SOUTH AMERICA

Latin America is a region in the Western Hemisphere, south of the United States.
The term Latin America is used to describe the countries in South America, Middle
America, and the Caribbean that speak Latin languages, also known as the “Romance
languages.” These languages include Spanish, Portuguese, and French. Latin America
extends from Mexico in North America and down through Central America, parts of the
Caribbean and all of South America down to the bottom of the continent. While it is a
very diverse region, the people of these countries share similar historical experiences,
languages and cultures.
The geographical structure of South America is deceptively simple for a
continent-sized landmass. The continent's topography is often likened to a huge bowl
owing to its flat interior almost ringed by high mountains. With the exception of narrow
coastal plains on the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, there are three main topographic
features: the Andes, a central lowland, and the extensive Brazilian and Guiana
Highlands in the east.
It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by
the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sealie to the northwest
The countries in South America are
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam
e, Uruguay, and Venezuela part of France (French Guiana), and a non-sovereign area
(the Falkland Islands, a British Overseas Territory though this is disputed by Argentina).
In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and
Tobago, and Panama may also be considered part of South America
Adaptations to specialized South American environments accelerate, with
sedentary living situations.Communities along river and sea coasts depend upon the
abundant marine resources for food. The greater availability of domesticated plants and
animals leads to further sedentism, population growth, and horticulture. Evidence of the
presence of belief systems, such as reverence for the dead, appears.The accumulation
of valued objects for personal adornment and protection becomes more marked.
The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America
dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when potatoes, chilies and beans began to be cultivated
for food in the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence suggests that manioc, which remains a
staple foodstuff today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.
South American cultures began domesticating llamas and alpacas in the highlands of
the Andes circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat;
their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing. Guinea pigs were also
domesticated as a food source at this time.

Alpacas LLama
By 2000 BCE, many agrarian village communities had developed throughout the Andes
and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast,
with fish being the primary source of food for those communities. Irrigation systems
were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of agrarian societies. The food
crops were quinoa, corn, lima beans, common beans, peanuts, manioc, sweet
potatoes, potatoes, oca and squashes. Cotton was also grown and was particularly
important as the only major fiber crop.
Based on archaeological evidence from an excavation at Caverna da Pedra Pintada,
human inhabitants first settled in the Amazon region at least 11,200 years ago.
Subsequent human development led to late-prehistoric settlements along the periphery
of the forest that caused alterations in the forest cover by 1250 CE.
Human Settlements
(Three most important Native peoples who developed societies of sedentary agriculture
in South America.)

Muisca, Tairona, Cañari,Quechua, and Aymaraof

Norte Chico
On the north-central coast of present-day Peru, the Norte Chico civilization emerged as
one of six civilizations to develop independently in the world. It was roughly
contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It preceded the civilization
of Mesoamerica by two millennia. It is believed to have been the only civilization
dependent on fishing rather than agriculture to support its population.
Cañari
The Cañari were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces
of Cañar and Azuay at the time of European contact. They were an elaborate civilization
with advanced architecture and religious belief. Most of their remains were either
burned or destroyed from attacks by the Inca and later the Spaniards.
The Cañari were most notable in having repulsed the Incan invasion with fierce
resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. It is said that the Inca
strategically married the Cañari princes Paccha to conquer the people. Many of their
descendants still reside in Cañar.
Chibchan Nations
The Chibcha-speaking communities were the most numerous, the most extended by
territory, and the most socio-economically developed of the Pre-Hispanic Colombian
cultures. They were divided into two linguistic subgroups; the Arwako-Chimila
languages, with the Tairona, Kankuamo, Kogi, Arhuaco, Chimila and Chitarero
people and the Kuna-Colombian languages
with Kuna, Nutabe, Motilon, U'wa, Lache, Guane, Sutagao and Muisca.

