer 2002). High
standards CaO ([8 %) fly ash is classified as Class C and Low
Chemical differences Class F Class C CaO (\8 %) fly ash defined as Class F (Manz 1999).
Class C fly ash is a product from the burning of lignite
SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3, minimum % 70.00 50.00 or sub-bituminous coal, while Class F is a product
SO3, maximum % 5.00 5.00 from combusting of bituminous or anthracite coal
Moisture content, maximum % 3.00 3.00 (Furlong and Hearne 1994). ASTM standard for fly
LOI, maximum % 6.00 6.00 ash classes are mentioned in Table 1.
Available alkalis (as Na2O), maximum % 1.50 1.50 Chemically all naturally occurring elements can be
Source: ASTM standard C 618 - 95; composition requirement found in coal ash; Table 2 shows the major elements
for fly ash classes present in coal ash. Also, an empirical formula has
been developed for coal fly ash (Fisher et al. 1976) as:
main properties of fly ash such as bulk density, porosity,
Si1:00 Al0:45 Ca0:051 Na0:047 Fe0:039 Mg0:020 K0:017 Ti0:011
particle size distribution, etc. are important for its use in
civil construction engineering or in agriculture (Sato The mineral composition of coal fly ash from
and Nishimoto 2001; Horiuchi et al. 2000). Typical burning of lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous or
values of properties are: specific gravity: anthracite coal can be in the range of 0–60 % by
2.10–2.81(Prezzi and Kim 2008; Sharma et al. 1989), weight. Chemical composition of fly ash can be
particle size distribution: 0.001–0.075 mm (Prezzi and typically as follows (in wt%): SiO2, 15–60; Al2O3,
Kim 2008), moisture content: 7.75 wt%, bulk density: 3.68–35; Fe2O3, 4–40; CaO, 1–40; MgO, 0–10; LOI,
1.12–1.28 g cm-3 and specific surface area: 0–18.77 (Ahmaruzzaman 2010; Rifa et al. 2009; Silva
1.0–9.44 m2 g-1 (Theis and Gardner 1990). et al. 2010) (Table 2). Furthermore, heavy metals and
metalloids may also be present in coal fly ash in
2.2 Structure and chemical composition of coal fly concentrations as presented in Table 3.
ash These heavy metals may be subjected to leach out
to the environment under various pH values. Some
Coal fly ash is divided into two main types, Class F and cations tend to leach extensively under acidic condi-
Class C. Fly ash consists of mainly oxides such as tions while some oxyanionic elements such as As, B,

Table 2 Major elemental composition of coal fly ash

Composition Lignitea Sub-bituminousb Bituminousc Anthraciteb

SiO2 (wt%) 14.80–50.00 52.2–55.2 56.7 43.5–47.3

Al2O3 (wt%) 3.40–25.70 19.9–23.1 38.4 25.1–29.2
Fe2O3 (wt%) 0.86–11.80 6.1–9.7 2.5 3.8–4.7
MgO (wt%) 0.50–9.10 1.0–1.2 0.2 0.7–0.9
CaO (wt%) 13.00–54.10 3.7–3.8 1.1 0.5–0.9
Na2O (wt%) 0.18–1.23 0.3 0.04 0.2–0.3
K2O (wt%) 0.20–4.89 1.0 0.6 3.3–3.9
TiO2 (wt%) 0.23–1.68 1.1–1.2 0.5 1.5–1.6
P2O5 (wt%) – 0.3–0.5 0.02 0.2
MnO (wt%) 0.04–0.21 0.1 0.02 0.1
SO3 (wt%) 3.00–22.10 – 0.2 –
S (wt%) – 0.1–0.7e 0.08–0.67f 0.1
e
LOI – 1.8–2.7 – 8.2d
a
Baba and Kaya (2004), b Choi et al. (2002), c Pires and Querol (2004), d Haibin and Zhenling (2010), e Vassilev et al. (2005), f Lee
et al. (2011)

123
 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

Table 3 Trace elements concentrations in coal fly ash

Heavy metal Heavy metal composition of coal fly ash (mg kg-1 dry basis)
Lignitea Sub-bituminousc Bituminousb Anthracited

As 13.5–172 110–141
B 386–400
Ba
Cd 1–312 18–35
Co 16–57 18–53 21–25 8–12
Cr 31–160 69–95 98–128 80–498
Cu 24–71.8 63–66 64–64 77–109
Hg 0.01–8.8
Li 113–119
Mn 182–566 460–588
Mo 162–386
Ni 36–242 74–174 49–61 41–72
Pb 9–847 29–32 20–1,192 36–103
Sn 101–109
Zn 59.6–249 93 3,500–5,800 43–167
V 147–210 10–30 130–175
U 3.8–4.6
Ti 28–64
a
Brigden et al. (2002), Baba et al. (2008), Suwanvitaya and Wattanachai (2006), Sharma et al. (1989), b Levandowski and Kalkreuth
(2009), c,d Choi et al. (2002)

Cr, Mo, V and W tend to leach out under alkaline
conditions (Izquierdo and Querol 2012). Many studies
have been conducted highlighting metal mobility
behavior of coal fly ash (Choi et al. 2002; Dutta
et al. 2009; Janos et al. 2002; Kim and Hesbach 2009;
Nathan et al. 1999; Popovic and Djordjevic 2009;
Izquierdo and Querol 2012).
3 Coal fly ash utilization options
Several options are available for reuse of coal
combustion waste (CCB) which gives additional
economic benefits. These include use in civil con-
struction, in wastewater treatment, for recovery of
metals and for production of materials like zeolites.
High proportion of coal fly ash is use in cement for
civil construction (Kizgut et al. 2010) and in highway
construction applications (Prezzi and Kim 2008). As
brought out earlier, worldwide utilization of ash is
15 % of its total production (Hui et al. 2009). This
proportion is still considerably low compared to the
current rate of generation of fly ash (1.65–2.20 million
tons day-1). Hence, it is important to search for fly ash
utilization options in various sectors.
3.1 Civil engineering applications, road
construction and in embankments
Coal fly ash is available at a cheaper price than soil
(Dewangan et al. 2010), hence civil contractors are
automatically encouraged to replace soil by fly ash.
Fly ash can be used as a land filler which improves soil
properties and also acts as a stabilizer (Sato and
Nishimoto 2001). Untreated coal fly ash mixed with
coal bottom ash was used to support the foundation of
an electrostatic precipitator in a coal fired power plant
(Leonards and Bailey 1982). Fly ash also has been
used as a structural filling material (Dewangan et al.
2010). Coal fly ash slurry could be utilized as an
effective filling material in civil engineering applica-
tions like underwater fills, light weight back fills and
for light weight structural filling applications (Horiu-
chi et al. 2000; Moulton et al. 1973). Use of fly ash as
filling material is considered as sustainable because of
the higher price of soil (Dewangan et al. 2010).

123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
Mixture of fly ash and bottom ash can be useful
additives in soft soils to improve its engineering
properties such as strength, bearing capacity and for
decreasing displacement (Rifa et al. 2009). As a result
its use in highway construction has long been
practiced (Moulton et al. 1973). Extensive use of coal
fly ash with low proportion of bottom ash has also been
widely practiced as a construction material for high-
way embankments (Kim et al. 2005; Kumar and Patil
2006). Class F fly ash mixed with cement (2–10 wt%)
can be used very effectively as a base material in road
construction (Lav et al. 2006).
For above usage, that lignite or hard coal fly can be
used. Basically, the compaction ratio is important for
filling. Particle size distribution, geotechnical proper-
ties like, specific gravity, permeability, angular fric-
tion and consolidation characteristics are in concern
(Ahmaruzzaman 2010).
3.2 Binder material, OPC cement, geo-polymer
and sand replacement material
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most widely
used binder material in the construction industry.
Researchers have found that OPC can be partly
replaced by fly ash and bottom ash (McCarthy and
Dhir 1999; Kula et al. 2002). OPC mixed with fly ash
when used in construction, exhibited improved product
qualities such as reduced crack-width and free drying
shrinkage index (Yang et al. 2007). Coal fly ash can be
used as a raw material to produce geo-polymer mortars
(Chindaprasirt et al. 2009; Izquierdo et al. 2009).
Unprocessed low lime (CaO) coal fly ash can also be
successfully used in concrete as a sand substitute
material (Jones and McCarthy 2005). Basically, in
order to use fly ash in cement, SiO2 content should be
more than 25 % and SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3 must be
greater than 70 %. Also, alkali (Na2O), SO3 and MgO
should be lower than 5, 3 and 4 wt%, respectively
(Solis-Guzman et al. 2011). Properties of light weight
aggregate such as density, water adsorption and
strength of aggregate are vital in these usages. Pozzo-
lanic reactivity of fly ashes is too important for the
usage (Geetha and Ramamurthy 2010). For above
groups of uses, it was found that with higher LOI,
coarse and conditioned fly ash is more suitable
(McCarthy and Dhir 1999). However, as per BS 3892
standards, maximum LOI which is allowable for the
usage is 7 % while recommended Chloride is 0.1 %.
3.3 Construction materials and engineering
products
3.3.1 Bricks, tiles and cement composites
Fly ash itself or mixed with bottom ash, sand and lime
have been used by researchers to develop solid bricks,
ceramic tiles and concrete blocks. Solid bricks were
made by compressing coal fly ash, bottom ash,
gypsum, calcium carbonate and lime (Furlong and
Hearne 1994). Other researchers used Class F fly ash,
coal bottom ash and waste foundry sand, mixed with
OPC to make bricks (Chaulia et al. 2009). Bricks made
from fly ash, mixed with clay in various proportions
possessed higher crushing strength compared to
normal clay bricks (Asokan et al. 2005). Furthermore,
up to 30 % cost savings where obtainable from fly ash
based bricks as compared to conventional bricks
(Chaulia et al. 2009). These researchers also con-
firmed that fly ash based bricks showed higher
compressive strength where lighter in weight and
showed lower water absorption as compared to
common clay bricks. Bricks made from 100 % lignite
fly ash mixed with water showed high compressive
strength as compared to red-clay bricks (Pimraksa
et al. 2000). Concrete bricks (solid blocks), hollow
blocks and paving stones can be made from Class F fly
ash mixed with OPC, bottom ash and foundry sand
(Kraus et al. 2003; Naik et al. 2005). Researchers also
have found that coal fly ash can replace OPC in
traditional recipe (Naik et al. 2005; Yang et al. 2007).
Pressed ceramic tiles have been made with coal fly
ash and stoneware clay with a composition of 70 and
30 wt% respectively (Sokolar and Smetanova 2010).
Ceramic wall tiles with improved strength could be
developed by using 6 % Tincal ore waste (borax solid
waste) and fly ash mixture as compared to standard
wall tiles (Olgun et al. 2005). Terracotta tiles made
from coal fly ash mixed with traditional raw material
showed improved physical and mechanical properties
as compared to usual clay and terracotta tiles (Kara
et al. 2004). Door shutters and window frames using
fly ash mixed with polymer based organic fiber have
also been developed (Saxena and Prabakhar 2000).
3.3.2 Glass–ceramics
Glass–ceramics have a number of uses in various
sectors ranging from construction industry to
123

