Chapter 2

Dimensional Analysis

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 Main Topics

 Introduction
 Units and Measures
 Geometric, Kinematic & Dynamic Similarity
 The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
 Determination of the mathematical form of
physical relationship by Dimensional
Analysis – Rayleigh’s method
 Buckingham’s π Theorem
 Application of Buckingham’s π Theorem
 Model Theory

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 2.0 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to give a

brief introduction about dimensional
analysis, and the theory of physical
similarity.
Two systems are regarded as similar only
when their relevant physical properties are
similarly distributed.

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 2.0 Introduction

This leads to
(a) The selection and establishment of a
unit,
(b) A technique of measurement by which
the measure of the quantity can be found.

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 2.0 Introduction

Dimensional analysis is based on the fact

that an equation between the measures
of physical quantities is dimensionally
homogeneous. The principle of
dimensional homogeneity states that
every term in the equation has the same
measure formula.

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 2.1 Units and Measures
 Dimensions are either fundamental or derived
Table 2.1.0
Base quantity Base dimension Base unit
Length L metre, m
Mass M kilogram, kg
Time θ second, s
Temperature T Kelvin, K
Amount of substance n mole, mol
Electric current I Ampere, A
Luminous intensity J candle, cd

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 Table 2.1.0
Base quantity Base dimension Base unit
Length L metre, m
Mass M kilogram, kg
Time 2 second, s
Temperature T Kelvin, K
Amount of substance n mole, mol
Electric current I Ampere, A
Luminous intensity J candle, cd

Table 2.1.1
Quantity Measure Formula
(M L 2)(SI)
Mass M
Length L
Time 2
Force M L 2-2
Velocity L 2-1
Acceleration L 2-2
Pressure M L-1 2-2
Pressure gradient M L-2 2-2
Viscosity M L-1 2-1
Density M L-3
Work M L2 2-2
Power M L2 2-3
Momentum M L 2-1
Energy M L2 2-2
Stress M L-1 2-2
Surface tension M 2-2
 2.2 Geometric, Kinematic &
Dynamic Similarity

For Geometric similarity

x) ' λ x
y) ' λ y (2.2.1)
z) ' λ z

Centre of similitude

ρ) ' λ ρ (2.2.2)

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 C

C’

A’ B’

A B
 2.2 Geometric, Kinematic &
Dynamic Similarity

For Kinematic similarity

ρ) ' λ ρ (2.2.2)

θ) ' τ θ (2.2.3)

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 2.2 Geometric, Kinematic &
Dynamic Similarity

For Dynamic similarity

ρ) ' λ ρ (2.2.2)

θ) ' τ θ (2.2.3)

M) ' μ M (2.2.4)

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 2.3 The Principle of
Dimensional Homogeneity

Suppose, now that an equation arising in a physical problem

contains a pair of terms whose measure formulae are
Mα1Lβ1θγ1 and Mα2Lβ2θγ2. We must have,
Mα1Lβ1θγ1 = Mα2Lβ2θγ2
For all values of the independently variable numbers M, L & θ.
This requires that
α1 = α2 β1 = β2 γ1 = γ2

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2.4 Determination of the Mathematical form of
Physical Relationship by Dimensional
Analysis- Rayleigh's Method

Example 2.4.1

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Example 2.4.1: A rigid body slides on a straight frictionless guide and is constrained by a spring
of negligible mass which obeys Hooke's law. Find an expression for the periodic time of the free
oscillation of the system.
It is known that the periodic time Γ depends only on the mass m of the body, and the stiffness
c of the spring (i.e. the force per unit of linear displacement). We now assume that,
Γ = k mα cβ (2.4.1)
Where k is a constant numerical coefficient and the indices α& β are to be found. The equation
implies the dimensional relationship,
t = Mα (M t-2)β (2.4.2)
When we rearrange the equation to combine all the indices of the same dimension together, we
get,
-2β=1
α+β=0
Solving for α & β, we have,
α=1/2 β=-1/2
So consequently,
Γ = k m1 / 2 c- 1 / 2

(2.4.3)

Detailed mathematical analysis shows that ,

And thus confirms the result of applying dimensional analysis. Therefore it is seen that when the
variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, while the relationship between the
variable is not known, then we can use this method to find out the relationship. This method is
called Rayleigh's method. This method can only suggest an equation when the number of
dimensionless group is 1.
 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem

i = n - r
Step 1:
List all the dimensional parameters involved

Let n be the number of parameters

Example: For drag on a sphere, F, V, D, , ,

and n = 5

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 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem

