Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Control Methodology
by
Barry Rawn
Barry Rawn
University of Toronto
2004
In recent years, wind energy conversion systems have been deployed in large numbers in
electricity grids throughout the world. Their impact on the operation of power systems
is a growing area of research. This thesis presents a control methodology for wind tur-
bine systems that are interfaced to the grid through power-electronic converters. It is
shown that fast power fluctuations excited in the conversion system by the wind can be
contained rather than transferred to the grid. Also, the use of the turbine hub’s energy
storage capacity for filtering slow power fluctuations is explored. It is shown that a sta-
bility limit exists on the maximum filtering cut-off frequency, and that this limit can be
model of the wind energy conversion system as a first-order filter of the incoming wind
power.
ii
Dedication
In their co-supervision of my MASc research, Dr. Peter Lehn and Dr. Manfredi Maggiore
have invested their financial resources and much of their valuable time with a wonderful
been given a significant educational gift for which I can only be grateful.
The documentation and communication of the potential contributions of our work is,
on the other hand, a debt that is within my capacity to repay. Therefore, this document
and the thesis contained within is dedicated to them.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my parents for their support throughout my education, and during
this research. By providing every fundamental condition as given, they have co-authored
The development of my thesis has been greatly aided by many discussions with my
colleagues in the Energy Systems Group. A special contribution has also been provided by
technical data concerning the Alsvik wind farm, but also friendly explanations via e-
mail. Dr. Ted Davison of the System Control Group also provided a helpful consultation
committee, which is formed by Dr. Francis Dawson, Dr. Reza Iravani, and Dr. Lacra
Pavel. I sincerely appreciate their efforts in reviewing my work, and conducting the oral
examination. Finally, I would be extremely remiss if I did not express here my gratitude
to the University of Toronto for its financial support during my time here as a graduate
student.
iv
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 System Modeling 7
v
3.5 Sgrid : Design of Cgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6 Sint : Separation of Fast and Slow Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4 Results 73
5 Conclusions 88
5.1 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A Technical Specifications 92
Bibliography 94
vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
In recent years, concern over the long-term health and environmental effects of conven-
tional electricity generation has been growing. This has been part of a larger movement
has been directed at technologies that extract electrical energy from renewable sources.
Of these technologies, horizontal axis wind turbines are one of the most economically
viable, and have been deployed in huge numbers in Germany, Denmark, Spain, and the
United States.
14% of electricity needs in Denmark [1], and 4% in Germany [2]. As the penetration
of wind energy into power systems increases, the effects of wind farms on power system
operation will become an increasingly important factor in their profitability and man-
agement. Standards already exist for power quality issues like harmonic injection and
‘flicker’, a phenomenon that is discussed later in the literature overview. In the near
future, ancillary services like generation/load regulation, load following, voltage control,
and frequency responding spinning reserve will also become relevant for wind farms. Tur-
1
Chapter 1. Introduction 2
bine and farm operators will be asked to specify which types of ancillary services they
need or can provide [3]. In a restructured electricty environment, these services may also
There are a number of wind turbine technologies, and they have different capabilities
and effects with respect to these power systems issues. In light of such issues, wind
turbine configurations and farm models are being more carefully examined to determine
their potential and limitations [3], [5]. The first wind turbines were typically constant
speed turbines with induction machines and gearboxes connected directly to the grid.
pensating devices. The majority of large turbines being installed today are much more
generators (DFIGs). Such systems achieve variable speed operation (which is desirable to
increase energy capture and reduce blade loading) at minimum cost [6]. They employ a
back-to-back power electronic converter to energize the rotor windings of the doubly-fed
machine through a connection to the grid. Because of this, they also offer control of
The most flexible variable speed wind turbine configuration is one in which a syn-
chronous generator with many poles or an induction generator with a gearbox is connected
to the grid through back-to-back power electronic converters. One converter interfaces
with the turbine generator, and the other interfaces with the grid. In such an arrange-
ment, the converter system conveys the full power, rather than just a portion as in the
case of a DFIG. For this reason, such systems are sometimes called ‘full load’ converters
[5]. While this increases the necessary rating of the switches, it also offers the possibil-
ity of substantially reducing the interaction between the turbine and the power system.
As the price of high-power semiconductor switches drops, the ‘full load’ configuration
becomes more attractive because of its increased flexibility, speed range and simplified
Chapter 1. Introduction 3
construction. It has been suggested that such configurations will be more common in the
future [7].
Commercial wind turbine technology has so far been designed to maximize energy
production. In the future, operators may need to trade off efficiency of operation with
flexibility of operation. It has become important to understand and quantify the capa-
bilities of wind energy conversion systems to optimize their interaction with the grid, as
The modeling of wind turbines has been extensively studied [8],[9],[5],[10]. More de-
tailed studies of effects particular to wind turbines [11],[10],[5] and measurement studies
[12],[13], [14],[15] help clarify what level of detail is appropriate for a given line of inquiry.
The control of variable speed wind turbines has also been widely addressed, with a
focus on optimizing energy capture and minimizing torque variations (e.g. [16],[17]). It
is generally recognized that two important advantages to variable speed operation are
the reduction of fatigue in the blades and drive train and an increase in energy capture,
and that these factors are of importance to the profitability of a wind turbine system.
These factors are included in standard control objectives, as discussed by Leithead [18],
[19] and Novak [20]. Leithead also conducts a review and classification of variable speed
wind turbine control strategies [19]. He provides a survey of work in the field, from
which he observes that some studies are ‘feasibility’ studies that examine a strategy
conceptually, while later ones are ‘design’ studies, in the sense that they cover a complete
implementation. The latter type of study addresses operation of the turbine in both above
and below rated wind speed conditions, where different control strategies are required,
while a feasibility study typically focuses on the operating range within rated values to
It is commonly mentioned that variable speed systems equipped with converters re-
duce grid integration problems. This is partly because variable speed operation allows
many fluctuations to be absorbed into the turbine hub as speed changes. In addition to
this partial buffering of power fluctuations, systems with power electronic converters can
also regulate reactive power. By comparison, torque fluctuations applied by the wind to
fixed speed systems are transmitted as both real and reactive power fluctuations.
Many grid-integration studies can be found that focus on voltage variations caused
known to be irritating to the human eye. Such variations are referred to as ‘flicker’,
and are a result of the fluctuations in power due to the wind, and the dynamics of the
conversion system. In general, it is found that variable speed systems with ‘full load’
converters reduce flicker substantially through both their buffering of power fluctuations,
and their control of reactive current to maintain voltage. However, such adjustment
does not eliminate the transfer of power fluctuations to the grid; it merely changes their
form from voltage magnitude fluctuations to voltage angle fluctuations. Also, limitations
exist on the size of the fluctuations that can be compensated in this manner, depending
on the rating of the converter and the strength of the network. No studies were found
that examined in detail the specific limits of voltage regulation by wind turbine systems
equipped with converters. Some studies of the ability of such systems to ‘ride-through’
voltage dips do exist [21], which reflects recent changes to the regulatory environment.