manufacture of specialized products such as telescope
mirrors. Coal ash from bituminous coal was used to
synthesize glass and glass–ceramics which had Anor-
thite (CaAl2Si2O8) as the main glass–ceramic phase
(Cumpston et al. 1992). Vitrified coal fly ash with
Na2O ? CaO and BaO ? CaO as additives was used
to obtain nano-crystal glass ceramics with average
crystal size below 300 nm: the main phase of this
glass–ceramics was identified as Wollastonite (Ca-
SiO3) (Peng et al. 2004). Amorphous glass–ceramics
were produced using coal ash (40–50 % by weight)
mixed with other wastes like glass cullet, float
dolomites (Barbieri et al. 1999; Francis et al. 2004).
Glass–ceramics possess very unique mechanical
properties, such as abrasion resistance, high mechan-
ical strength and stability for a wide range of
utilization options. Fly ash based glass ceramics were
tested for physical and mechanical properties, thermal
expansion coefficient, density, hardness and bending
strength and very positive results were obtained
ensuring a wide range of applications in the construc-
tion industry (Peng et al. 2004; Cumpston et al. 1992).
Dilithium Dialuminium Trisilicates phases of
glass–ceramics have been used as materials for
making products like telescope mirrors, kitchen stove
hot plates etc.,. Coal fly ash and Lithium Hydroxide
Monohydrate (LiOH
H2O) were used to prepare
DilithiumDialuminiumTrisilicates (Li2Al2Si3O10)
based glass–ceramics (Yao et al. 2011).
Quartz in ash helps to obtain a relatively high
homogeneity of the glass–ceramics obtained (Cump-
ston et al. 1992).
3.3.3 Fire proof products
Fire-proof products can be developed using coal fly
ash by mixing with other waste types. Fly ash was
mixed as a main component with residues of waste
paper and other industrial wastes (Vilches et al. 2003),
RTi waste (a waste after the first attack on ilmenite in
the production of titanium dioxide) and Vermiculite
(up to 10 %) (Vilches et al. 2002) to make plates
which have higher insulating properties. These panels
and plates can be used to produce fireproof doors,
windows and for other fire-resistant products (Vilches
et al. 2002, 2003). It was found that both fly and
bottom ash increases the fire resistance of products
made with fly ash, due to the wide evaporation plateau
in ashes (Solis-Guzman et al. 2011). Then, it would be
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
made high fire resistance with fine particles, as high
surface area possess.
3.3.4 Sag-resistant gypsum boards
Gypsum boards are made by gypsum slurry, a
monolithic cellular core of set gypsum, which has
specific properties such as sag resistance for use in
various applications. In the common production
method, gypsum boards are produced by feeding
stucco, water, foam and additives between two paper
layers made of fibrous material. Gypsum boards made
of coal fly ash up to 20 wt% of stucco (calcium sulfate
hemihydrates) in gypsum slurry exhibited improved
sag resistance (Bruce and Kuntze 1983). The sag
resistance properties of fly ash are due to oxides of Ca,
Fe, Al and Si (Bruce and Kuntze 1983). These oxides
are present in considerable amounts in all fly ash types.
However, the exact mechanism for sag resistance
property of fly ash still has not been identified (Bruce
and Kuntze 1983).
3.4 Water and wastewater treatment applications
This chapter describes how the fly ash has been used in
pollution control. A summary for coal fly ash in
pollution control has been presented in tabulated form
(Table 4) for a better clarification to the areas of use as
below.
3.4.1 Low cost adsorbents for wastewater treatment
Coal fly ash (either treated or raw form) has a wider
range of uses as low cost adsorbents to remove toxic
compounds from contaminated water. Lignite fly ash
can be converted to zeolite, a potential adsorbent used
to remove synthetic dyes from waste waters by
sorption (Janos et al. 2003; Mohan et al. 2002).
Untreated coal fly ash itself was also used effectively
to remove textile anionic reactive dyes such as Acid
Red (AR1), Remazol Brillant Blue (RB), Remazol Red
133 (RR) and Rifacion Yellow HED (RY) from textile
dye processes (Dizge et al. 2008). Typical basic dyes
like Methylene Blue can be effectively removed from
aqueous solutions using heat and acid (like HNO3)
treated fly ash-red mud mixture (Wang et al. 2005).
NaOH treated coal fly ash was also effectively used to
remove cationic dyes such as Methylene Blue (Woo-
lard et al. 2002).
 Table 4 Summary for coal fly ash in pollution control
Use Operating condition Performance indicators Mechanism References

Removal of detergent from wastewater 2 h contact time, fly – Adsorption Bhargava et al.
ash C % of 1,000 mg/ (1974)
L solution is about
23 %
Removal of herbicides such as 2 h equilibrium time More than 80 % of removal Adsorption Singh (2009)
metribuzin, metolachlor and atrazine efficiency, adsorption
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

from aqueous solutions capacity of fly ash

0.56–3.33 mg/g
Adsorption of reactive pH 6.00, 20 °C Adsorption capacity of fly Adsorption, efficiency of adsorption is increased when Dizge et al. (2008),
dyesRemazolBrillant Blue (RB), ash; 30–74 mg/g, increasing temperature Hsu (2008)
Remazol Red 133 (RR) and
RifacionYellowHED (RY) by fly ash
Removal of reactive dyes (Vertigo Blue pH up to 7.00; 25 °C Adsorption capacity; Adsorption Dinçer et al.
49 and Orange DNA 13) from 4.5–13.4 mg dye/g of ash (2007), Kara
wastewater; using CBA et al. (2007)
Removal of Phenolic compounds such – Sorption capacity; Adsorption, efficiency of adsorption is increased when Ahmaruzzaman
as 2,4-dichloro phenol and ortho- 0.8–1.7 mg phenol/g fly increasing temperature (2008)
chloro phenol ash
Sequestration of ammonium and 5–24 h contact time, N and P removal Adsorption/ion exchange Chen et al. (2012)
nitrogen from swine wastewater efficiencies were in the
range of 41–98 %
Removal of phosphate ions from pH 9.0, 25 °C Adsorption capacity of Adsorption and precipitate as calcium phosphate/ Agyei et al. (2002),
aqueous solutions 32–83 mg PO43-/g fly ash Ca3(PO4)2 Pengthamkeerati
et al. (2008)
Removal of fluoride from water Acidic pH (2.0–6.5), 94 % of removal efficiency Adsorption, high fluoride can be removed completely Chaturvedi et al.
solutions high Temperature around 168 h of contact time (1990), Nemade
(30–50 °C) and Alappat
(2002)
Removal of boron pH 7.0–12.0 – Adsorption, ligand exchange mechanism Gal et al. (1988)
Adsorption was increased at high pH values
Removal of heavy metals by fly ash (Cd pH = 5.00, high metal 60–90 % metal removal Adsorption Ayala et al. (1998),
and Cu) retention at higher pH Metal adsorbent; fly ash can neutralize the metal Montagnaro and
values, grain size solution due to alkaline nature Santoro (2009)
\90 lm
Metal removal mechanism is a kind of neutralizing
process

123
 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

Coal fly ash can be widely used to remove heavy

Daci et al. (2011)

Cho et al. (2005)

Muñoz and Aller

Hsu et al. (2008)

metals and metalloids from aqueous solutions. Fly ash
was used to remove Cadmium (Cd) and Copper (Cu)
References

(2012)
from wastewaters effectively (Ayala et al. 1998;
Papandreou et al. 2007). Another researcher used
modified coal fly ash (by 3 M NaOH) to remove Lead
water, also, pH 10–13 is observable. Therefore, metal
ions can be removed either by electrostatic adsorption

(Pb) at pH 5.0 (Woolard et al. 2000). Coal fly ash based

Fly ash surface is negatively charged when add to the

adsorbents have been used to remove Copper (Cu) and

Lead (Pb) from municipal wastewaters to reduce its
toxicity (Gupta and Torres 1998). Removal of Arsenic
(As) was achieved at an optimum pH of 4.0 (Diamad-
opoulos et al. 1993) while Mercury II (Hg2?) was
removed at pH 3.5–4.0 (Sen and De 1987). Heavy metal
removal efficiency by fly ash as adsorbent was found to
be pH dependent and heavy metals removal was found
Ion exchange adsorption
As a low cost adsorbent

satisfactory, if the pH of the solution was not strongly

or by precipitations

acidic (Cho et al. 2005). On the other hand adsorption of

Arsenic (As) by coal fly ash was found to follow
Mechanism

Freundlich’s isotherm (Diamadopoulos et al. 1993).

Adsorption

Adsorption

This table should be referred with coal fly ash usage options related to pollution control aspects (Sect. 3.4)

Researchers have found that coal fly ash can also be

used to remove phosphate from aqueous solutions
(Agyei et al. 2002; Ugurlu and Salman 1998). However,
0.01–10 mg heavy meatl/

the adsorption was pH and temperature dependent.