Step 2
Select a set of fundamental (primary)
dimensions

For example MLt, or FLt

Example: For drag on a sphere choose MLt

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 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 3
List the dimensions of all parameters in
terms of primary dimensions

Let r be the number of primary dimensions

Example: For drag on a sphere r = 3

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 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 4
Select a set of r dimensional parameters that
includes all the primary dimensions

Example: For drag on a sphere ( r = 3) select

, V, D

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 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 5
Set up dimensional equations, combining
the parameters selected in Step 4 with each
of the other parameters in turn, to form
dimensionless groups

There will be n – r equations

Example: For drag on a sphere

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 2.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 5 (Continued)

Example: For drag on a sphere

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 2.6 Application of Buckingham’s
Pi Theorem

Example 2.6.1

Important Dimenionless Number

The dimensionless number is a ratio of like quantities.

For example, Re is the ratio of inertia force to viscous
force.

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Example 2.6.1: Determine the dimensionless groups formed from the variables involved in the
flow of fluid external to a solid body. The force exerted on the body is a function of v, ρ, μ & L.
Before determining the number of dimensionless parameter to be formed, we must know the rank
r. The dimensional matrix is formed from the following tabulation.
Table 2.6.1

F v ρ μ L
M 1 0 1 1 0
L 1 1 -3 -1 1
θ -2 -1 0 -1 0
For the MLθ system, the rank is 3, from (eq.2.5.1), we have i = n - r = 5 - 3 = 2.
The two dimensionless parameters will be symbolized as π1 & π2, and there are Cnr combinations
of forming π1 & π2. Initially, a core group of r variables must be chosen, which will consist of
those variables which will appear in each π group and among them, contain all of the
fundamental units. One way to choose a core is to exclude from it those variables whose effect
one desires to isolate. (Note that there is also a constrain for selecting these core variables, that
is the core variables have to be those which give the rank of r, for if the variables are selected
from a rank which is lower than r, then the dimensionless group may not be found.)
In the present problem, we want to isolate the force and the viscosity, then we know that π1 &
π2 will both consist of ρ, L & v, and one of them includes F and the other μ, and they are both
dimensionless. In order that each be dimensionless, the variables must be raised to certain
exponents (power).
π1 = va ρb Lc F
π2 = va ρb Lc μ
Making the two groups become dimensionally homogeneous or dimensionless,
For π1, we have
M0 L0 θ0= Mb + 1 La - 3b + c + 1 θ- a - 2
Solving all the unknown, we have a = -2, b = -1 & c = -2. Similarly, for π2, we have
M0 L0 θ0= Mb + 1 La - 3b + c - 1 θ- a - 1
Solving all the unknown, we have a = -1, b = -1 & c = -1.
Substituting all the indices back into the two π, we have
π1 = v-2 ρ-1 L-2 F = Euler number (Eu)
π2 = v-1 ρ-1 L-1 μ = (Reynolds number )-1 (Re)-1
So for this problem, the five variables that we have, are related by only two dimensionless
parameters in the following form,
Eu = f(Re)
Where f(Re) is some function of Reynolds number.
or f ( Eu, Re ) = 0
 Table 2.6.2
Some important dimensionless numbers

Euler number Eu gc (- ΔP) / (ρ v2) Pressure force / Inertial force

Froude number Fr v / (g L)1/2 Inertial force / gravitational force
Mach number Ma v/c
Reynolds number Re ρDv/μ Inertial force / Viscous force
Weber number We ρ v2 / (σ / L) Inertial force / Surface tension force

Biot number Bi hL/k Surface thermal resistance / Internal thermal resistance

Grashof number Gr g L3 β ΔT / ν2 Buoyancy force / Viscous force

Nusselt number Nu hL/k Convective heat transfer / Conductive heat transfer

Peclet number Pe (Pr) @ (Re) Bulk heat transfer / Conductive heat transfer

Prandtl number Pr Cp μ / k Viscous diffusion / Thermal diffusion

Stanton number St h / Cp / v / ρ Heat transfer / Thermal capacity
Lewis number Le (Sc) / (Pr) Thermal diffusion / Species diffusion
Schmidt number Sc μ / ρ / DAB Viscous diffusion / Species diffusion
Sherwood Number Sh v L / DAB Overall mass diffusion / Species diffusion

where (-ΔP) Pressure drop

c sonic velocity
σ Surface tension
ß Thermal expansion coefficient
ΔT Temperature difference
ν kinematic viscosity (μ / ρ)
h heat transfer coefficient
k thermal conductivity
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure
DAB diffusivity of A through B
 2.7 Model Theory

When we have two similar systems, it is

possible to make use of the knowledge from
one system to predict the performance of the
other system.
In most case, we will need to have dynamic
similarity so that we can apply Model theory.