The frequency range of concern for the phenomenon of flicker is between 1 and 25 Hz
[22]. The power variation of wind energy conversion systems over minutes and hours can
lead to variations of system frequency in some grids [23], in cases where the penetration
of wind power is high. This makes it necessary to significantly tap the spinning reserve
wind energy conversion systems with ancillary services in mind. It has been suggested
in [4] that the inertia of the turbine hub might be employed to provide a small amount
Chapter 1. Introduction 5
of spinning reserve over short time periods in response to frequency variations. Droop
characteristics, dynamic voltage regulation, and survival of faults were properties listed as
possible future requirements for wind farms to meet in [3]. A simple control scheme for a
DFIG turbine has been proposed in [24] that allows it to provide a useful power response
to frequency deviations along these lines. Pitch control is used to give the turbine a
droop characteristic that helps stabilize frequency variations, and control of the converter
is altered such that the turbine’s output power responds to changes in frequency with a
small apparent inertia. As of June 2004 the authors of [24] were unaware of any practical
implementations. Such a use of wind farm power variations for system stabilization was
proposed and studied for a multi-bus power system in [23]. It was concluded that wind
farms could partially mitigate their potentially adverse effect on system frequency with
such an approach.
In this work, a variable speed wind energy conversion system will be studied from the
perspective of improving its interaction with the power system. Instead of following the
paradigm of controlling the dynamics of the turbine to extract an optimal power from the
wind, the concept of extracting a reasonable but grid-specified power from the system
will be explored. Toward this end, a control methodology will be developed that:
• achieves the regulation of conversion system dynamics without involving the con-
trols of the grid interface converter, in order to free them for power systems control
objectives.
• maximizes the use of the turbine hub’s inertia to filter incoming wind power fluc-
tuations.
These two aspects of the methodology will address grid integration issues related to
fast and slow variations, respectively. The first aspect will be shown to eliminate the
Chapter 1. Introduction 6
variations associated with flicker. The second aspect will be used to demonstrate the
extent to which the conversion system can be used to smooth the desired wind power.
The thesis will be a ‘feasibility’ study, in the sense that it will focus on presenting a
new method, rather than guaranteeing a control design for a particular variable speed
system. The control methodology will be modular, with a structure that decomposes
the system into different control tasks. The focus of the thesis will be on those control
tasks associated with the dynamics of the wind turbine rather than on those of the grid
interface, which are non-trivial but more standard. In particular, a full treatment of grid
voltage regulation is outside the scope of this thesis. Relatively simple grid interface
controls will be presented, leaving open the possibility for more sophisticated controls to
be developed separately.
Chapter 2
System Modeling
There are several aspects of wind energy conversion systems that set them apart from
electrical elements is also examined. Finally, the range of validity of the model is outlined.
The chapter begins with a description of the nature of the wind, and how it may be more
Figure 2.1: Diagram of model used, showing a division into chapter sections.
simply represented in terms of its harmonic content for control studies (Section 2.2). The
turbine portion of the model is based on a particular three bladed machine from which
7
Chapter 2. System Modeling 8
measured data were obtained, and physical specifications available [10]. The aerodynamic
nonlinearity of the blades is examined, and the effects experienced by the rotating blades
of a wind turbine as they pass through the wind field are evaluated (Section 2.3). A two-
mass torsional model is developed to describe the mechanical drive-train of the turbine
(Section 2.4).
then introduced. It is assumed that field-oriented controls are applied such that one
converter controls the torque and flux of the generator, and the other converter produces
direct and quadrature voltages at the grid frequency (Section 2.5). A simple model of the
grid interface and transmission system completes the description of electrical dynamics
(Section 2.6).
As a complete energy conversion system, the model is applicable over a certain range
of situations. Assumptions underlying the model are summarized in Section 2.7. Within
this range, a control methodology is formulated and elaborated in the next chapter.
The atmosphere of the earth is continually forced by solar radiation, and possesses its
own cycles of heat exchange with the oceans and the land. The wind arises to dissipate
the resulting thermal gradients. Seasonal and daily variations of the wind can mostly be
attributed to its role in energy transport within the climate system [25]. The character of
faster variations depends on these complex and turbulent processes, but is also affected
by local geographical features and ground cover. As a result, the wind field is non-uniform
Time variations on the scale of tens of minutes to seconds are of particular relevance
to the control of a wind energy conversion system. Such variations may either be tracked
closely or smoothed. Slower variations are transferred to the system, and become a power-
Chapter 2. System Modeling 9
planning issue. A ‘spectral gap’ in the spectrum of the wind from about 10 min/cycle to
2 hours/cycle, within which the energy content is low, is generally assumed [26],[25],[27]
to separate the faster turbulent variations from the slower variations. Fig 2.2 shows the
shape of the overall wind spectrum. This motivates a standard practice [26],[28],[27] of
Figure 2.2: Spectral content of the wind, in cycles/hour. The ‘spectral gap’ in the fre-
quency range around 1 hour is used to separate the wind into a slowly varying component
and a fast turbulent component.
representing the wind as a linear combination of a slowly varying mean value vw , and a
turbulent component composed of a finite number of sinusoids over the frequency range
of the fast wind variations. These sinusoids are assumed to have a particular amplitude
N
X
vw (t) = vw + Ai cos(ωit + ψi ) (2.1)
i=0
The amplitudes Ai are based on a spectral density function S(ωi) that has been empir-
ically fit to the wind turbulence. One such function that is commonly used is the von
Chapter 2. System Modeling 10
Figure 2.3: Von Karman power spectral density function S(ωi ) (top) and corresponding
amplitude spectrum A(ωi ) (bottom). Values used to generate the displayed curves were
vw =10 m/s, L=180, and σ=2.
This distribution depends on the mean speed v̄w , on the roughness of the surrounding
landscape (as described by a characteristic length scale L), and on the standard deviation
of the wind speed σ. All of these parameters can be obtained from site data in order to
calibrate the density function S(ωi ). The amplitudes Ai can then be determined for each
discrete frequency ωi from the area under S(ωi ) over a certain range:
r
2 1
Ai (ωi ) = [Svv (ωi ) + Svv (ωi+1 )] [ωi+1 − ωi] (2.3)
π 2
Both S(ωi) and A(ωi ) are shown in Fig 2.3. Distributions such as those of Weibull [26]
or van der Hoven [27] can be employed to model the variations of the mean speed vw ,
The artificial model (2.1) is sometimes useful when a simplified, clean description of
Chapter 2. System Modeling 11
the wind’s turbulence is required. In this work, the spectral density (2.2) is used along
with (2.3) in the design of a control reference signal (Section 3.8.4). It is also used to
generate a artificial wind time series that is employed to demonstrate the effect of the
expected from the preceding discussion. In Fig 2.4, the spectrum of an artificial wind
time series is compared with that of a measured one. The actual measured wind speed
has non-stationary statistics and a broad frequency content that are not captured by the
artificial model used. Changes in direction also contribute discontinuities to the time
Figure 2.4: Comparison of spectra belonging to measured and artificial wind time series.
Artificial spectrum based on vw =10 m/s, L=180, and σ=2.
For realistic testing of control designs, actual wind data are preferable. A large wind
time series, measured at the Alsvik wind farm on the island of Götland, Sweden, is
shown in Fig 2.5. One can observe the slow daily variation in the first time series, and
Chapter 2. System Modeling 12
15
10
1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours)
10
8
(m/s)
vw
30 40 50 60
Time (min)
10
Figure 2.5: Measured wind time series from Götland Island, over five hours, half an hour,
and half a minute
Chapter 2. System Modeling 13
the variation over minutes and seconds in the other two series. Segments of this time
series are used to generate most performance results.