Adsorption capacity is in

Furthermore, phosphate removal up to 99.8 % at 40 °C

Sorption rate is high as
Performance indicators

was obtained which could be attributed to the high

amount of calcite (CaO) present in coal fly ash (Ugurlu
the range of

and Salman 1998). A mixture of lignite coal and coal fly

g fly ash

ash was used as a low cost adsorbents to remove Boron

99 %

(B) from seawater very effectively, showing removal

efficiency as high as 95 % at pH 9.00 (Polat et al. 2004).
–

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) is one of the persistent

20–30 min of contact

organic pollutants which have adverse environmental

Operating condition

pH 5.0, 20 °C and
30 min retention

pH 5.0, 30–60 °C

and toxicological impacts when discharged into the

pH 3–10; 25 °C

environment. Several congeners of PCB from waste-

pH 4.5–11.0,

water could be removed by adsorption on to fly ash with

time,

removal efficiency up to 97 % at 25 °C and pH 7.00

time

(Nollet et al. 2003). The property of fly ash for

adsorption characteristics was due to high surface area,
Removal of heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Mn,
Lead removal from aqueous solutions

porosity and CaO percentage. Calcite makes hydrate

Removal of Cu2? from wastewater

bonds when contacts with water and it lead to high

porosity, hence Class C fly ash having high CaO is best
Zn, Pb, Cd and Cu removal

suitable as an adsorbent (Papandreou et al. 2011).

3.4.2 Mine water treatment and control

Table 4 continued

Zn, Cd and Pb)

Pumping of water from underground mines is a

common practice. Water pumped-out from under-
ground mines often has a high total hardness which
Use

makes it difficult for domestic use. Researchers have

123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
used coal fly ash treated with NaOH to remove
hardness from mine waters. Hardness removal up to
72 % could be obtained with fly ash dosage of
40 g L-1 (Prasad et al. 2011).
Mine tailings when exposed to rainwater and
oxygen from the atmosphere can generate acid mine
drainage (AMD). AMD can be highly acidic with
several heavy metals in dissolved form which can lead
to adverse environmental impacts. Fly ash can be
mixed with sulfidic mine tailings to control acidity.
Researchers found that lignite fly ash could increase
pH up to 10 by mixing it with 10–63 % of sulfidicmine
tailings, resulting in reduced Manganese (Mn) and
Zinc (Zn) in drainage waters (Xenidis et al. 2002).
Other researchers also demonstrated, utilization of fly
ash for reclamation of mine spoils (Ram and Masto
2010), and for controlling heavy metal mobility from
abandoned mines (Prasad and Mondal 2008; Gitari
et al. 2010). Neutralizing capacity of fly ash is the key
property for the usage.
3.5 Hazardous waste management
Stabilization and solidification (SS) applications are
widely used in hazardous waste management. Several
studies have been conducted using pozzolanic-based
coal fly ash as a binder and as the main raw material for
stabilization and solidification of heavy metals [Lead
(Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr) and Zinc (Zn)]
present in waste arc furnace dust (Pereira et al. 2001).
Other researchers investigated, coalfly ash -quicklime
(CaO) mixture to stabilize Lead (Pb) and trivalent
Chromium (Cr3?) as well as hexavalent Chromium
(Cr6?) present in contaminated soils (Dermatas and
Meng 2003). Researchers also used fly ash as a partial
substitute for cement in hazardous waste stabilization
and solidification process (Conner and Hoeffner
1998). It was found, that fly ash can be mixed with
natural organic matter like peat to stabilize Copper
(Cu) and Lead (Pb) in soil with efficiencies of 98.2 and
99.9 % respectively (Kumpiene et al. 2007).
Liner is an important impermeable barrier of
hazardous waste disposal sites, which stops leaching
out of possible hazardous leachates into the soil. Type
C fly ash was employed together with rubber and
bentonite to develop low hydraulic conductivity liner
materials. Leachate analysis and other performance
tests on such fly ash based liner material had shown
satisfactory results (Cokca and Yilmaz 2004).
3.6 Agriculture
Many studies have been conducted on fly ash usage as
a soil amendment material in agriculture. Physical
properties like texture, water holding capacity, bulk
density and pH of the fly ash and enrichment with all
the essential plant nutrients may have the potential for
fly ash to be utilized as a valuable resource material in
agriculture (Singh et al. 2010). Ram et al. (2007) used
lignite fly ash as a fertilizer by adding to crops such as
groundnut, sun hemp and maize with a dose of 200
tons of coal fly ash per acre resulting in higher crop
yields. It was revealed, fresh coal fly ash can improve
soil qualities than weathered or pond ash (Ram et al.
2007). Mixing of coal fly ash with agricultural soils at
proportions \2 wt% (or \12 Mg ha-1), can improve
physical and hydrological characteristics like aggre-
gation and plant water availability of the soil (Yunusa
et al. 2011).
3.7 Artificial habitats
Artificial reefs are constructed in the vicinity of
seashore areas with a view to stop trawling, to provide
protection for eggs and juveniles and also to enhance
the restocking of fish populations. Studies were
conducted to construct such artificial reef blocks using
coal fly ash which was found compatible with living
organisms in the sea (Sampaolo and Relini 1994). Reef
blocks made of coal fly ash yielded higher compati-
bility with living organisms as compared to blocks
made from concrete. Negligible leaching of elements
was observed with long term leaching tests, ensuring
utility of coal fly ash for constructing artificial
habitats.
3.8 Value added materials
3.8.1 Zeolite materials
Zeolites have a wide range of applications in industry.
Zeolites are used as adsorbents, for ion exchange and
for controlling of mobilization of heavy metals (Shih
and Chang 1996; Juan et al. 2007; Querol et al. 2002;
Koukouzas et al. 2010). Zeolites could be synthesized
from the class F fly ash by treating it with NaOH (Shih
and Chang 1996). These zeolites have 70–80 % of
adsorption capacity as compared to commercial grade
zeolites (Mondragon et al. 1990). Researchers also
123

found that zeolites synthesized from fly ash (ZFAs)
could be used effectively to remove trivalent Chro-
mium (Cr3?) from wastewaters (Wu et al. 2008).
Zeolites produced from fly ash are environmentally
friendly and do not release heavy metals into the
environment compared to the raw fly ash from dump
sites (Steenbruggen and Hollman 1998).
Researchers have produced nano sized porous
zeolite materials (Zeolite A and MCM-41) from coal
fly ash, compatible with commercial grade types (Hui
et al. 2009). These zeolites have wide scientific and
industrial applications such as air and water purification
and gas adsorption. Hui and Chao (2006) succesfully
produced zeolites from fly ash which could be used as
detergent builder. This Zeolite 4 A product areequally
effective in removing calcium ions from water during
washing compared to the commercial detergent grade
zeolite 4A (Hui and Chao 2006; Hui et al. 2005).
3.8.2 Extraction of alumina and mullite
As brought out in the earlier section, approximately
3–35 % of Al2O3 is present in coal fly ash. Acid or base
soluble calcium aluminates can be prepared by calcining
coal fly ash and CaO mixture at 1,000–1,200 °C. Such
calcined ash sintered pellets could be used to extract
alumina materials using sulfuric acid as the solvent at an
efficiency of 85 % at 80 °C (Matjie et al. 2005).
Researchers have carried out studies to produce
mullite materials from coal fly ash. Gamma alumina
(alumina powder mixture) and pretreated coal fly ash
was used to produce mullite at a temperature of
1,400 °C (Ohtake et al. 1991). Amullite production
efficiency of 80 % was reported.
3.8.3 Extraction of cenospheres and rare earth
materials
Cenospheres consist of alumina and quartz composi-
tion, thermally stable up to 280 °C and having a
density of 0.3–0.6 g cm-3 (Kolay and Singh 2001).
Cenospheres are lightweight, low density, inert and
hollowed spherical material filled with air or gas.
These characteristics, make Cenospheres useful in
making value added products like light weight
concrete, structural materials and as well as to produce
ultra-light composite materials.
A study was conducted to extract Gallium (Ga)
from coal fly ash using foam extraction technique
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
(Fang and Gesser 1996). The efficiency of this
hydrometallurgical process of extraction was depen-
dent on acid strength, time and temperature.
3.9 Automotive brake-lining
Fly ash has thermally resilient properties, which can
withstand breaking temperatures. Automotive brake
linings are usually made of friction composites consist-
ing of phenolic resin, aramid pulp, glass fiber, potassium
titanate, graphite aluminium powder and copper powder.
Researches could produce friction composites incorpo-
rating coal fly ash more the 50 % by weight along with
standard materials as reported above (Mohanty and
Chugh 2007). Brake liners thus produced had wear rates
lower than 12 wt% with consistent friction coefficients in
the range of 0.35–0.40, thus confirming the utility of fly
ash as an ingredient for friction composites.
3.10 Sequester carbon dioxide
Coal fly ash consists of calcites (CaO) which can be
used to sequester CO2 by first carrying out reactions like
hydration of lime [CaO ? H2O ? Ca(OH)2] followed
by spontaneous carbonation of calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2 ? CO2 ? CaCO3]. Coal fly ash was used
with 4.1 wt% of lime for CO2 sequestration by
performing CaO–CaCO3 chemical transformation
through aqueous carbonation at 82 % of carbonate
conversion efficiency (Montes-Hernandez et al. 2009).
Also, it was shown that 26 kg of CO2 can be captured
by 1 ton of fly ash. The CO2 sequester effectiveness by
fly ash was reported in literature as about 5 wt% at
75 °C (Arenillas et al. 2005). Also, it was reported that
CaO rich fly ashes and brine solution together were
found to be effective as a CO2 sequester (Soong et al.
2006). Further, CO2 adsorbents made from coal fly ash
are now commercially available. Therefore, fly ash—
CO2 sequestration adsorbents can be applied to mitigate
carbon dioxide (Palumbo et al. 2004) emissions from
power plants and industrial boilers.
4 Properties of coal bottom ash
4.1 Physical properties of coal bottom ash
Typically bottom ash production from coal power plant
ranges between 0.6 and 2.10 tons per megawatt of
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
energy produces per day (EGAT 2010; Asokan et al.
2005). Coal bottom ash has particle size in the range of
0.1–10 mm, with apparent dark grey colour. Other
characteristics of coal bottom ash are as follows. TOC:
11.74–52.24 wt% (Levandowski and Kalkreuth 2009),
specific gravity: 2.30–3.00, bulk density:
1.15–1.76 g cm-3 and specific surface area:
0.17–1.0 m2 g-1 (Theis and Gardner 1990; Ahmaruzz-
aman 2010). As compared to fly ash CBA is a bristly
(coarse) and granular materials (Mukhtar et al. 2003).
4.2 Structure and chemical composition of coal
bottom ash
CBA mainly consists of silicate, carbonate, aluminate,
ferrous materials and several of heavy metals and
metalloids. The exact composition of the CBA may
depend upon the raw coal source, size, type of coal
burner and the operating conditions of the burner.
Typical composition of coal bottom ash as reported by
researchers is presented in Table 5. Likewise heavy
metal and metalloid composition reported by research-
ers is presented in Table 6.
5 Coal bottom ash utilization options
5.1 Civil engineering applications
Natural aggregates like sand and coarse materials are
widely used in construction applications. Early
researchers suggested the use of coal bottom ash as a
replacement material of natural aggregates in con-
struction applications (Moulton 1973). Coal bottom
ash has similar geological characteristics as compared
to natural sand materials (Kumar and Stewart 2003b).
A study was conducted for utilizing bottom ash as a
partial or full replacement for natural sand (Suwanvi-
taya and Wattanachai 2006). However, it was con-
cluded that the compressive strength reduced with an
increase of CBA replacement percentage.
Several other studies have been conducted to find
the effectiveness of untreated pulverized coal bottom
ash as a structural fill material. Field density and plate
load tests were performed during fill construction to
check the consistency of the stabilized soil containing
CBA (Sato and Nishimoto 2001; Leonards and Bailey
1982). Coal bottom ash together with powdered
bentonite was used as an efficient construction fill
material (Kayabal and Bulus 2000). It has been found,
bottom ash modified with 15 % bentonite can be used
to construct landfill barriers having a suitable hydrau-
lic conductivity (Kumar and Stewart 2003b).
Researchers found that addition of bottom ash and
lime on soft soils improved engineering properties
such as strength, bearing capacity while minimizing
displacement properties (Rifa et al. 2009). Bottom ash
was also used effectively in highway construction for
base course applications (Moulton et al. 1973). Also
CBA together with Class F fly ash mixture was found
suitable for highway embankment construction. How-
ever, in this case, low bottom ash to high fly ash ratio
(ranging from 50 to 100 % of fly ash content) was
recommended for better performance and stability
(Kim 2003; Kim et al. 2005).
Low specific gravity bottom ashes lead to low
durability, hence not suitable for filing applications.
Therefore, relatively high specific gravity BA
(1.9–3.0) must be used for engineering applications
(Huang 1990). As stated above, these properties
depend upon the furnace type. The dry bottom ash is
considered as well graded and suitable for road bases,
however it was reported grading from no. 200 sieve
must not exceed 8 % (Huang 1990).
5.2 Portland cement and geo-polymer
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is used in mortar
preparation and cement mixtures. CBA could be used
as a pozzolana either in ground form by grinding in a
ball mill to small size, as raw bottom ash (Cheriaf et al.
1999) or as a Portland cement replacement material
(Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot 2003). Ground bottom
ash (GBA) showed improved pozzolanic properties
(Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot 2003) as well as with,
increased 28 days strength activity index by 27 %
(Cheriaf et al. 1999). Furthermore 25 % of ash mixed
with cement yielded 48.86 N mm-2 90 days curing
strength (Kizgut et al. 2010). In another study, Tinacal
ore waste together with CBA was utilized as a partial
replacement to OPC (Kula et al. 2002). Also, it was
found, cement mortars with 10 % replacement of the
OPC with bottom ash could yield compressive
strength up to 45.1 N mm-2 which is well suited for
construction applications (Kurama and Kaya 2008).
Geo-polymer mortars are also used in geotechni-
cal engineering applications. Preparation of geo-
polymer mortar was possible with coal bottom ash
123
 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

