PERMEABILTY

Lecture 4
Water in soils : one dimensional flow of water through soil
 References
Braja M Das, Principal of Geotechnical Engineering, fourth edition, PWS
Publishing Company, 2008, Boston
Muni Budu, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2011, USA
R.F. Craig, Soil Mechanics, 7 ed, 2007

2
Outline course
• Bernoulli’s law
• Flow
• Darcy’s law
• Determining hydraulic conductivity
• Constant Head
• Falling Head test
• Field methods to Measured Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (Ksat)

3
 What is permeability?
A measure of how easily a fluid (e.g., water) can pass through a porous
medium (e.g., soils)

water

Loose soil Dense soil

- easy to flow - difficult to flow
- high permeability - low permeability
4
 Bernoulli’s Equation
The energy of a fluid particle is made of:

1. Kinetic energy fluid particle

- due to velocity

z
2. Strain energy
- due to pressure

datum
3. Potential energy
- due to elevation (z) with respect to a datum

5
 Bernoulli’s Equation
For flow through soils, velocity (and thus velocity head) is very small. Therefore,

0
fluid particle
Velocity head
+
z

Total head = Pressure head

+
datum
Elevation head

Total head = Pressure head + Elevation head

6
Bernoulli’s equation

Pressure, elevation, and total heads for flow of water through

soil 7
Head loss

8
 Flow
• Flow : steady & unsteady
• The simple steady flow is uniform flow, in which no flow
variable change with distance and time
• Non uniform unsteady flow can be divided into gradually
varied and rapidly varied flow.
• Classifications : one, two or three dimensional
• One dimensional flow : flow with fluid parameter such as
pressure, velocity, constant temperature toward intersection
perpendicular to flow direction
• Two dimensional flow : cofferdam cells (sheet pile wall),
concrete dam; earth dam and levees
• Three dimensional flow: fluid parameter exist in three
coordinate space
• Flow can be described as laminar in which water flow in
paralell layer with no turbulens
• Hydraulic gradient is defined as head loss Δ h per unit length
Δ
• i = h/l

9
Illustration of elevation and pressure heads

10
 Elevation

Head
P = 0 (= Patm)

Pressure Head
(increases with depth below surface)
11
 Elevation

Head
Elevation datum

Elevation Head
(increases with height above datum)
12
 P = 0 (= Patm)

(constant: hydrostatic equilibrium)

Total head = Pressure head +

Total Head
Elevation head
Elevation

Elevation datum

Head
13
 upstream
W.T.

Impervious Soil

)h = hA - hB

W.T.
downstream
Water In hA

Impervious Soil

Datum
hB

Head Loss or
Head Difference or Energy
Loss
)h =hA - hB

i = Hydraulic Gradient
hA
(q)
Water
out
hB

ZA ZB

Datum

14
Conditions

 Darcy’s Law holds for:

1. Saturated flow and unsaturated flow
2. Steady-state and transient flow
3. Flow in aquifers and aquitards
4. Flow in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems
5. Flow in isotropic or anisotropic media
6. Flow in rocks and granular media

15
 Darcy’s Law
‘
v= k i
v= discharge velocity
k= hydraulic conductivity

q= v A = As vs
A = Av + As
q= v(Av+As)= As Vs
vs = v(Av + As)/Av
= v(Av + As)L/AvL
= v(Vv+Vs)/Vv where
= v{(1+e)/e} vs = seepage velocity
e = void ratio
vs = v/n n = porosity 16
Darcy’s law (cont’)

Hanbo, 1960, for undisturbed clay soil

Variation of discharge velocity with hydraulic gradient in clay

17
Hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several

factors: fluid viscosity, pore size distribution, grain-size
distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles,
and degree of soil saturation.

In clayey soils, structure plays an important role in

hydraulic conductivity.

18
Hydraulic conductivity

where ᵞ w = unit weight of water

n = viscosity of water
K = absolute permeability

where kT1, kT2 hydraulic conductivity at temperatures T1 and

T2, respectively
nT1, nT2 viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively
γw(T1) , γw(T2) unit weight of water at temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively
19
 Hydraulic conductivity
It is conventional to express the value of k at a temperature of 20C.Within the range of test temperatures, we can
assumed γw(T1) = γw(T2)

20
Revil & Cathles Predictive Model for Ksat
Revil and Cathles [1999] developed a predictive model for permeability using concepts from
electrical conductance in porous media.
They use the concept of a formation factor F that is a dimensionless, scale invariant
parameter that characterizes the pore space topology.
F is related to the porosity n and pore geometry by the empirical Archie relationship:

m
Fn
m is the so-called “cementation exponent” and varies with pore geometry in a range of 1 to
4. (ratio of pure solution electrical conductivity to the bulk electrical conductivity of the
saturated porous medium.

21
Revil & Cathles Predictive Model for Ksat
Cementation Exponent m
For media with perfectly spherical grains m=1.5
For sands with porosities between 0.03 and 0.3 m=1.5 to 2.0
For media where the pore space consists entirely of open interconnected fractures
and cracks m=1.1 to 1.3 (most of the porosity conducts electrical current)
If large pores are connected to narrow throats m>2.5

The derivations of Revil and Cathles [1999] yielded a simple

expression:

d 2 n 3m
k
24
d is the mean grain diameter (from particle size analysis) of granular materials.
22
 Revil & Cathles Predictive Model for Ksat
The approach yields remarkable match for granular materials, and was later extended to predict
hydraulic conductivities of sand-clay mixtures.