The blades of a wind turbine transfer a portion of the wind’s kinetic energy to the
rotational energy of the turbine hub via forces and torques. The fact that the turbine
hub rotates has two important consequences, which will be discussed in subsections 2.3.1
and 2.3.2. First, the efficiency with which the blades convert energy depends both on
the speed of the turbine hub, ωh , and on the wind speed vw (t). Second, the rotational
motion of the blades through the wind field results in an interaction that can introduce
The efficiency with which energy is extracted from the air depends on the shape of the
blades, and the effective angle of attack of the cross-section of the blade, which is defined
in Fig 2.6. As the blade moves, the wind velocity vef f it experiences depends partly on
its own motion through the air, and partly on the incoming wind vw (t). At a distance
r along the blade, vef f is determined by the vector sum of the wind speed vw and the
The blade is inclined at some angle β to the horizontal. The angle of attack is defined
as the angle between the central chord of the airfoil (Fig 2.6, dotted line) and the incoming
rωh
φ = β − atan (2.4)
vw (t)
Chapter 2. System Modeling 14
Figure 2.6: Wind velocity encountered by blade. The effective wind velocity vef f is
determined by the vector sum vef f = rωh + vw (t). The angle φ made between the central
chord of the airfoil (dotted line) and the apparent wind direction vef f (dashed vectors)
is the effective angle of attack, and is in general different from the pitch of the blade β.
Even for a fixed pitch blade, this angle changes with variations in vw (t) and ωh . For
properly designed blades, the effective angle of attack is the same along the length R
of the blade. The dimensionless ratio of the two speeds Rωh and vw is defined as the
tip-speed ratio λ and is used to represent this changing aspect of the turbine blades.
Rωh
λ(t) = (2.5)
vw (t)
The tip-speed ratio λ determines the efficiency of aerodynamic power conversion. This
efficiency is given the symbol Cp , and is a function of λ. Fig 2.7 shows Cp (λ) for the
turbine being modeled.
When λ is small, the angle of attack is large, and the air flow tends to separate from
the blade surface and transfer more energy to vorticity, resulting in the effect known as
aerodynamic stall and low efficiency of conversion. When ωh is high enough to produce
Chapter 2. System Modeling 15
Figure 2.7: Cp (λ) curve. An efficiency of energy power conversion Cp corresponds to each
operating tip-speed ratio λ.
a specific ratio λopt , the angle attack is at an intermediate, optimal value that maximizes
conversion efficiency. This λopt corresponds to the peak of the Cp curve in Fig. 2.7. The
λopt
ωopt (t) = vw (t) (2.6)
R
For speeds higher than ωopt (t), the conversion efficiency drops off again.
The aerodynamic power Paero (ωh , vw (t)) extracted by the turbine is equal to the
available wind power Pwind (t) multiplied by the conversion efficiency Cp (λ). The wind
power is defined as the kinetic energy of the air flowing through the cross-sectional area
of the turbine.
1
Pwind (t) = ρπR2 vw (t)3 (2.7)
2
where ρ is the density of air. The extracted power Paero (ωh , vw (t)) is therefore
The Cp (λ) curve of a wind turbine shown in Fig 2.7 was derived from a figure in
[10]. Such curves can be either experimentally determined or estimated through iterative
calculations such as the blade element method [10],[29]. The Cp (λ) curve is used to
determine power-speed curves or torque speed curves, and give the aerodynamic torque
Taero (ωh , vw (t)) as a function of λ(t) and the wind speed vw (t):
The torque Taero (ωh , vw (t)) is the input for the mechanical model, which is discussed in
Section 2.4.
Fluctuations introduced into the actual aerodynamic torque due to the turbine hub’s
The wind field encountered by one of the blades varies as a result of the increase
of average wind speed with height (referred to as wind shear ), and the alteration of the
airflow by the presence of the turbine tower (referred to as tower shadow ). Such variations
are deterministic and tend to occur, due to symmetry, at multiples of the turbine speed
ωh . A particularly important multiple of the turbine speed is nωh , where n is the number
of blades. As each of the blades passes through a given part of the wind field, fluctuations
at this frequency (called the blade-passing frequency) are created in the shaft torque. An
example of the type of variations that can occur is shown in Fig 2.8(a).
Other variations in the shaft torque are stochastic in nature. It was observed in Sec-
tion 2.2 that the wind speed has a certain spectral content. The wind speed experienced
by a rotating blade is different, because it moves through a spatially varying wind field.
The spectral content of the torque transferred by the n blades to the turbine hub is
Chapter 2. System Modeling 17
Figure 2.8: Nature of deterministic and stochastic rotational effects. In (a), periodic
components in the shaft torque of a wind turbine demonstrate the existence of determin-
istic variations that are a function of turbine hub angle. Such variations can be assumed
to be a result of wind shear and tower shadow. Mean value of torque is 20 kNm. In
(b), a schematic depiction is shown of the rotational sampling effect on the spectrum of
stochastic wind turbulence.
Chapter 2. System Modeling 18
therefore also different. The total energy of the variations is the same, but energy is
shifted to multiples of the blade passing frequency [11], as depicted schematically by the
It is thought that these two types of effects contribute equally to the periodic pulsa-
tions of the aerodynamic torque [12], and with some effort can be extracted separately
from measured signals [13], [15], as was done to produce Fig 2.8(a). While the standard
deviation of the combined effects can be as high as 20% of their average value [14], their
relatively high frequencies provoke only small changes in the speed of the turbine hub,
due to its large inertia. Therefore, while the effects may well be cruicial for studies con-
cerning blade design or detailed turbine simulators, they were excluded from the model
Multiple-mass models of wind turbines that account for several blade and tower modes
have been developed in the past [8]. Detailed studies of how these modes can be discerned
in the power output of fixed-speed turbines have been undertaken [14],[30]. However, it is
A two-mass model is based on two lumped inertias Jh and Jg that loosely correspond
to the turbine hub and blades, and to the generator mass. The inertias Jh and Jg may be
as a torsional spring with negligible damping and a stiffness Ks . Compared to the shaft
case of drive-trains that employ a gearbox. In this case, there is also a gearbox ratio
Chapter 2. System Modeling 19
Figure 2.9: Mechanical model of drive-train and rotational inertias. Two lumped inertias
Jh and Jg are joined by a torsional spring having stiffness Ks , and subject to the two
torque inputs Taero and Tgen .
N that relates the speed of the low-speed shaft to the speed of the high-speed shaft.
For configurations where a synchronous machine with a large number of poles is used, a
two-mass model may also be necessary if the number of poles is sufficiently large [5]. The
resulting low frequency torsional mode is significant for both direct-connected stability
studies [33] and variable speed control schemes [19],[17]. The mechanical model is driven
by two torques, one coming from the aerodynamics of the turbine blades (Taero ), the other
from the electromagnetic torque Tgen exerted by the interacting fields of the generator.