Table 5 Major elemental composition of coal bottom ash

Composition as a percentage (%) otherwise stated
Composition Lignitea,h Sub-bituminousc Bituminousb,e Anthracited

SiO2 10.80–48.30 45.3 48.81–58.9 53.5

Al2O3 2.50–24.90 24.0 10.12–36.0 27.6
Fe2O3 0.50–8.20 18.0 2.4–6.10 6.0
MgO 0.40–4.60 0.58 0.2–5.61 2.1
CaO 8.60–45.10 1.4 1.3–11.81 3.4
Na2O 0.15–1.15 0.45 0.04–0.92 1.0
K2O 0.02–3.60 0.53 0.6–2.31 4.9
TiO2 0.18–1.32 1.5 0.39–0.60 1.0
P2O5 – 2.2 0.02–0.79 0.5
MnO 0.03–0.21 0.05 0.02–0.08 0.0
SO3 5.10–20.20 2.2 \0.1–4.06 –
S 0.1g 0.2–0.3f 0.01 0.54i
g f
LOI 4.6 9–17.8 9.75
a
Baba and Kaya (2004), b Uçurum et al. (2011), c Wee et al. (2005), d Russell et al. (2002), e Pires and Querol (2004), f Vassilev
et al. (2005), g Cheriaf et al. (1999), h Rifa et al. (2009), Cheriaf et al. (1999), Chindaprasirt et al. (2009), Dinçer et al. (2007)

Table 6 Trace elements concentrations in coal bottom ash

Trace elements Trace element composition of bottom ash (mg kg-1 dry basis)
Lignitea Sub-bituminousc Bituminousb Anthracited

As – 25–30 1.8 \5
B – 321–467 15.30 –
Ba 62–109 428–523 – –
Cd \5 0.5–0.6 0.3 \2
Co 3–7 10–13 17.5
Cr 47–194 65–99 47 21–30
Cu 18–121 33–49 32 42–80
Hg 0.4–1.6e – – \0.5
Li 4–30e 93–147 28 –
Mn 97–328e 295–402 991 –
Ni 30–293 34–53 30 –
Pb 5–33 16–29 2.6 62–80
Zn 33–226 59–99 47 1,250–2,000
a b c d e
Baba and Kaya (2004), Pires and Querol (2004), Vassilev et al. (2005), Taeyoon (2011), Bhangare et al. (2011)

as a raw material. Relatively high strength geo-
polymer mortar was developed with GBA mixing
with liquid Sodium silicate and NaOH (Sathonsaow-
aphak et al. 2009). Such geo-polymer mortar with
3 % GBA of 15.7 lm particle size could achieve a
mortar strength of 24–58 MPa. Strength of geo-
polymer was improved with the fineness of GBA.
Other researchers used dry bottom ash, amended
with bentonite for geotechnical engineering applica-
tions (Kumar and Stewart 2003a). However, unpro-
cessed coal bottom ash is less reactive than fly ash
in geo-polymerization (Chindaprasirt et al. 2009).
As a result use of ground bottom ash in geo-
polymerization applications are recommended.

123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
5.3 Bricks and solid concrete products
Researchers produced solid bricks by compressing the
mixture of coal bottom ash (40–45 % by weight) with
gypsum, fly ash, calcium carbonate and limeup to
2,350 psi (Furlong and Hearne 1994). The product
retained sufficient structural strength for construction
applications. Researchers also used CBA, foundry
sand and Class F fly ash together with Portland cement
in various ratios to make cast concrete products like,
bricks, blocks and paving stones (Kraus et al. 2003).
5.4 Glass–ceramic products
CBA generally has low quartz (SiO2) and mullite
(3Al2O3
2SiO2) phases. Coal bottom ash could be
treated with Li2CO3, TiO2 and Al2O3to make
DilithiumDialuminiumTrisilicates (Li2Al2Si3O10)
glass–ceramics (Kniess et al. 2007). TiO2 could be
used to improve the crystallinity of the glass–ceramics
(Cumpston et al. 1992). The results showed high
crystallinity, however thermal expansion coefficient
of this glass ceramics was approximately less than
18 % compared to the commercial grade lithium
glass–ceramics.
5.5 Water and wastewater treatment
Studies have been carried out using CBA to remediate
domestic and industrial wastewaters. Use of CBA as a
potential adsorbent for removal of toxic dyes has been
extensively researched. It has been found that bottom
ash and de-oiled soya mixture can be used effectively
to remove water soluble azo dyes from textile
wastewaters (Mittal et al. 2005). A mixture of CBA
and de-oiled soya was also used to recover and remove
hazardous Tryphenylmethane dye and Brilliant Blue
FCP; a colorant in textile and leather industry (Gupta
et al. 2006). Other common dye types such as Vertigo
Blue 49 (CI Blue 49), Orange DNA13 (CI Orange 13)
and Malachite green from textile wastewaters were
also effectively treated using CBA (Dinçer et al. 2007;
Gupta et al. 2004). Removal of Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) from coking and papermaking waste-
waters by the CBA was investigated. It was found,
10 g per 100 mL dosage of \0.074 mm particle size
CBA could remove organic pollutants by reducing
COD levels more than 40 % (Sun et al. 2008). Coal
bottom ash could also be utilized effectively as an
alternative medium in on-site sewage treatment
methods like mound type soil adsorption systems
(Viraraghavan and Dronamraju 1992). Trace elements
such as Silicon and aluminium in coal bottom ash
make it to have good adsorption capacity (Gorme et al.
2010). As, Si and Al present in all coal types, that
bottom ashes from lignite as well as hard coal can be
used as an adsorbent as stated above, either with
modifications or with mixing with other materials. A
summary of CBA in pollution control is given in
Table 7.
5.6 Soil reclamation and in agriculture
Studies have been conducted using CBA in agriculture
and for soil reclamation. Soil properties can be altered
in favor of the environment. It was revealed that clay
soils mixed with CBA can enhance tilth, reducing the
crust formation and higher friability of the clay soil
(Sell et al. 1989). Soils mixed with CBA were showed
high water holding capacities as well as air content,
also provides some mineral ingredients which are
favorable for plant growth. It was shown high yields of
peanut when CBA added at 15 kg m-2 proportion of
soil (Wearing et al. 2004). Some soils need a lime
addition to maintain its pH value. CBA can be used as
an alternative source for such lime requirement to
amend the soil (Korcak 1998). It may improve soil
structure, water infiltration and increase pH of the soil.
Such soils with enhanced texture are highly suitable
for cultivating of crops (Wearing et al. 2004; Sell et al.
1989). Another researcher used CBA with composted
dairy manure as a soil amendment. However, as CBA
contains heavy metals and it may leach out heavy
metals under some environmental conditions making a
threat to water quality (Mukhtar et al. 2003).
6 Risk assessment of coal ash reuse options
As an overview, use of ash in various sectors is
presented in the Fig. 1. As brought out in this figure,
majority of reuse options are cement based products
(ACAA 2010; ECOBA 2008; Dewangan et al. 2010;
Cao et al. 2008).
Potential hazards from coal ash and its products
mainly come due to its heavy metal contents. As
123
 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol

brought out in this report, coal ash contains several

Mathieu et al. (2010)