1 mD (milidarcy) = 1x10-15 m2 ~10-8 m/s (water 200 C) 23

Characterization of Flow Conditions
Flow regimes in a porous medium are characterized according to:
1) Changes in flow attributes in time and space
(steady vs. non steady flows)
2) Saturation state of the system
(saturated vs. unsaturated)
3) Geometry of flow
(one-dimensional or multi-dimensional).

Constant Head Method for Ksat: Steady-state, saturated, and

one-dimensional flow conditions.
(water flux and other flow attributes such as hydraulic potentials and water
content do not change over time at any given location).

Falling Head Method for Ksat:

Non steady, saturated, and one-dimensional flow conditions.
(Flux density and hydraulic potentials vary with time.)

24
 Unsaturated Flow

CE/ENVE 320 – Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics

Spring 2004
Copyright © Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004
Laboratory determination of Hydraulic
conductivity

1. CONSTANT HEAD TEST

2. FALLING HEAD TEST

26
Hydraulic conductivity by Constant head

27
Example

28
Typical Soil Permeability

The constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k>10-4 cm/s), and the falling head
test is mainly used for less permeable soils (k<10-4 cm/s).

29
Falling head

30
Empirical relationship for estimating hydraulic
conductivity

See figure
See figure next next

31
32
33
34
Emprical relationship for estimating hydraulic
conductivity

Relationship between Ck and eo 35

36
37
Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in stratified soil-
horizontal flow

38
Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in stratified soil-
vertical flow

39
Example
Flow takes place laterally and vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal,
1. Determine the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal and vertical directions. The vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivities for each layer are assumed to be the same.
2. Calculate the ratio of the equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity to the equivalent vertical hydraulic
conductivity for flow through the sides of the canal.

40
41
Pumping test- used in coarse grained soil

42
Example
A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the following measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping was
10.6 10-3 m3/s; drawdowns in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m,
respectively, from the initial groundwater level. The initial groundwater level
was located at 1.9 m below ground level. Determine k.

43
Insitu hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay soil

where
d = diameter of the standpipe
D= diameter of the casing
h1 = head at time t1
h2 = head at time t2

Permeability test with Boutwell permeameter

44
After the hydraulic conductivity is determined, the hole is deepened by augering,
and the permeameter is reassembled as shown in Figure b. A falling-head hydraulic conductivity test is conducted
again. The hydraulic conductivity is calculated as

where

45
Constant-Head Borehole Permeameter

Typical values of a range from 0.002 to 0.01 cm1 for fine-grained soil.

46
 Porous probe
Falling head:

Constant head:

Probe with permeable bases

Probe with impermeable bases

Porous probe: (a) test with permeable base; (b) test with
impermeable base

47
Field methods to Measured Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (Ksat)

a) Measurement Below a Water Table.

a.1) Single auger hole method.
a.1.1) Hoodghoudt’s method, homogenous soil.
a.1.2) Ernst’s formula, homogenous soil.
a.1.3) Ernst’s method , layered soil.

a.2) Piezometer method, Kirkham’s method.

b) Measurement Above a Water Table.

a) Tension Infiltrometer method.
b) Ring infiltrometers.
c) Constant head well permeameter method.

48
Measurement Below a
Water Table

49
 a. Hoodghoudt's method

This case consider a homogeneous soil

having no stratification and uniform Ksat the
auger hole may or may not reach the Soil Surface
impervious layer.
Assumptions : Water Table
- Water Table is not lowered around the y2 2a
auger hole when water is pumped out of
it. This condition is satisfied for a short y1
∆y in ∆t
time after the auger hole has been d
pumped. (This condition is always difficult h
to reach).
- Water flows horizontally into the sides of
the auger hole and vertically up through S
the bottom of the hole. (Actually the paths
of flows must be curvilinear (Luthin,
1957)).

50
The formula to use in the case where the auger hole does not terminate on a impermeable layer is

  2 . 3 aS    y 
K      log  1 
  2 d  a t   10
 y 2 

When the auger hole terminates on a impermeable layer:

  2 . 3 aS    y 
K      log 10  1 
  2 dt    y 2 

In both equations, S is given by the relation:

S = 0.19 ad
Hoodghoudt determined that the constant S is dependent of a, d and s expressed with the above equation.

51
b.Piezometer method
- Kirkham (1946) proposed a method which a tube is inserted into the auger hole below a water table
with or without a cavity at the end of the tube.

Piezometer

 * a 2
* ln( y 1
Soil Removed Soil Surface y2)
K 
2R S * ( t 2  t1)
Water Table

Where a= radius of the tube

y2 y1 and y2 are the water level in the tube below the equilibrium water table at
y1 z zero time and time t respectively
K is hydraulic conductivity of the soil
d S is a shape factor for the cavity of given geometry
∆y in ∆t
2a
L
Cavity

52
TEST TO DETERMINE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY:
IN-SITU METHOD (BOREHOLE TEST)

h
W.T W.T W.T

h2 h2
h1 h1
D
> 5d d
Stratum
under test d L
> 5d
k = d ln (h2/h1) d

k= q 11t k = d2 ln (2L) ln (h2)

2.75 dh 8Lt d h1

W.T k = v’n
i= h/AB i
seepage
h
53