The differential equations modeling the rotational motion of two inertias connected
dθh
= ωh
dt
dωh 1 Taero (ωh , vw )
= − Ks (θh − θg )
dt Jh N
(2.10)
dθg
= ωg
dt
dωg 1
= (Ks (θh − θg ) − Tgen )
dt Jg
where θh and θg are the absolute angles of the two inertias, and ωh and ωg are their
Chapter 2. System Modeling 20
θsum = θh + θg
(2.11)
θdif f = θh − θg
The sum θsum = θh + θg relates to the absolute angle of the center of inertia of Jh and Jg .
In this model, this ever-advancing angle is not of interest. The difference θdif f = θh − θg
determines the shaft torque linking the two masses. Dropping θsum , one obtains the
The inclusion of a back to back converter in the system imparts it with considerable
control freedom. Each converter can be assumed to allow control of the magnitude and
phase angle of a three-phase voltage, provided that the capacitor maintaining the dc-
link between them is maintained at a sufficiently high and constant dc voltage . The
validity of such a fundamental frequency model hinges on how the bandwidth demanded
of such controlled voltages compares to the switching frequency of the converter. Provided
that subsequent control designs have a sufficiently small bandwidth, the assumption of
controlled three phase voltages can be used to simplify the system model.
The largest simplification comes in the use of the converter interfaced to the generator.
Through the application of field-oriented techniques [34],[35], the flux of the machine can
be regulated to the rated value, and the torque controlled to a set-point with a bandwidth
sufficient for most mechanical transients [35]. In this work, it is assumed that if such
Chapter 2. System Modeling 21
controls are applied, the exact nature of the machine being controlled can be neglected,
and it can be represented only as a set of operating constraints for a commanded torque
The other converter clearly must produce a three-phase voltage at the frequency of
the grid. Field-oriented techniques can be also applied in this case to simplify the control
of the grid; this is discussed in detail in Section 2.6. The model of the generator and
converter system is thus reduced to the dynamics of the dc-link capacitor Cdc . On the
dc-link, the ac dynamics of the two converters can be represented by two currents idc1
and idc2 obtained by a power-balance across each converter. Such a model is depicted in
Fig 2.10 The differential equation governing the capacitor voltage is as follows:
Figure 2.10: Fundamental frequency model of the dc-link of the back to back converter.
By a power balance, the ac dynamics of each converter are represented as a dc current
source.
dvdc
Cdc = idc1 − idc2
dt
Neglecting generator and converter losses, the real power absorbed from the generator
by its associated converter is simply the product of the controlled torque Tgen and the
Chapter 2. System Modeling 22
Pmech
idc1 =
vdc
Tgen ωg
=
vdc
while the real power delivered to the grid depends on a product of the states of the
network and the controlled 3-phase voltages of the converter. For now, it can simply be
named Pgrid .
Pgrid
idc2 =
vdc
The model of the dc-link dynamics that interfaces between the mechanical model defined
in the previous section and the ac-electrical model developed in the next section becomes:
The connection of the converter to the grid occurs through an interface inductor and
to a wind farm or single wind turbine is commonly the low voltage distribution system,
X
and can be relatively ‘weak’ (i.e. low R
ratio). The grid parameters influence the voltage
at the point of common coupling where the converter interfaces with the power system,
as do various disturbances.
It is not the objective of this work to develop optimized controls for the grid interface,
or to extensively explore their performance and limitations. Therefore, in this work the
network will be simply modeled as an ideal voltage source. In this case, the model is the
Figure 2.11: Single-phase equivalent circuit of three-phase converter interface and net-
work
vtabc and vsysabc are the sinusoidal three-phase converter and system voltages, respec-
tively, and iabc is a vector of the three-phase currents of the system. KVL equations for
the three-phase system of Fig 2.11 can be arranged to form the differential equations
diabc
Lvsc = −Rvsc iabc + vtabc − vsysabc (2.14)
dt
which describes the dynamics of the current iabc . Such a description is inconvenient
because of its time-varying nature and the definitions of quantities like power. Through
a frame of reference synchronized to one of the voltages of the system, at the frequency
of the grid ωsys . If the voltage at the point of common coupling is relatively stiff (as
is assumed in Fig 2.11), then it can be assumed that the frequency ωsys is constant, or
slowly varying. It can also be assumed that the dynamics of the synchronizing phase-
locked loop may be neglected. Given these assumptions, a change to direct, quadrature
and zero-sequence state variables from the regular abc phase variables is made, resulting
Chapter 2. System Modeling 24
For a balanced 3-phase system, only two independent equations exist; zero-sequence state
variables are zero. The direct and quadrature components are retained.
did
Lvsc = −Rvsc id + Lvsc ωsys iq + vtd − vsysd
dt (2.16)
diq
Lvsc = −Rvsc iq − Lvsc ωsys id + vtq
dt
where the d-q axis has been aligned with the system voltage and subsequently vsysq = 0.
With the use of the time-varying transformation, simple, decoupled expressions for the
real and reactive powers flowing into the point of common coupling are obtained:
3
Ppcc = vpccd id
2 (2.17)
3
Qpcc = vpccd iq
2
The real power Pgrid flowing out of the converter in terms of these dq-frame variables is
3
Pgrid = vtd id + vtq iq (2.18)
2
1. Variations in the wind speed encountered by the blades due to wind shear, tower
shadow and rotational sampling may be neglected due to their high frequency relative to
2. The generator torque can be controlled by the converter with a bandwidth suf-
ficiently high that it can be regarded as a system input. It is also assumed that the
reactive power required by the generator is either adequately managed by the converter
controls, or that it does not impact the achievement of the commanded torque.
4. The converter voltages can be controlled with a bandwidth high enough for all
control purposes, and the effects of switching harmonics on both the generator and the
electrical grid may be neglected for the purposes of this work.
5. The torsional resonance between the turbine and generator inertias is a dominant
oscillatory mode that can be adequately modeled by a lumped two mass linear system.
6. For analysis, the wind speed vw can be approximated as a finite sum of sinusoids
having a von Karman distribution, with random phases, varying about a mean value.
The model has been chosen to allow a focus on the special characteristics of wind
energy conversion systems, rather than the details of power electronic and power system
components (which, while non-trivial, are already widely studied). Such a model is also
more general by its lack of assumption about the type of machine used. It has been
deemed appropriate for more carefully exploring possible control philosophies that can
bances to the grid by wind energy conversion systems was discussed. In this chapter,
a control methodology is introduced that gives priority to this goal. It is based on the
modeling elements of the back-to-back converter-based wind energy conversion system
that were introduced in Chapter 2. First, the structure and function of the system is
studied in terms of its components, and control objectives are defined. Then, the nature
of both a typical control methodology and the proposed methodology are discussed using
block diagrams. Finally, control designs associated with the proposed methodology are
presented.
26
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 27
Putting together the modeling elements of Chapter 2, we have the state space model
(3.1). The model can be viewed as a number of interconnected subsystems. Two ways of
subdividing the system are denoted by the braces at the left and right sides of (3.1). The
division on the left underlies the standard approach to controlling the system. That on
the right is used to inform a new control approach. Both yield insight into the structure
of the system.