Lin and Yang (2002)

Dinçer et al. (2007)
heavy metals such as As, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu, Mn, Cd, Cr
References and Se. Although coal contains Mercury (Hg), a large
proportion of Hg is vaporized during combustion
process and remaining Hg usually is tightly bound to
the coal ash particles and therefore is not released into
the environment (Fairbrother et al. 2010). Other
metals present in coal such as Cd, Pb and As can pose
potential hazards to the environment, particularly
Adsorption Particle size, pore
size [ 2.5 lm showed high

Adsorption, increasing of pH
under acidic conditions when they can be leached out.
Absorption, neutralization

increases Cu2? removal

while decreases COD These metals can be taken up by the plants and
Mechanism of removal

removal efficiency incorporated into the food chain due to their bioaccu-
mulation. Furthermore, other elements present in coal
ash such as As, Se and B are highly mobile in soil and
efficiency

sediments and can be readily leached out. Out of these

elements, inorganic form of arsenic through drinking
water is poses significant health risk. However, since
environmental risk is a function of toxicity and
exposure, risk from coal ash can be reduced by
Sorption capacity reported was

COD, NH3–N, total Kjeldah

nitrogen, phosphorus, Fe3?,

reducing its exposure.

39.4, 31.1, 92.9, 96.5, 94.3
in the range of 4.5–13 mg

The removal efficiencies of

Mn2? and Zn2? were 47,

and 82.2 %, respectively

On the other hand, researchers have reported that

0.20 mg/g of adsorption
capacity was reported
Performance indicators

leaching of elements from products containing coal

ash such as autoclaved aerated concrete (ACC) poses
no environmental threats (EPRI 1996). This is mainly
dye/g CBA

due to the fact that during concrete applications, the

trace elements in fly ash are stabilized in the hardened
concrete matrix, reducing their ability to leach out.
Solidification and stabilization (S/S) is a well-estab-
lished process which involves concrete to solidify and
stabilize heavy metals from coal ash. Also cement is
pH 4.0–9.0, 5–90 min contact

30 min contact time; dose of

time, 20 g/L of bottom ash

considered as the most adaptable binder for immobi-

10–40 °C, reaction time;
bottom ash about 8 g/L

lization of heavy metals (Giergiczny and Król 2008;

pH 2–12, temperature;
concentration, 25 °C

Chen et al. 2009), thus, reducing the leachability of

Operating condition

heavy metals (USEPA 2011).

Table 7 Performance of CBA in pollutant removal

Following the accidental release of over one billion

5–120 min

gallons of ash from Tennessee Valley Authority

(TVA) Kingston Power Plant in December 2008, the
USEPA has proposed two regulatory options for coal
combustion products disposed of in landfills or surface
impoundments. Under the first option, Coal ash
Removal of pollutants such as

residues disposed of in landfills or surface impound-

phosphorus, nitrogen, COD,
Removal of textile dyestuffs

Arsenic removal from water

Cu2?, Fe3?, Mn2?, Zn2?

ments would be regulated as hazardous wastes under

from aqueous solutions

subtitle ‘‘C’’ of Resources Conservation and Recovery

Act (RCRA). Under the second option, USEPA has
from wastewater

proposed to regulate coal as residues as non-hazardous

waste under RCRA subtitle ‘‘D’’. Beneficially used
residues such as CCP would be excluded from
definition of hazardous waste and hence would not
Use

be regulated (USEPA 2013).

123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
Fig. 1 Use of coal ash in
various sectors. Source:
ACAA (2010), ECOBA
(2008), Dewangan et al.
(2010), Cao et al. (2008)
7 Conclusions
Reuse options for coal fly ash and coal bottom ash are
reviewed in this paper. Significant quantities of coal
fly ash and coal bottom ash are produced worldwide
every year. Coal ash poses potential environmental
hazards due to its heavy metal contents which may be
leached out into environment. Only up to 30 % of fly
ash produced worldwide is reused. Coal fly ash is
mainly reused in civil engineering applications. These
applications include road construction, embankments,
construction, geo-polymer applications, cement etc.
However coal fly ash also can be reused in other
applications such as making glass–ceramics, water
and wastewater treatment, agriculture as well as for
making high value products. Considering that, only a
small fraction of coal ash (bottom ash and fly ash)
produced is reused, other reuse options need to be
explored for commercial applications.
References
ACAA (2010) 2010 coal combustion product (CCP) Production
and use survey report. American Coal Ash Association.
http://acaa.affiniscape.com/associations/8003/files/2010_
CCP_Survey_FINAL_102011.pdf. Accessed 20.02.2012
Agyei NM, Strydom CA, Potgieter JH (2002) The removal of
phosphate ions from aqueous solution by fly ash, slag,
ordinary Portland cement and related blends. Cem Concr
Res 32(12):1889–1897. doi:10.1016/s0008-
8846(02)00888-8
Ahmaruzzaman M (2008) Adsorption of phenolic compounds
on low-cost adsorbents: a review. Adv Colloid Interface
143(1–2):48–67
Ahmaruzzaman M (2010) A review on the utilization of fly ash.
Prog Energy Combust Sci 36(3):327–363. doi:10.1016/j.
pecs.2009.11.003
Arenillas A, Smith KM, Drage TC, Snape CE (2005) CO2
capture using some fly ash-derived carbon materials. Fuel
84(17):2204–2210. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2005.04.003
Asokan P, Saxena M, Asolekar SR (2005) Coal combustion
residues—environmental implications and recycling
potentials. Resour Conserv Recycl 43(3):239–262. doi:10.
1016/j.resconrec.2004.06.003
Ayala J, Blanco F, Garcı́a P, Rodriguez P, Sancho J (1998)
Asturian fly ash as a heavy metals removal material. Fuel
77(11):1147–1154. doi:10.1016/s0016-2361(98)00027-1
Baba A, Kaya A (2004) Leaching characteristics of solid wastes
from thermal power plants of western Turkey and com-
parison of toxicity methodologies. J Environ Manag
73(3):199–207. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.06.005
Baba A, Gurdal G, Sengunalp F, Ozay O (2008) Effects of
leachant temperature and pH on leachability of metals from
fly ash. A case study: can thermal power plant, province of
Canakkale, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 139(1):287–298
Barbieri L, Lancellotti I, Manfredini T, Ignasi Q, Rincon JM,
Romero M (1999) Design, obtainment and properties of
glasses and glass-ceramics from coal fly ash. Fuel
78(2):271–276. doi:10.1016/s0016-2361(98)00134-3
123