 Muisca
Of these indigenous groups, the Muisca were the most advanced and formed one of the
four grand civilisations in the Americas. With the Inca in Peru, they constituted the two
developed and specialised societies of South America. The Muisca, meaning "people"
or "person" in their version of the Chibcha language; Muysccubun, inhabited
the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the high plateau in the Eastern Ranges of the
Colombian Andes and surrounding valleys, such as the Tenza Valley. At the time of
the Spanish conquest, their reign spread across the modern
departments Cundinamarca and Boyacáwith small parts of southern Santander with a
surface area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) and a total
population of between 300,000 and two million individuals.
The Muisca were known as "The Salt People", thanks to their extraction of and trade
in halite from brines in various salt mines.
Andean civilizations
Moche
The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru between the first and ninth century CE.
The heritage of the Moche comes down to us through their elaborate burials, excavated
by former UCLA professor Christopher B. Donnan in association with the National
Geographic Society.
Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with
faraway peoples, like the Maya. Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly
from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They
practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated
non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).
Inca
Holding their capital at the great puma-shaped city of Cuzco, the Inca
civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, or
"the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and
developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities,
some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000-kilometre road system. Cities were
built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain
terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent
metalwork and successful skull surgery in Inca civilization. The Inca had no written
language, but used quipu, a system of knotted strings, to record information.
Before the arrival of Europeans 20–30 million people lived in South America.

Between 1452 and 1493, a series of papal bulls (Dum Diversas, Romanus Pontifex, and
Inter caetera) paved the way for the European colonization and Catholic missions in the
New World. These authorized the European Christian nations to "take possession" of
non-Christian lands and encouraged subduing and converting the non-Christian people
of Africa and the Americas.

In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, signed the
Treaty of Tordesillas in the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west.
Through the treaty, they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive
duopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a
north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In
terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to include most
of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal.
Because accurate measurements of longitude were not possible at that time, the line
was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the
meridian.

In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus sailed near the
Orinoco Delta and then landed in the Gulf of Paria (Actual Venezuela).

Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course
eastward, Columbus expressed in his moving letter to Isabella I and Ferdinand II that he
must have reached heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise):

Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the
opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise,
the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a
large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt
water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of
which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel,
because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to
exist in this world.

Beginning in 1499, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly
exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These
competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it
into colonies.
European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus) to which the native
populations had no resistance were the overwhelming cause of the depopulation of
the Native American population. Cruel systems of forced labor (such as encomiendas
and mining industry's mita) under Spanish control also contributed to depopulation.

“Lower bound estimates speak of a decline in the population of around 20–50 percent,
whereas high estimates arrive at 90 percent.”

Following this, African slaves, who had developed immunity to these diseases,
were quickly brought in to replace them.

The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to Christianity

and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However,
most initial attempts at this were only partially successful; American groups simply
blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. The Spaniards did not impose
their language to the degree they did their religion. In fact, the missionary work of the
Roman Catholic Church in Quechua, Nahuatl, and Guarani actually contributed to the
expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems.

Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. Mestizos
and the Native Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish
government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native
artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This
included a great number of gold and silver sculptures, which were melted down before
transport to Europe.

How does South America achieved their independence??