)
dωh 1 Taero (ωh /N,vw (t))
dt
= Jh N
− Ks θdif f Sslow
Smech
dθdif f
dt
= ωh − ωg
Sint
dωg 1
dt
= Jg
(Ks θdif f − Tgen ) Sf ast
Sdc−link Tgen ωg −1.5(vtd id +vtq iq )
dvdc
dt
= Cdc vdc
did vtd −vsysd
dt
= −Rvsc
i + ωsys iq +
Lvsc d Lvsc
Sgrid Sgrid
diq vtq
= −R
dt
vsc
i − ωsys id +
Lvsc q Lvsc
(3.1)
The usual way of viewing the model (3.1) is as an interconnection of a mechanical subsys-
tem (Smech ) with a 3-phase electrical subsystem (Sgrid ) via the DC-link (Sdc−link ). Such
a division is simply based on the engineered components that make up the conversion
system. Taken individually, in the absence of external and control inputs, the subsystems
Smech and Sgrid possess characteristic frequencies, which are summarized in Table 3.1. A
Another way to view the system can be based on the its storage elements. In Table
3.2, the energy storage capacity of each element associated with the conversion system is
listed. The open-loop dynamics of the coupled controlled system (3.1) could be quantified
by the eigenvalues of its linearization, but the nature of the control has not yet been
determined. Some insight about dynamics can instead be gained by considering the
storage capacities of the system, based on typical operating points. A per-unit inertia
H can be calculated for every element using the formula common to power systems
engineering, where the storage capacity is divided by the rated power of the system.
Such a quantity characterizes the response time of an element to energy fluctuations, and
thus reveals the potential dynamics inherent to the system. Three distinct time scales
are apparent, which suggests another way of subdividing (3.1).
The interface inductance (which is contained within the subsystem Sgrid ) at the right
side of Table 3.2 has its own timescale and is unavoidably coupled to the grid. It is
reasonable for it to remain as Sgrid , as in the usual way (Fig 3.1) of viewing the system.
The remaining elements, however, can be defined as ‘internal elements’, in the sense that
their dynamics should ideally be decoupled from the grid. In general, they can be grouped
together under this definition as a subsystem Sint , as suggested by the bracket on the
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 29
Table 3.2: Summary: Energy Storage Elements of Wind Energy Conversion System
Storage Turbine Shaft Generator DC Link Interface
Element Hub Strain Rotor Capacitance Inductance
State ωh θdif f ωg vdc id , iq
1 1 2 1 1 1
Stored Energy J ω
2 h h
2
Kθ
2 s dif f
J ω
2 g g
2
C v
2 dc dc
2
L i2
2 vsc d
Storage Capacity 0.6 MJ 1.1 kJ 24 kJ 1.8 kJ 10 J
H 3s 6 ms 137 ms 10 ms 50 µs
Time Scale Slow Intermediate Fast
right hand side of (3.1). However, the relatively large storage capacity of the turbine hub
suggests that these internal elements should be further divided into two subsystems Sslow
and Sf ast . Such a subdivided system is depicted in the block diagram of Fig 3.2, where
Sf ast is actually composed of the elements on the ‘intermediate’ time scale of Table 3.2.
However one chooses to subdivide it, the system’s primary function is to convey a time-
varying mechanical power to the grid in the form of three phase voltages and currents.
To operate safely while carrying out its function, the system must be designed such that
variables remain within their operating limits. Beyond this, performance objectives can
be defined that improve the quality of the grid interface, optimize energy extraction, or
maximize the containment of energy fluctuations by the conversion system. This results
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 30
Safety Objectives:
S1. The capacitor voltage vdc must be regulated within a certain range of its nominal
value.
S2. Torsional oscillations in Smech due to its characteristic frequency must be damped.
S3. The turbine hub speed ωh must be bounded above zero, and below its maximum
safe speed.
Performance Objectives:
P 1. The reactive power injected at the point of common coupling must be regulated.
energy stored in the turbine hub, rather than energy from the grid.
P 3. The turbine hub speed ωh must be controlled to track changes in the wind speed
P 4. The turbine hub speed ωh must be managed such the energy storage of the
turbine hub acts as a filter, absorbing wind energy fluctuations above a certain cut-off
frequency.
The safety objectives can be met by a number of existing control structures. However,
the proposed performance objectives are better facilitated by a control structure inspired
by Fig 3.2. In the next section, a methodology based on such a structure is presented
In a typical approach to control the system (3.1), a turbine controller ensures the extrac-
tion of the optimal wind power, and a grid controller ensures the delivery of that power.
The specifics of the approach are illustrated by Fig 3.3, and described by the following
steps.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 31
Figure 3.3: Block diagram of typical control structure. Grey areas denote parts of the
system addressed by a particular controller.
ratio of the turbine blades, to achieve the objective P 3. This is accomplished either by
speed feedback, or torque feedback. Torsional oscillations are damped as a result of this
control. Thus, the objectives S2 and S3 are also achieved.
2. The reference i∗td for the current id is used to regulate the capacitor voltage vdc in
Sdc−link and achieve the objective S1 by compensating for the variations of Tgen and ωg .
3. The reference i∗tq for the current iq can be applied to regulate the reactive power,
This standard approach achieves all of the safety objectives outlined in the previous
section, as well as the performance objectives P1 and P3. However, it transfers the
influence of the ‘internal’ states of the conversion system to the grid. This is because
each step of the method is designed to compensate for the fluctuations introduced by the
previous step.
is proposed based on a different control structure that is depicted in Fig 3.4. In this
controller extracts it. This method is illustrated by Fig 3.4 and described by the following
steps, which begin at the grid interface rather the turbine.
Figure 3.4: Block diagram of proposed control structure. Grey areas denote parts of the
system addressed by a particular controller.
1. The controller Cgrid generates references for the control inputs vtd and vtq to
regulate the currents id and iq to desired references. These references are selected to
deliver an electrical power Pgrid and regulate the reactive power injected at the point of
2. An internal controller Cinternal generates a reference for Tgen to regulate the fast
subsystem Sf ast . Specifically, the capacitor voltage vdc is maintained at a nominal value,
and torsional oscillations are damped. This achieves the objectives S1 and S2.
3. An external controller generates a reference for Pgrid based on the wind speed
vw (t). The reference is designed with the stability limits of Sslow in mind. However, it
is not based on the turbine hub speed ωh , except in the event that the objective S3 is
that S3 is met.
In such an approach, the influence of the ‘internal’ states on the grid is eliminated.
The states of Sf ast are never directly coupled to Sgrid . An indirect connection through
Cexternal is avoided through careful design of the reference Pgrid ∗ . In the event that hub-
speed feedback is needed to satisfy the objective S3, filtering can mitigate the effect of
the coupling.
The reference Pgrid ∗ can be chosen to deliver optimal power through hub-speed track-
ing and achieve the performance objective P 3. Such an approach is widely dealt with
in the literature [17],[16]. This work will examine the objective P 4 of employing the
turbine hub’s energy storage capacity to absorb wind power fluctuations. Such a objec-
tive is at partly at odds with the objective P 3, but the proposed control structure and
methodology allows a trade off between the two to be selected.
In the following sections, control designs are outlined for each step of the methodology.