Bashkin VN, Wongyai K (2002) Environmental fluxes of
arsenic from lignite mining and power generation in
northern Thailand. Environ Geol 41(8):883–888
Bhangare RC, Ajmal PY, Sahu SK, Pandit GG, Puranik VD
(2011) Distribution of trace elements in coal and com-
bustion residues from five thermal power plants in India.
Int J Coal Geol. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2011.03.008
Bhargava R, Mathur R, Khanna P (1974) Removal of detergent
from wastewater by adsorption on fly ash. Indian J Environ
Health 16(2):109–120
Brigden K, Santillo D, Stringer R (2002) Hazardous emissions
from Thai coal-fired power plants. Toxic and potentially toxic
elements in fly ashes collected from the Mae Moh and Thai
Petrochemical industry coal-fired power plants in Thailand,
2002. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, Department of
Biological Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter
Bruce RB, Kuntze RA (1983) Sag-resistant gypsum board
containing coal fly ash and method for making same. US
Patent No 4,403,006, 6 Sept 1983
Cao D-z, Selic E, Herbell J-D (2008) Utilization of fly ash from
coal-fired power plants in China. J Zhejiang Univ Sci A
9(5):681–687. doi:10.1631/jzus.A072163
Chakraborty R, Mukherjee A (2009) Mutagenicity and geno-
toxicity of coal fly ash water leachate. Ecotoxicol Environ
Saf 72(3):838–842. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.09.023
Chaturvedi A, Yadava K, Pathak K, Singh V (1990) Defluori-
dation of water by adsorption on fly ash. Water Air Soil
Pollut 49(1):51–61
Chaulia PK, Biswajit R, Maity SN (2009) Utilisation of flyash as
gainful resource material for green brick making. Res J
Chem Environ 13(4):10–12
Chen QY, Tyrer M, Hills CD, Yang XM, Carey P (2009)
Immobilisation of heavy metal in cement-based solidifi-
cation/stabilisation: a review. Waste Manag
29(1):390–403. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2008.01.019
Chen XY, Wendell K, Zhu J, Li JL, Yu X, Zhang Z (2012)
Synthesis of nano-zeolite from coal fly ash and its potential
for nutrient sequestration from anaerobically digested
swine wastewater. Bioresour Technol 110:79–85
Cheriaf M, Rocha JC, Péra J (1999) Pozzolanic properties of
pulverized coal combustion bottom ash. Cem Concr Res
29(9):1387–1391. doi:10.1016/s0008-8846(99)00098-8
Chindaprasirt P, Jaturapitakkul C, Chalee W, Rattanasak U
(2009) Comparative study on the characteristics of fly ash
and bottom ash geopolymers. Waste Manag
29(2):539–543. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2008.06.023
Cho H, Oh D, Kim K (2005) A study on removal characteristics
of heavy metals from aqueous solution by fly ash. J Hazard
Mater 127(1–3):187–195
Choi SK, Lee S, Song YK, Moon HS (2002) Leaching charac-
teristics of selected Korean fly ashes and its implications
for the groundwater composition near the ash disposal
mound. Fuel 81(8):1083–1090. doi:10.1016/s0016-
2361(02)00006-6
Cokca E, Yilmaz Z (2004) Use of rubber and bentonite added fly
ash as a liner material. Waste Manag 24(2):153–164.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2003.10.004
Collot A-G (2006) Matching gasification technologies to coal
properties. Int J Coal Geol 65(3–4):191–212. doi:10.1016/
j.coal.2005.05.003
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
Conner JR, Hoeffner SL (1998) A critical review of stabiliza-
tion/solidification technology. Crit Rev Environ Sci
Technol 28(4):397–462
Cumpston B, Shadman F, Risbud S (1992) Utilization of coal-
ash minerals for technological ceramics. J Mater Sci
27(7):1781–1784. doi:10.1007/bf01107204
Daci MN, Daci NM, Zeneli L, Gashi S, Hoxha D (2011) Coal
ash as adsorbent for heavy metal ions in standard solutions,
industrial wastewater and streams. Ecohydrol Hydrobiol
11(1):129–132
Davies L (2011) Beyond Fukushima: disasters, nuclear energy,
and energy law. BYU Law Rev 2011:1937
Dermatas D, Meng X (2003) Utilization of fly ash for stabilization/
solidification of heavy metal contaminated soils. Eng Geol
70(3–4):377–394. doi:10.1016/s0013-7952(03)00105-4
Dewangan P, Pradhan M, Kishore N (2010) Utilisation of fly ash
as a structural fill material for safe and sustainable devel-
opment: need of the hour. IME J 134–139
Diamadopoulos E, Ioannidis S, Sakellaropoulos GP (1993)
As(V) removal from aqueous solutions by fly ash. Water Res
27(12):1773–1777. doi:10.1016/0043-1354(93)90116-y
Dinçer AR, Günes Y, Karakaya N (2007) Coal-based bottom ash
(CBBA) waste material as adsorbent for removal of textile
dyestuffs from aqueous solution. J Hazard Mater
141(3):529–535. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.064
Dizge N, Aydiner C, Demirbas E, Kobya M, Kara S (2008)
Adsorption of reactive dyes from aqueous solutions by fly
ash: kinetic and equilibrium studies. J Hazard Mater
150(3):737–746. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.05.027
Dutta BK, Khanra S, Mallick D (2009) Leaching of elements
from coal fly ash: assessment of its potential for use in
filling abandoned coal mines. Fuel 88(7):1314–1323.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.01.005
ECOBA (2008) Production and utilisation of CCPs in 2008 in
Europe (EU 15). European Coal Combustion Products
Association. www.ecoba.org. Accessed 02.20.2012
EGAT (2010) Personal communication with Mae Moh Power
Plant, Thailand. Discussion notes with Mae Moh Authrity
during site visit made on 23–24 September 2011
EPRI (1996) Coal ash: its origin, disposal, use, and potential
health issues. EPRI TR-106516 (Section B)
Fairbrother A, Bigham G, Pietari J, Mohsen F (2010) Coal ash:
hazard, waste, or resources? Newsl Expon Environ Eco Sci
Pract 1:1–11
Fang Z, Gesser H (1996) Recovery of gallium from coal fly ash.
Hydrometallurgy 41(2–3):187–200
Fisher GL, Chang D, Brummer M (1976) Fly ash collected from
electrostatic precipitators: microcrystalline structures and
the mystery of the spheres. Science 192(4239):553
Francis AA, Rawlings RD, Sweeney R, Boccaccini AR (2004)
Crystallization kinetic of glass particles prepared from a
mixture of coal ash and soda-lime cullet glass. J Non Cryst
Solids 333(2):187–193. doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2003.09.
048
Furlong T, Hearne J (1994) Process for producing solid bricks
from fly ash, bottom ash, lime, gypsum, and calcium car-
bonate. Google Patents
Gal M, Hollis J, Keren R (1988) Boron release and sorption by
fly ash as affected by pH and particle size. J Environ Qual
17(2):181–184
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
Geetha S, Ramamurthy K (2010) Environmental friendly tech-
nology of cold-bonded bottom ash aggregate manufacture
through chemical activation. J Clean Prod 18(15):
1563–1569. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.06.006
Giergiczny Z, Król A (2008) Immobilization of heavy metals
(Pb, Cu, Cr, Zn, Cd, Mn) in the mineral additions con-
taining concrete composites. J Hazard Mater 160(2–3):
247–255. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.03.007
Gitari WM, Petrik LF, Key DL, Okujeni C (2010) Interaction of
acid mine drainage with Ordinary Portland Cement blen-
ded solid residues generated from active treatment of acid
mine drainage with coal fly ash. J Environ Sci Health, Part
A 46(2):117–137
Gorme JB, Kim SS, Kim YT (2010) Characterization of bottom
ash as an adsorbent of lead from aqueous solutions. Envi-
ron Eng Res 15(4):207–213
Gupta G, Torres N (1998) Use of fly ash in reducing toxicity of
and heavy metals in wastewater effluent. J Hazard Mater
57(1–3):243–248. doi:10.1016/s0304-3894(97)00093-9
Gupta VK, Mittal A, Krishnan L, Gajbe V (2004) Adsorption
kinetics and column operations for the removal and
recovery of malachite green from wastewater using bottom
ash. Sep Purif Technol 40(1):87–96. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.
2004.01.008
Gupta VK, Mittal A, Krishnan L, Mittal J (2006) Adsorption
treatment and recovery of the hazardous dye, Brilliant Blue
FCF, over bottom ash and de-oiled soya. J Colloid Interface
Sci 293(1):16–26. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2005.06.021
Haibin L, Zhenling L (2010) Recycling utilization patterns of
coal mining waste in China. Resour Conserv Recycl
54(12):1331–1340. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.05.005
Hansen Y, Notten PJ, Petrie JG (2002) The environmental
impact of ash management in coal-based power generation.
Appl Geochem 17(8):1131–1141. doi:10.1016/s0883-
2927(02)00013-6
Horiuchi S, Kawaguchi M, Yasuhara K (2000) Effective use of
fly ash slurry as fill material. J Hazard Mater 76(2–3):
301–337. doi:10.1016/s0304-3894(00)00205-3
Hsu T-C (2008) Adsorption of an acid dye onto coal fly ash. Fuel
87(13–14):3040–3045. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.03.026
Hsu TC, Yu CC, Yeh CM (2008) Adsorption of Cu 2 ? from
water using raw and modified coal fly ashes. Fuel 87(7):
1355–1359
Huang WH (1990) The use of bottom ash in highway embank-
ments, subgrades, and subbases. Indiana Department of
Transportation and Purdue University, West Lafayette
Hui KS, Chao CYH (2006) Pure, single phase, high crystalline,
chamfered-edge zeolite 4A synthesized from coal fly ash
for use as a builder in detergents. J Hazard Mater
137(1):401–409. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.02.014
Hui K, Chao C, Kot S (2005) Removal of mixed heavy metal
ions in wastewater by zeolite 4A and residual products
from recycled coal fly ash. J Hazard Mater 127(1):89–101
Hui K, Hui K, Lee SK (2009) A Novel and green approach to
produce nano-porous materials zeolite A and MCM-41
from coal fly ash and their applications in environmental
protection. Int J Chem Biol Eng 2:4
IEA (2012) Key world energy statistics. International Energy
Agency. www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/kwes.pdf. Accessed 05.10.2013
Iyer R (2002) The surface chemistry of leaching coal fly ash.
J Hazard Mater 93(3):321–329. doi:10.1016/s0304-
3894(02)00049-3
Izquierdo M, Querol X (2012) Leaching behaviour of elements
from coal combustion fly ash: an overview. Int J Coal Geol
94:54–66. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2011.10.006
Izquierdo M, Querol X, Davidovits J, Antenucci D, Nugteren H,
Fernández-Pereira C (2009) Coal fly ash-slag-based geo-
polymers: microstructure and metal leaching. J Hazard
Mater 166(1):561–566
Janos P, Wildnerová M, Loucka T (2002) Leaching of metals from
fly ashes in the presence of complexing agents. Waste Manag
22(7):783–789. doi:10.1016/s0956-053x(02)00039-9
Janos P, Buchtová H, Rýznarová M (2003) Sorption of dyes
from aqueous solutions onto fly ash. Water Res 37(20):
4938–4944. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2003.08.011
Jaturapitakkul C, Cheerarot R (2003) Development of bottom
ash as pozzolanic material. J Mater Civ Eng 15:48
Jayaranjan M, Annachhatre AP (2012) Precipitation of heavy
metals from coal ash leachate using biogenic hydrogen
sulfide generated from FGD gypsum. Water Sci Technol J
Int Assoc Water Pollut Res 67(2):311–318
Jones MR, McCarthy A (2005) Utilising unprocessed low-lime
coal fly ash in foamed concrete. Fuel 84(11):1398–1409.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.09.030
Juan R, Hernández S, Andrés JM, Ruiz C (2007) Synthesis of
granular zeolitic materials with high cation exchange
capacity from agglomerated coal fly ash. Fuel 86(12–13):
1811–1821. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2007.01.011
Kara A, Kurama H, Kara Y, Kurama S (2004) Utilization of coal
combustion fly ash in terracotta bodies. Key Eng Mater
264:2513–2516
Kara S, Aydiner C, Demirbas E, Kobya M, Dizge N (2007)
Modeling the effects of adsorbent dose and particle size on
the adsorption of reactive textile dyes by fly ash. Desali-
nation 212(1–3):282–293
Kayabal K, Bulus G (2000) The usability of bottom ash as an
engineering material when amended with different matri-
ces. Eng Geol 56(3–4):293–303. doi:10.1016/s0013-
7952(99)00097-6
Kim B (2003) Properties of coal ash mixtures and their use in
highway embankments. Civil engineering. PhD. Purdue
University, Ann Arbor, p 240
Kim AG, Hesbach P (2009) Comparison of fly ash leaching
methods. Fuel 88(5):926–937. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.11.013
Kim B, Prezzi M, Salgado R (2005) Geotechnical properties of
fly and bottom ash mixtures for use in highway embank-
ments. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 131:914
Kimura N, Omata K, Kiga T, Takano S, Shikisima S (1995) The
characteristics of pulverized coal combustion in O2/CO2
mixtures for CO2 recovery. Energy Convers Manag
36(6–9):805–808. doi:10.1016/0196-8904(95)00126-X
Kizgut S, Cuhadaroglu D, Samanli S (2010) Stirred grinding of
coal bottom ash to be evaluated as a cement additive.
Energy Source Part A 32(16):1529–1539. doi:10.1080/
15567030902780378
Kniess CT, de Lima JC, Prates PB, Kuhnen NC, Riella HG (2007)
Dilithium dialuminium trisilicate phase obtained using coal
bottom ash. J Non Cryst Solids 353(52–54):4819–4822.
doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2007.06.047
123