 South America achieved independence, mostly to Spanish and Portuguese

America, after the three centuries colonial rule of the Iberian powers, except from
Cuba and Puerto Rico who remained under the Spanish rule until the Spanish-
American War in 1898.
 During the late 18th and early 19th century the people of Latin America began
fighting for independence. By 1898, all Latin American countries had become
independent nations.
 Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led the South America to achieve their
independence.
 Portuguese colony of Brazil declared independence, forming a separate, local
empire founded by Prince Regent Dom Pedro I. The war between the Brazilians
and Portuguese lasted from February 1822, with the burst of first skirmishes
between militias, to November 1823, when the last Portuguese garrisons
surrendered. The Brazilian Empire lasted until a coup in 1889 overthrew the
monarchy leading to its current status as a republic.
 SPANISH AMERICA:
o ARGENTINA
- The Spanish Colonial government of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la
Plata, present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay,
weakened because of the defeat of Spain in the Peninsula War and
the abdication (renouncing throne) of King Ferdinand VII
- Because King Ferdinand VII relinquish his throne, Viceroy Baltasar
Hidalgo de Cisneros led the Spain. But then, elites became tired of
Spanish trade restrictions and taxes, and seized the opportunity during
the May Revolution of 1810, Cisneros was removed and created their
very first local government, Primera Junta – the name given to the first
independent government of Argentina.
- Led by General José de San Martín, a formal declaration was signed
on July 9, 1816 by an assembly in San Miguel de Tucumán, declaring
full independence with provisions for a national constitution – the
Argentine Constitution – signed in 1853, declaring the creation of the
Argentine Republic.
o BOLIVIA
- Bolivian War of Independence began in 1809 with the establishment of
government junta. But this Junta was defeated and the city fell again
under the Spanish Control.
- Bolivia’s fight for independence ended in the Battle of Ayacucho, on
December 9, 1824
- On August 6, 1825, Bolivia’s independence was declared when Sucre
led a campaign to defeat the royalists of Spain in northern part of
South America. Pedro Antonio Olañeta, the last royalists general,
suffered death and was defeated at the hands of his own forces at the
Battle of Tumusla
o CHILE
- Local independence movement was composed of Chilean-born
criollos, led by the Liberator General Jose de San Martin with the
support of Chilean exiles such as Bernardo O’Higgins, sought for
political and economic independence from Spain. But this movement
was far from gaining support among Chileans, who became divided
between independentists and royaltists.
- In 1821, Jose de San Martin defeated forces loyal to Spain. In 1826,
the last Spanish troops surrendered. A declaration of independence
was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formarlly
 recognized by Spain in 1844, when full diplomatic relations where
established.
o ECUADOR
- During Ecuaodorian War of Independence, where several South
American Armies and Spain took control over the lands of Royal
Audience of Quito – Ecuador’s Capital. And during May 24, 1822, the
war ended with the defeat of the Spanish forces at the Battle of
Pichincha, gaining Ecuador’s independence.
o PARAGUAY
- They gained independence after a plan organized by various
independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José
Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.
o MEXICO
o PERU
o URUGUAY
- In 1811, Uruguay was declared as an independent state when the
Treaty of Montevideo, fostered by Britain, was signed in 1828, because
neither of the side between Spanish and Brazilian forces gained the
upper hand and the economic burden of the war crippling the United
Provinces economy.
o VENEZUELA

South America after Colonialism

- Colonialism has brought Latin America the quick spread and influence
of Christianity into the land, replacing traditional religions.
- European Languages like Spanish, English, Portuguese, Dutch and
French have been introduced to the native people.
- Due to the immigration of European Countries and some Asian
countries, millions of natives died and were killed due to illnesses and
diseases brought by the foreigners.
- Foreign invasion also brought division among numerous tribes from the
result of European-generated bodies
- Resources of Latin America were mined by European nations before
these countries gained independence.
- In the 19th century, South America’s gold and silver mines began to
run out. A new source of wealth was needed. In Brazil, plantations of
coffee and rubber were set up, while Argentina’s grasslands supported
sheep and cattle. When refrigeration was invented, huge amounts of
beef were exported from Buenos Aires.
- When Latin America gained independence, they were left poor and
with little resources.
- Decades after their independence, one of the most enduring problems
that the leaders of Latin America faced was the establishing the
legitimacy of their new government. During the Iberian political
 traditions, power and authority exist in to a great extent in the figure of
the monarch. Only the monarch had the ability to dominate the church,
the military, and other powerful corporate groups in Iberian and
colonial Latin American societies.
- Representative government, as well as the concept of sovereignty,
weakened the principle and the presence of Iberian political
government. With this, leaders of Latin America had to find new
foundations on which to construct systems of government that their
countrymen would accept and respect.
- In practice, they were unable to abandon the legacies of the Iberian
colonial rule, but leader of Latin America turned to other political
traditions for solutions to the problem of legitimacy. They adopted
government models from Northern Europe and United States, setting
up republics across the region. By doing so, it helped them to justify
their separation from Spain and also enabled them, the Latin American
elites, to try to follow the example of countries they most admired –
Great Britain, United States and France.
- Many in the upper classes of Latin American societies identified
political institutions as sources of the economic progress those
countries were enjoying. At the same time, efforts to implement those
political systems in Latin America brought to the region’s new countries
Enlightenment conceptions of politics based on rationality and a vision
of politics as an interaction of individuals who enjoyed specific,
definable rights and duties.