First, the design of the controller Cgrid is discussed. Then the decomposition of Sint into
the fast and slow systems Sf ast and Sslow is formalized. This allows the independent
It is desired to regulate the point of common coupling of the conversion system to the
grid in order to achieve two objectives. First, the specified active power Pgrid must be
delivered. Second, the reactive power injected at the point of common coupling must be
kept constant. Given a more detailed model of the grid, a controller could be developed
that addresses additional performance objectives. Here, the simplest possible controller
The model for the converter interface with the point of common coupling is as follows:
In order to regulate the grid interface to achieve the stated control objectives, it
is prudent to use a nested control structure in which an inner controller regulates the
currents id and iq . This helps protect the converter from over-currents. References for
the controlled currents can then be developed to achieve the control objectives.
A standard approach that yields decoupled control of id and iq is outlined in [34] and
introduces a cancellation of the cross coupling ωsys terms using a feed-forward term. The
errors:
Z
xd = −KPi ed − KIi (id − id ∗ )dt
Z
xq = −KPi eq − KIi (iq − iq ∗ )dt
did Rvsc
=− id − xd
dt Lvsc
diq Rvsc
=− iq − xq
dt Lvsc
can be tuned to a level of performance that gives the fastest possible tracking of the
current references id ∗ and iq ∗ that can still be reasonably achieved by a practical converter
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 35
system.
The real power delivered to the grid is proportional to the current id . The reference
for id is chosen to be
to achieve the first control objective, using the definitions (2.17). The reactive power
to assume that unity power factor is desired; thus, the reference for iq is chosen as
iq ∗ = 0 (3.6)
It would also be possible to supply a specific reactive power required by the grid. The
range of possible reactive powers would be determined by the current rating of the con-
verter.
The subsystem Sint of (3.1) may now be addressed, considering the electrical power Pgrid
)
dωh 1 Taero (ωh /N,vw (t))
dt
= Jh N
− Ks θdif f Sslow
dθdif f
dt
= ωh − ωg
(3.7)
dωg 1
dt
= Jg
(Ks θdif f − Tgen ) Sf ast
dvdc Tgen ωg −Pgrid
dt
= Cdc vdc
It is desirable to decompose Sint into two separate subsystems Sf ast and Sslow , each with
their own control input, so that the design of the controllers Cinternal and Cexternal may
proceed. An analytical approach to separating a system like Sint into independent fast
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 36
and slow subsystems has been outlined in [36], and is based on a singular perturbation
model of the system, which has the form
dx
= f (t, x, z, ǫ) (3.8)
dt
dz
ǫ = g(t, x, z, ǫ) (3.9)
dt
where some of the state equations (3.9) have relatively fast dynamics because of the
presence of a small parameter ǫ. This can be appreciated by dividing the state equations
of this fast system by ǫ; it becomes evident that a small ǫ corresponds to a large time
is based on the idea that their dynamics occur on different time scales. It is assumed
that the states of the fastest subsystem settle to steady-state values that may depend
on the states of the slow subsystem. This allows a simplified representation of how
the subsystems interact. Within the slow subsystem, the influence of the fast states is
replaced by their steady state values. Within the fast subsystem, the influence of the
slow states is assumed to be constant. In the following development, this concept will
be formalized and then applied to decompose Sint into fast and slow parts. The stability
First, the slow subsystem (3.8) is isolated. One begins by observing that in the case
that ǫ = 0, the state equations in the variable z are no longer dynamical states, but
equations for the steady states of the fast system, which are denoted z, and are given by
0 = g(t, z)
z = h(t, x)
These steady states are used to represent the influence of the settled fast states on the
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 37
slow states. In (3.8), the slow state equations are a function of the fast states z. These
equations can be approximated by a reduced, ‘steady state’ system with state variable x̄
and solution x̄(t) that is obtained by assuming that z is equal to z̄, and substituting the
based on (3.9), the dependence of (3.9) on the slow system must be given a simplified
representation. For this purpose, a constant ξ0 is introduced that is equal to the state of
ξ0 = x̄(t0 )
The isolation of the fast system (3.9) can then proceed, beginning with a change of
variable
y = z − z = z − h(t, x) (3.11)
such that the fast dynamics are centered on the steady states z. The dynamical equations
have the form:
ǫẏ = ǫż − ǫ ∂h
∂t
− ǫ ∂h ∂x
∂x ∂t
(3.12)
= g(t, x, y + h(t, x)) − ǫ ∂h
∂t
− ǫ ∂h
∂x
f (t, x, y + h(t, x))
We then define a new time variable τ as a new time scale for the fast system that is
In this time scale, one can appreciate that as ǫ → 0, τ → ∞ for a finite time t > t0 . This
idealizes the relatively rapid settling of the fast system to its steady state. Also, solving
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 38
makes it clear that on the time scale defined by τ , the time t can be approximated by t0
t → t0
x(t) → ξ0
After making a transformation to the new time variable τ , the fast or boundary-layer
time variable t:
dy
boundary-layer system: → = g(t0 , ξ0 , y + h(t0 , ξ0 )) (3.14)
dτ
Such a boundary-layer system is studied over the expected operating range of ξ0 in order
To apply the preceding formalism to the system Sint and derive a singular perturbation
model for (3.7), it is necessary to first identify the fast and slow states. The relatively
large value Jh of the turbine hub inertia was recognized in Section 3.2 for giving the state
ωh its own slow timescale. A time variable scaled by Jh will be temporarily introduced
t dx dx dthub 1 dx (3.15)
thub = Jh
→ dt
= dthub dt
= Jh dthub
Substitution into (3.7) puts it into a form suggestive of a singular perturbation model,
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 39
)
dωh Taero (ωh /N,vw (t))
dthub
= N
− Ks θdif f ẋ = f (t, x, z, ǫ)
1 dθdif f
Jh dthub
= ωh − ωg
(3.16)
1 dωg 1
Jh dthub
= Jg
(Ks θdif f − Tgen ) ǫż = g(t, x, z, ǫ)
1 dvdc Tgen ωg −Pgrid
Jh dthub
= Cdc vdc
Before separating Sint into two subsystems, a notation for the variables of the fast and
slow subsystems and for the steady-state values must be defined. The reduced ‘steady-
state’ system will be denoted by a ωh . The steady-state values of the states in (3.16) are
z = θdif f , ωg , vdc .
The transformation (3.11) can then be applied to the fast states [θdif f , ωg , vdc ] to obtain
The control input Tgen will be defined as having a slow, steady-state component Tgen ,
and a fast component Tf ast that is zero at steady-state (Tf ast will be specified in later
sections):
Separation can then be carried out determining the steady-state values of the boundary-
layer system
z = h(t, x)
By solving the last three lines of (3.16) for the case where the left hand side is zero, and
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 40
ωg Tgen = Pgrid
These solutions dictate the steady-state values z for the fast states θdif f , ωg and the
1 Pgrid
θdif f = K S ωh Pgrid
Tgen = (3.18)
ωh
ωg = ωh
The desired steady-state value for vdc is not actually dependent on the state ωh ; it is
assignable. In practice it would be the nominal dc-link voltage dictated by the converter
In order to generate two separate systems for analysis that are not coupled by state
variables, the following substitutions are made. First, the state θdif f in the first equation
of 3.16 is replaced by its steady state value defined in 3.18. Then, the first equation of
3.16 is returned to the original timescale t from thub . This forms the reduced system:
dωh 1 Taero (ωh /N, vw (t)) Pgrid
reduced system: dt
= Jh N − ω
h
(3.19)
which has Pgrid as a control input, and describes the hub dynamics under the assumption
that the states [θdif f , ωg , vdc ] identified as fast have settled to their steady states. The
The remaining equations of 3.16 are transformed to the variables [y1 , y2 , y3], using the
steady-state values in 3.18 and vdc . ωh is replaced by ξ0 , its value at a given time t0 . This
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 41
dy1
boundary layer system: dτ
= −y2
dy2 1
dτ
= Jg
(Ks y1 − Tf ast ) (3.20)
dy3 ξ0 + y 2
= T
dτ Cdc (vdc + y3 ) f ast
The variables y evolve on the singular perturbation time scale τ . At this time scale, it
is assumed that the state ωh changes so slowly that it can be designated as the constant
ξ0 .