Kolay P, Singh D (2001) Physical, chemical, mineralogical, and
thermal properties of cenospheres from an ash lagoon. Cem
Concr Res 31(4):539–542
Korcak R (1998) Agricultural uses of coal combustion
byproducts. In: Agricultural uses of municipal, animal and
industrial byproducts. USDA-ARS Conservation Res Rep
44:103–119
Koukouzas N, Vasilatos C, Itskos G, Mitsis I, Moutsatsou A
(2010) Removal of heavy metals from wastewater using
CFB-coal fly ash zeolitic materials. J Hazard Mater
173(1):581–588
Kraus RN, Chun Y, Ramme BW, Singh SS (2003) Properties of
field manufactured cast-concrete products utilizing recy-
cled materials. J Mater Civ Eng 15:400
Kula I, Olgun A, Sevinc V, Erdogan Y (2002) An investigation
on the use of tincal ore waste, fly ash, and coal bottom ash
as Portland cement replacement materials. Cem Concr Res
32(2):227–232. doi:10.1016/s0008-8846(01)00661-5
Kumar S, Patil CB (2006) Estimation of resource savings due to
fly ash utilization in road construction. Resour Conserv
Recycl 48(2):125–140. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.01.
002
Kumar S, Stewart J (2003a) Evaluation of Illinois pulverized
coal combustion dry bottom ash for use in geotechnical
engineering applications. J Energy Eng 129:42
Kumar S, Stewart J (2003b) Utilization of Illinois PCC dry
bottom ash for compacted landfill barriers. Soil Sediment
Contam Int J 12(3):401–415
Kumpiene J, Lagerkvist A, Maurice C (2007) Stabilization of
Pb- and Cu-contaminated soil using coal fly ash and peat.
Environ Pollut 145(1):365–373. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.
2006.01.037
Kurama H, Kaya M (2008) Usage of coal combustion bottom
ash in concrete mixture. Constr Build Mater
22(9):1922–1928. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.07.008
Lav AH, Lav MA, Goktepe AB (2006) Analysis and design of a
stabilized fly ash as pavement base material. Fuel
85(16):2359–2370. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.017
Lee JM, Kim DW, Kim JS (2011) Characteristics of co-com-
bustion of anthracite with bituminous coal in a 200-MWe
circulating fluidized bed boiler. Energy 36(9):5703–5709.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.051
Leonards GA, Bailey B (1982) Pulverized coal ash as structural
fill. J Geotech Eng Div Am Soc Civ Eng 108:517–531
Levandowski J, Kalkreuth W (2009) Chemical and petro-
graphical characterization of feed coal, fly ash and bottom
ash from the Figueira Power Plant, Paraná, Brazil. Int J
Coal Geol 77(3–4):269–281. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2008.05.
005
Lin CY, Yang DH (2002) Removal of pollutants from waste-
water by coal bottom ash. J Environ Sci Health, Part A
37(8):1509–1522
Lopez-Anton M, Diaz-Somoano M, Fierro J, Martinez-Tara-
zona M (2007) Retention of arsenic and selenium com-
pounds present in coal combustion and gasification flue
gases using activated carbons. Fuel Process Technol
88(8):799–805
Manz OE (1999) Coal fly ash: a retrospective and future look.
Fuel 78(2):133–136. doi:10.1016/s0016-2361(98)00148-3
Mathieu JL, Gadgil AJ, Addy SEA, Kowolik K (2010) Arsenic
remediation of drinking water using iron-oxide coated coal
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
bottom ash. J Environ Sci Health, Part A 45(11):
1446–1460
Matjie RH, Bunt JR, van Heerden JHP (2005) Extraction of
alumina from coal fly ash generated from a selected low
rank bituminous South African coal. Miner Eng
18(3):299–310. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.06.013
McCarthy MJ, Dhir RK (1999) Towards maximising the use of
fly ash as a binder. Fuel 78(2):121–132. doi:10.1016/
s0016-2361(98)00151-3
Mehta P (1998) Role of pozzolanic and cementious material in
sustainable development of the concrete industry. Spec
Publ 178:1–20
Mittal A, Kurup L, Gupta VK (2005) Use of waste materials—
bottom ash and de-oiled soya, as potential adsorbents for
the removal of Amaranth from aqueous solutions. J Hazard
Mater 117(2–3):171–178. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.09.
016
Mohan D, Singh KP, Singh G, Kumar K (2002) Removal of dyes
from wastewater using fly ash, a low-cost adsorbent. Ind
Eng Chem Res 41(15):3688–3695
Mohanty S, Chugh YP (2007) Development of fly ash-based
automotive brake lining. Tribol Int 40(7):1217–1224.
doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2007.01.005
Mondragon F, Rincon F, Sierra L, Escobar J, Ramirez J, Fer-
nandez J (1990) New perspectives for coal ash utilization:
synthesis of zeolitic materials. Fuel 69(2):263–266. doi:10.
1016/0016-2361(90)90187-u
Montagnaro F, Santoro L (2009) Reuse of coal combustion
ashes as dyes and heavy metal adsorbents: effect of sieving
and demineralization on waste properties and adsorption
capacity. Chem Eng J 150(1):174–180
Montes-Hernandez G, Pérez-López R, Renard F, Nieto JM,
Charlet L (2009) Mineral sequestration of CO2 by
aqueous carbonation of coal combustion fly-ash. J Haz-
ard Mater 161(2–3):1347–1354. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.
2008.04.104
Moulton LK (1973) Bottom ash and boiler slag. In: Proceedings
of the third international ash utilization symposium.
Sponsored by National Coal Association, Edison Electric
Institute, American Public Power Association, National
Ash Association, and Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, 13–14
March 1973
Moulton LK, Seals RK, Anderson DA (1973) Utilization of ash
from coal-burning power plants in highway construction.
Highw Res Rec 430:26–39
Mukhtar S, Kenimer AL, Sadaka SS, Mathis JG (2003) Evalu-
ation of bottom ash and composted manure blends as a soil
amendment material. Bioresour Technol 89(3):217–228.
doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(03)00085-3
Muñoz MI, Aller AJ (2012) Chemical modification of coal fly
ash for the retention of low levels of lead from aqueous
solutions. Fuel. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.042
Naik TR, Kraus RN, Chun Y, Botha FD (2005) Cast-concrete
products made with FBC ash and wet-collected coal-ash.
J Mater Civ Eng 17:659
Nathan Y, Dvorachek M, Pelly I, Mimran U (1999) Character-
ization of coal fly ash from Israel. Fuel 78(2):205–213
Nemade P, Alappat B (2002) Removal of fluorides from water
using low cost adsorbents. Water Supply 2(1):311–317
Nollet H, Roels M, Lutgen P, Van der Meeren P, Verstraete W
(2003) Removal of PCBs from wastewater using fly ash.
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
Chemosphere 53(6):655–665. doi:10.1016/s0045-
6535(03)00517-4
Ohtake T, Uchida K, Ikazaki F, Kawamura M, Ohkubo T, Ka-
miya K (1991) Synthesis of mullite from fly ash and alu-
mina powder mixture. J Ceram Soc Jpn 99(1147):239–243
Olgun A, Erdogan Y, Ayhan Y, Zeybek B (2005) Development
of ceramic tiles from coal fly ash and tincal ore waste.
Ceram Int 31(1):153–158. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2004.04.
007
Palumbo AV, McCarthy JF, Amonette JE, Fisher LS,
Wullschleger SD, Daniels WL (2004) Prospects for
enhancing carbon sequestration and reclamation of degra-
ded lands with fossil-fuel combustion by-products. Adv
Environ Res 8(3–4):425–438. doi:10.1016/s1093-
0191(02)00124-7
Pandey VC, Singh JS, Singh RP, Singh N, Yunus M (2011)
Arsenic hazards in coal fly ash and its fate in Indian sce-
nario. Resour Conserv Recycl 55(9):819–835
Papandreou A, Stournaras CJ, Panias D (2007) Copper and
cadmium adsorption on pellets made from fired coal fly
ash. J Hazard Mater 148(3):538–547. doi:10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2007.03.020
Papandreou AD, Stournaras CJ, Panias D, Paspaliaris I (2011)
Adsorption of Pb(II), Zn(II) and Cr(III) on coal fly ash
porous pellets. Miner Eng doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2011.07.
016
Peng F, Liang K, Hu A, Shao H (2004) Nano-crystal glass-
ceramics obtained by crystallization of vitrified coal fly
ash. Fuel 83(14–15):1973–1977. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.
04.008
Pengthamkeerati P, Satapanajaru T, Chularuengoaksorn P
(2008) Chemical modification of coal fly ash for the
removal of phosphate from aqueous solution. Fuel
87(12):2469–2476
Pereira CF, RodrIguez-Piñero M, Vale J (2001) Solidification/
stabilization of electric arc furnace dust using coal fly ash:
analysis of the stabilization process. J Hazard Mater
82(2):183–195. doi:10.1016/s0304-3894(00)00359-9
Pimraksa K, Wilhelm M, Wruss W (2000) A new approach to
the production of bricks made of 100% fly ash. In: Inter-
national ash utilization symposium, Centre for Applied
Energy Research, University of Kentucky, p 84
Pires M, Querol X (2004) Characterization of Candiota (South
Brazil) coal and combustion by-product. Int J Coal Geol
60(1):57–72. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2004.04.003
Polat H, Vengosh A, Pankratov I, Polat M (2004) A new
methodology for removal of boron from water by coal and
fly ash. Desalination 164(2):173–188. doi:10.1016/s0011-
9164(04)00176-6
Popovic A, Djordjevic D (2009) pH-dependent leaching of
dump coal ash—retrospective environmental analysis.
Energy Sources Part A Recovery Util Environ Eff
31(17):1553–1560
Popovic A, Djordjevic D, Polic P (2001) Trace and major ele-
ment pollution originating from coal ash suspension and
transport processes. Environ Int 26(4):251–255. doi:10.
1016/s0160-4120(00)00114-8
Prasad B, Mondal K (2008) The impact of filling an abandoned
open cast mine with fly ash on ground water quality: a case
study. Miner Water Environ 27(1):40–45. doi:10.1007/
s10230-007-0021-5
Prasad B, Sangita K, Tewary B (2011) Reducing the hardness of
mine water using transformed fly ash. Mine Water Environ
30(1):61–66. doi:10.1007/s10230-010-0130-4
Prezzi M, Kim B (2008) Compaction characteristics and cor-
rosivity of Indiana class-F fly and bottom ash mixtures.
Constr Build Mater 22(4):694–702. doi:10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2006.09.007
Querol X, Moreno N, Umana JC, Alastuey A, Hernández E,
López-Soler A, Plana F (2002) Synthesis of zeolites from
coal fly ash: an overview. Int J Coal Geol 50(1):413–423
Ram LC, Masto RE (2010) An appraisal of the potential use of
fly ash for reclaiming coal mine spoil. J Environ Manag
91(3):603–617. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.10.004
Ram L, Srivastava N, Jha S, Sinha A, Masto R, Selvi V (2007)
Management of lignite fly ash for improving soil fertility
and crop productivity. Environ Manag 40(3):438–452.
doi:10.1007/s00267-006-0126-9
Rifa A, Yasufuku N, Omine K, Tsuji K (2009) Experimental
study of coal ash utilization for road application on soft
soil. Paper presented at the international joint symposium
on geodisaster prevention and geoenvironment in Asia JS-
Fukuoka
Russell NV, Méndez LB, Wigley F, Williamson J (2002) Ash
deposition of a Spanish anthracite: effects of included and
excluded mineral matter. Fuel 81(5):657–663. doi:10.
1016/s0016-2361(01)00155-7
Sampaolo A, Relini G (1994) Coal ash for artificial habitats in
Italy. Bull Mar Sci 55(2–3):1277–1294
Sathonsaowaphak A, Chindaprasirt P, Pimraksa K (2009)
Workability and strength of lignite bottom ash geopolymer
mortar. J Hazard Mater 168(1):44–50. doi:10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2009.01.120
Sato A, Nishimoto S (2001) Effective reuse of coal ash as civil
engineering material. In: Proceedings of the world of coal
ash conference, Lexington, April, pp 11–15
Saxena M, Prabakhar J (2000) Emerging technologies for third
millennium on wood substitute and paint from coal ash, vol
2, pp 26–28
Sell N, McIntosh T, Severance C, Peterson A (1989) The
agronomic landspreading of coal bottom ash: using a reg-
ulated solid waste as a resource. Resour Conserv Recycl
2(2):119–129. doi:10.1016/0921-3449(89)90019-0
Sen AK, De AK (1987) Adsorption of mercury(II) by coal fly
ash. Water Res 21(8):885–888. doi:10.1016/s0043-
1354(87)80003-9
Sharma S, Fulekar M, Jayalakshmi C, Straub CP (1989) Fly ash
dynamics in soil-water systems. Crit Rev Environ Sci
Technol 19(3):251–275
Shih W-H, Chang H-L (1996) Conversion of fly ash into zeolites
for ion-exchange applications. Mater Lett 28(4–6):
263–268. doi:10.1016/0167-577x(96)00064-x
Silva LFO, Ward CR, Hower JC, Izquierdo M, Waanders F
(2010) Mineralogy and leaching characteristics of coal ash
from a major Brazilian power plant. Coal Combust Gasif
Prod 2:51–65
Singh N (2009) Adsorption of herbicides on coal fly ash from
aqueous solutions. J Hazard Mater 168(1):233–237
Singh RP, Gupta AK, Ibrahim MH, Mittal AK (2010) Coal fly
ash utilization in agriculture: its potential benefits and
risks. Rev Environ Sci Bio 9(4):345–358. doi:10.1007/
s11157-010-9218-3
123