 Example 2.7.1

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Example 2.7.1: Water at 80oF flowing in a 4in circular pipe is used for a laboratory test of a
flowmeter. The flowmeter indicates a pressure differential of 10 psi for a water velocity of 5 fps.
If the same flowmeter were used for an 18 in pipe, what velocity of water would be predicted?
What pressure differential would you expect? Condition of dynamic similarity should prevail.
For dynamic similarity to exist, we know that the dimensionless groups correspond to the
systems should be the same. Therefore, based on the example in Section 2.6, the Reynolds and
Euler numbers must be the same for two sizes of pipe.
Reynolds No: Model Prototype
D diameter 1/3 ft 3/2 ft
v velocity 5 fps ? fps
ν kinematic viscosity ν ν
Since (Re)m = (Re)p, therefore v = 1.111 fps.
Euler No: Model Prototype
ΔP pressure difference 10 psi ? psi
ρ density ρ ρ
v velocity 5 fps 1.111 fps
Since (Eu)m = (Eu)p, therefore (ΔP) = 0.494 psi
The requirement of dynamic similarity has led directly to the above answers, and has reduced
the problem of scaling to simple algebraic manipulations.
 2.7 Model Theory

 Geometric Similarity
• Model and prototype have same shape
• Linear dimensions on model and prototype
correspond within constant scale factor
 Kinematic Similarity
• Velocities at corresponding points on model and
prototype differ only by a constant scale factor
 Dynamic Similarity
• Forces on model and prototype differ only by a
constant scale factor

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 2.7 Model Theory

Incomplete Similarity
Sometimes (e.g., in open channel
flow) complete similarity cannot be
obtained (Re and Fr may be
contradicting), but phenomena may
still be successfully modelled

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 Points to remember
 Dimension is considered to be a particular physical nature (eg. Mass, Time,
Length, ..) Unit is the standard established for measuring a specific
dimension.
 For geometric similarity, the length dimension of two systems follows certain
ratio. For kinematic similarity, the velocity dimension of two systems follows
certain ratio (which implies the length and time dimensions). For dynamic
similarity, the force dimension of two systems follows certain ratio (which
implies the length, time and mass dimensions).
 Based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity, an equation arising in a
physical investigation is always a statement of the equality or balance of
quantities of like nature. (Each term in the equation should therefore have the
same dimension.)
 When Buckingham’s π theorem is applied to find the dimensionless groups,
remember to select the core variables such that the core variables have to be
those which give the rank of r. It is possible to use Gaussian method to
determine the rank of the dimensional matrix, but we should still carry out
confirmation check on the columns that have been selected as core
variables.
 Select important parameter as isolated variable so that we will be able to
study its effect on other parameters.

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 Tutorial
Link to Tutorial 1*

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 Tutorial 1*
(Chapter 2)

1. The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessel through water are the drag force
gcF, the speed v, the length L, the density ρ and the viscosity μ of the water and the
gravitational acceleration g. Derive an expression for gcF by Dimensional Analysis.
2. The capillary rise h of a liquid in a tube varies with tube diameter d, gravitational
acceleration g, fluid density ρ, surface tension σ, and the contact angle θ.
a) Find a dimensionless statement of this relation.
b) If h = 3cm in a given experiment, what will h be in a similar case if diameter and
surface tension are half as much, density is twice as much, and the contact
angle is the same? (1.5)
3. The method of dimensional analysis is to be used to correlate data on bubble size with
the properties of the liquid. It is known that the variables involved are the diameter
of bubble, D; diameter of orifice, d; density of liquid, ρ; viscosity of liquid, μ; surface
tension, gcσ and the gravitational acceleration, g. Based on the experimental data as
tabulated in Table T.1*.3, suggest a possible correlation.

Table T1*.3

System Liquid Liquid Surface Bubble diameter, cm

viscosity density tension
(cp) (g/cm3) (dyn/cm) Orifice dia Orifice dia
0.293 cm 0.438
Water - air 0.81 0.996 70.2 0.514 0.612
Water - H2 0.81 0.996 70.2 0.516 0.63
7.5% ethanol 1.07 0.982 51.4 0.48 0.583
solution - air
45% sugar solution 52 1.197 58.1 0.486 0.585
- air
Wesson oil - air 57 0.92 36.5 0.411 0.491