The decomposition of Sint into these fast (3.20) and slow (3.19) subsystems simplifies
control design, as well as the consideration of overall system stability. It has been proven
[36] that if the dynamics of the boundary system in a singularly perturbed model are
sufficiently fast (i.e. ǫ is sufficiently small), the exponential stability of the origin of the
reduced (3.10) and boundary (3.14) systems on their own, is sufficient to guarantee the
stability of the origin of the interconnected system.
In the next two sections, the designs of the controllers Cinternal and Cexternal are based
on the models (3.20) and (3.19). Thus, the state variables under consideration become
y1
ωh and
y2
y3
In Section 3.7 a controller is designed that satisfies the first two safety control objec-
tives S1 and S2, and makes (3.20) locally exponentially stable. This reduces the issue of
overall system stability to the stability of (3.19), which is studied in Section 3.8. There,
it is shown that (3.19) has a natural stable region, and can be made exponentially stable
through appropriate control when necessary to guarantee stability.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 42
The control objectives assigned to the internal controller are the regulation of the capac-
itor voltage vdc to a constant nominal value, and the damping of torsional oscillations.
The change of variables applied to Sf ast in the previous section make these objectives
dy1
dτ
= −y2
dy2 1
dτ
= Jg
(Ks y1 − Tf ast ) (3.21)
dy3 ξ0 + y 2
= T
dτ Cdc (vdc + y3 ) f ast
Practical methods exist to measure all of the required quantities, and thus determine the
states above using the steady state values θdif f , ωg , vdc defined in the previous section
as (3.18). However, determining the actual deviation
y1 = θdif f − θdif f
1 Pgrid (3.22)
= θdif f −
KS ω h
drive train with a gearbox. Therefore, a controller will be developed based on knowledge
of the deviation y2 (which could be obtained using optical encoders at either end of the
drive-train to determine the angular velocities ωh and ωg ) and the dc voltage deviation
y3 .
y 2 = ωg − ωh
(3.23)
y3 = vdc − vdc
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 43
vdc + y3
Tf ast = (−K1 y3 − K2 y2 ) (3.24)
ξ0
where K1 and K2 are positive gains, can be substituted in (3.21). After some algebraic
y1
dτ 0 −1 0 y1
y2 = Ks 1 vdc K 1 vdc y +
Jg Jg ξ0 2 Jg ξ0 K1
dτ 2
y3
dτ
0 − C1dc K2 − C1dc K1 y3
0
+ Jg1ξ0 K2 y3 y2 + Jg1ξ0 K1 y32
− Cdc1 ξ0 K2 y22 − Cdc1 ξ0 K1 y3 y2
(3.25)
ẋ = Ax + g(x) (3.26)
that vanishes at the origin of the transformed system, which in this case corresponds to
[θdif f , ωg , vdc ] = θdif f , ωg , vdc . This perturbation has a higher order, so it does not affect
the linearization, and is overpowered by the linearization terms for small y. Hence, if
the linear part of the system is stable, then the origin of the boundary system is locally
exponentially stable.
It was found that while any pair of positive gains K1 , K2 result in a stable system, the
eigenvalues of the system were poorly damped for many gains. The location of eigenvalues
was not very sensitive to the changes in the operating point ξ0 . Therefore, a value for ξ0
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 44
in the middle of the operating range was chosen, and an optimization procedure was used
to find gains K1 and K2 that placed eigenvalues as far to the left as possible. Viewing
i.e Find K1 and K2 that minimize the real part of the largest eigenvalue of A.
It is desired to design a controller Cexternal to generate a reference for Pgrid that achieves
the safety and performance objectives set for the turbine hub. The decomposition per-
formed in Section 3.6 resulted in the single differential equation (3.27) that describes the
slow dynamics of the turbine hub. The use of the state variable ωh indicates an under-
lying assumption that the fast states of the system settle and convey the steady state
dωh 1 Taero (ωh /N, vw (t)) Pgrid
= − (3.27)
dt Jh N ωh
The reference Pgrid ∗ will be chosen to deliver a filtered version of the available wind
power. This means that power fluctuations occurring at a frequency higher than the cut-
off of this filtered power will be absorbed by the turbine hub, and consequently become
speed fluctuations.
When a power Pgrid is imposed on the turbine hub, the hub’s dynamics can become
unstable. This constrains what power references can be achieved, which has implications
for both the objectives S3 and P 4. In subsection 3.8.1, the nature of the equilibria of
(3.27) and their attractive regions is studied in general, and the potential for instability
is shown. Two specific cases where Pgrid ∗ is a filtered version of the wind power are
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 45
examined in subsection 3.8.2. From this study, guidelines are provided for anticipating
and averting the instability.
In subsection 3.8.3, a design is outlined for a supervisory control structure that allows
a general reference for Pgrid to be used, but intervenes if the instability is encountered to
Subsection 3.8.4 outlines the design of the filter used to determine a particular Pgrid
reference that achieves P 4. The design attempts to maximize the absorption of higher
frequency wind fluctuations by the turbine hub without causing instability. This design
can reduce coupling of hub-speed dynamics to the grid, to the extent that the design
reduces the occasions where the supervisory control is required to intervene to guarantee
A study of the stability of (3.27) must begin with an analysis of its equilibria by con-
sidering the condition dωh /dt = 0. Aerodynamic quantities defined earlier (2.9) are
substituted:
Thus, equilibrium occurs when the three-phase electrical power Pgrid is equal to the
power Paero (vw (t), ωh ) extracted by the turbine. Because both Paero (vw (t), ωh ) and Pgrid
can vary in time, the location of the equilibria are time-varying. Fig 3.5 shows that there
can be up to 2 equilibria, or none.
The location of equilibria depends on both the wind speed vw (t) and Pgrid , as shown
in Fig 3.6. Given that equilibria exist, the sign and size of their associated eigenvalues
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 46
Figure 3.5: Equilibria of (3.27). Equilibria are determined by the intersection of the
two curves Paero (ωh , vw (t)) and Pgrid , both of which may vary in time. Two, one, or no
equilibria may exist. The possible cases are demonstrated in (a) for different wind speeds
and in (b) for different grid powers. The equilibria are marked as dots.
can be determined from the linearization of (3.27), taking the equilibrium location as
the operating point.libria depends on both the wind speed vw (t) and Pgrid , as shown
in Fig 3.6. Given that equilibria exist, the sign and size of their associated eigenvalues
can be determined from the linearization of (3.27), taking the equilibrium location as
the operating point. Their stability and location influence the dynamics of (3.27). Its
!
d∆ωh 1 1 ∂Taero
Pgrid
= − ∗2 ∆ωh (3.29)
dthub Jh N ∂ωh ωh op ,vw op ωh
| {z }
∂f
, ∂ω
h
The top curve of Fig 3.6 shows how the location of equilibria is determined by the
relationship between the maximum available wind power Pmax (t) and the power removed
and delivered to the grid, Pgrid . The bottom curve of Fig 3.6 shows the eigenvalue
∂f /∂ωh of the linearization at each equilibrium. Arrows indicate the effect of variations.