Sokolar R, Smetanova L (2010) Dry pressed ceramic tiles based
on fly ash-clay body: influence of fly ash granulometry and
pentasodium triphosphate addition. Ceram Int
36(1):215–221. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2009.07.009
Solis-Guzman J, Arenas CG, Marrero M, Leiva C, Arenas LFV
(2011) High fire resistance in blocks containing coal
combustion fly ashes and bottom ash. Waste Manag
31(8):1783–1789. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.017
Soong Y, Fauth DL, Howard BH, Jones JR, Harrison DK,
Goodman AL, Gray ML, Frommell EA (2006) CO2
sequestration with brine solution and fly ashes. Energy
Convers Manag 47(13–14):1676–1685. doi:10.1016/j.
enconman.2005.10.021
Steenbruggen G, Hollman GG (1998) The synthesis of zeolites
from fly ash and the properties of the zeolite products.
J Geochem Explor 62(1–3):305–309. doi:10.1016/s0375-
6742(97)00066-6
Su T, Wang J (2011) Modeling batch leaching behavior of
arsenic and selenium from bituminous coal fly ashes.
Chemosphere 85(8):1368–1374
Sun W-l, Qu Y-z, Yu Q, Ni J-r (2008) Adsorption of organic
pollutants from coking and papermaking wastewaters by
bottom ash. J Hazard Mater 154(1–3):595–601. doi:10.
1016/j.jhazmat.2007.10.063
Suwanvitaya P, Wattanachai P (2006) Comparison of metals
leaching from Mortar with Mae Moh and Calaca bottom
ashes as sand replacement. http://www.cv.titech.ac.jp/
*jsps/activity_report/2005/Patcharaporn.pdf
Taeyoon L (2011) Leaching characteristics of bottom ash from
coal fired electric generating plants, and waste tire; indi-
vidually and mixtures when used as construction site fill
materials. Waste Manag 31(2):246–252. doi:10.1016/j.
wasman.2010.10.010
Theis TL, Gardner KH (1990) Environmental assessment of ash
disposal. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 20(1):21–42
Twardowska I, Szczepanska J (2002) Solid waste: terminological
and long-term environmental risk assessment problems
exemplified in a power plant fly ash study. Sci Total Environ
285(1–3):29–51. doi:10.1016/s0048-9697(01)00893-2
Uçurum M, Toraman Ö, Depci T, Yo urtçuo lu E (2011) A study
on characterization and use of flotation to separate
unburned carbon in bottom ash from Çayirhan power plant.
Energy Sources Part A Recovery Util Environ Eff
33(6):562–574
Ugurlu A, Salman B (1998) Phosphorus removal by fly ash. Environ
Int 24(8):911–918. doi:10.1016/s0160-4120(98)00079-8
USEPA (2011) EPA promoted the use of coal ash products with
incomplete risk information (trans: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency OoIG)
USEPA (2013) Waste-non hazardous wastes-industrial wastes.
http://www.epa.gov/wastes/nonhaz/industrial/special/
fossil/ccr-rule/ccrfaq.htm#3. Accessed 16.01.2014
Vassilev SV, Vassileva CG, Karayigit AI, Bulut Y, Alastuey A,
Querol X (2005) Phase–mineral and chemical composition
123
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
of composite samples from feed coals, bottom ashes and fly
ashes at the Soma power station, Turkey. Int J Coal Geol
61(1–2):35–63. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2004.06.004
Vilches LF, Fernández Pereira C, Olivares del Valle J, Rodrı́-
guez Piñero M, Vale J (2002) Development of new fire
proof products made from coal fly ash: the CEFYR project.
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 77(3):361–366
Vilches LF, Fernández-Pereira C, Olivares del Valle J, Vale J
(2003) Recycling potential of coal fly ash and titanium
waste as new fireproof products. Chem Eng J
95(1–3):155–161. doi:10.1016/s1385-8947(03)00099-8
Viraraghavan T, Dronamraju M (1992) Utilization of coal ash in
water pollution control. Int J Environ Stud 40(1):79–85
Vivoda V (2012) Japan’s energy security predicament post-
Fukushima. Energy Policy 46:135–143
Vujić J, Antić DP, Vukmirović Z (2012) Environmental impact
and cost analysis of coal versus nuclear power: the US case.
Energy 45(1):31–42
Wang S, Boyjoo Y, Choueib A, Zhu ZH (2005) Removal of dyes
from aqueous solution using fly ash and red mud. Water
Res 39(1):129–138. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2004.09.011
Wearing C, Birch C, Nairn J (2004) An assessment of Tarong
bottom ash for use on agricultural soils. Dev Chem Eng
Miner Process 12(5–6):531–543
Wee HL, Wu H, Zhang D-k, French D (2005) The effect of
combustion conditions on mineral matter transformation
and ash deposition in a utility boiler fired with a sub-bitu-
minous coal. Proc Combust Inst 30(2):2981–2989. doi:10.
1016/j.proci.2004.08.059
Woolard C, Petrus K, Van der Horst M (2000) The use of a
modified fly ash as an adsorbent for lead. WATER SA-
PRETORIA 26(4):531–536
Woolard CD, Strong J, Erasmus CR (2002) Evaluation of the
use of modified coal ash as a potential sorbent for organic
waste streams. Appl Geochem 17(8):1159–1164. doi:10.
1016/s0883-2927(02)00057-4
Wu D, Sui Y, He S, Wang X, Li C, Kong H (2008) Removal of
trivalent chromium from aqueous solution by zeolite syn-
thesized from coal fly ash. J Hazard Mater 155(3):415–423.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.11.082
Xenidis A, Mylona E, Paspaliaris I (2002) Potential use of lig-
nite fly ash for the control of acid generation from sulphidic
wastes. Waste Manag 22(6):631–641. doi:10.1016/s0956-
053x(01)00053-8
Yang EH, Yang Y, Li VC (2007) Use of high volumes of fly ash
to improve ECC mechanical properties and material
greenness. ACI Mater J 104(6):620–628
Yao Z, Xia M, Ye Y (2011) Dilithium dialuminium trisilicate
crystalline phase prepared from coal fly ash. J Mater Eng
Perform 1–5. doi:10.1007/s11665-011-9959-3
Yunusa IAM, Manoharan V, Odeh IOA, Shrestha S, Skilbeck
CG, Eamus D (2011) Structural and hydrological altera-
tions of soil due to addition of coal fly ash. J Soils Sedi-
ments 11(3):423–431. doi:10.1007/s11368-010-0312-5