It is evident that when two equilibria exist, they occur in a stable/unstable pair, which
can be designated ωs (t) and ωu (t). The arrows show that as Pgrid exceeds Pmax (t), the
two equilibria approach and then annihilate one another in a saddle node bifurcation,
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 47
such that no equilibria exist. Because the relationship between Pmax (t) and Pgrid can in
general vary with time, however, this condition may be temporary.
The lower curve of Fig 3.6 also shows that the unstable equilibrium ωu (t) can have
a relatively large eigenvalue, which indicates the local dynamics can be fast. A sense of
global dynamics can be obtained by fixing the two equillibria and then plotting the value
of dω h /dt as a function of ω h to obtain the flow field for the state equation (3.27). This
is shown in Fig 3.7. Because the flow field can change in time with the equilibria, two
The left hand case shows that for speeds slower than the unstable equilibrium ωu (t),
dωh /dt is negative and its magnitude increases sharply as ωh decreases. Thus, the possi-
bility of a fast instability exists in which the hub speed ωh quickly falls toward the speed
lapse. For speeds greater than ωu (t), the equilibrium ωs (t) is attractive; i.e. the flow field
points toward ωs (t). Thus, ωu (t) defines the boundary between a time-varying region of
The right hand case shows a situation where no equillibria exist. While such a condi-
tion persists, the flow field is negative everywhere, pointing to the point at zero speed. It
is notable, however, that the flow field has a minimum magnitude in the vicinity of where
ωu (t) and ωs (t) met before disappearing; this is in fact the speed ωopt corresponding to
Pmax (t).
sufficient condition for hub-speed collapse, as long as the condition is not prolonged. It
is conceivable that an alternation between the two situations depicted in Fig 3.7 could
result in an oscillation of the hub speed ω h that is bounded, and centered on the value
ωopt where maximum power is obtained. However, it is clear that the nonlinearities and
Figure 3.6: Stable/unstable pair of equilibria ωs (t) and ωu (t) of turbine hub speed, and
their dependence on the relation between Pgrid and the maximum of the power-speed
curve, Pmax (t). The wind speed vw (t) is held constant. The intersection of the two
power curves determines the number and location of the equilibria. The linearization
∂f
∂ωh
characterizes their stability and associated eigenvalue. Arrows indicate how these
aspects change as Pgrid approaches Pmax (t). For a given wind speed, Pmax (t) is obtained
at a speed ωopt (t). As Pgrid approaches Pmax , the two equilibria approach one another.
For Pgrid = Pmax (t), a single equilibrium exists at ωopt (t), and for Pgrid > Pmax (t), no
equillibria exist.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 49
Figure 3.7: Flow fields of (3.27) for two cases. The time derivative dωh /dt is shown as a
function of ωh , and arrows indicate the direction and magnitude of the flow field. In (a),
two equilibria exist, and there is a region of attraction (R.O.A) within which the flow
field points toward the stable equilibrium ωs (t). There is also an unstable region within
which the flow field points toward ωh = 0. In (b), the flow field is everywhere negative,
leaving only the point ωh = 0 attractive.
Two main difficulties are apparent from the preceding discussion. First, it is not the
absolute value of the turbine hub speed, but its relation to the moving equillibria ωu (t)
that is important. Second, the location of ωu (t) depends on both vw (t) and Pgrid . In this
• making the power Pgrid a function of the wind speed vw (t), thus making the relation
between Pgrid and Pmax (t) more specific.
• basing the visualization and discussion of dynamics on the tip-speed λ(t), which
alone.
In order to draw more useful conclusions about stability, a specific case of the power Pgrid
Rωh
λ(t) =
vw (t)
The main nonlinearity of the system, the Cp curve, is a function of λ, not ωh or vw (t) alone.
Thus, λ will be used to determine the proximity of the operating point to the maxima
of the power and torque curves, which are depicted in Fig 3.8, and are a consequence of
The tip-speed ratio at which the maximum power Pmax (t) is extracted is λopt . When
a power is being extracted at a lower-than optimal efficiency, there are two tip speed
ratios at which this can occur. In Fig 3.8(a) they are labeled as λs and λu , because they
The torque curves of a wind turbine also have a peak that occurs at some λstall , λstall <
λopt , as shown in Fig 3.8(b). Below λstall , the aerodynamic torque drops off sharply as
the speed ωh decreases. This peak in torque contributes to making hub-speed collapse
understanding of how the equilibria ωs (t) and ωu (t) move due to changes in both Pmax (t)
and the choice of Pgrid . The operating conditions vw (t) and ωh specify a point on the
plane, as shown in Fig 3.9. The locus of points on the vw − ωh plane corresponding to
a constant tip-speed ratio λ is a line passing through the origin with slope λ/R. Several
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.8: Aerodynamic features and their associated tip-speed ratio λ. a) A power
less than Pmax (t) can be achieved at two λ, λs , and λu . b) Both the power extracted
and the torque exerted on the turbine hub have maxima at λopt and λstall respectively.
λs > λopt > λu > λstall .
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 52
Figure 3.9: The vw − ωh plane. An operating point and three lines of constant tip-speed
ratio: λs , λopt , and λu are shown. The tip-speed ratio λ(t) is related by the radius R to
the angle α of the point with the vw axis.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 53
The vw − ωh plane facilitates the study of the special case where the wind input vw (t)
and the power Pgrid are as defined below:
The wind speed vw (t) is simplified as a single sinusoid with amplitude Vw , varying at
a frequency fwind around the average wind speed vavg . A filter with time constant τ is
applied to the wind-speed (3.31), and used to calculate a filtered version of the wind
power Pwind(vf ilt ). A certain fraction of this power, where the fraction is determined
by the efficiency Cp (λ∗ ) at some desired tip-speed ratio λ∗ , is chosen as the power Pgrid
The desired tip-speed ratio λ∗ should be chosen such that λ∗ ≥ λopt . For some
λ∗ > λopt , two extreme values for the filter constant τ will be analyzed:
The first example corresponds to a situation where almost no filtering occurs, and the
second case represents a situation where the wind variation at frequency fwind around
vavg must be entirely absorbed by the turbine hub. For the first case, the positions of
the equilibria can be directly calculated. At equilibrium, ω̇ h = 0 implies that
Cp (λ∗ ) = Cp (λ(t))
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 54
for which two solutions exist, due to the fact that the Cp (λ) curve possesses a maximum
λs
ωs (t) = vw (t)
r (3.34)
λu
ωu (t) = vw (t)
r
In Fig 3.10(a), the movements of the two equilibria along lines of constant λ are
shown.
Rather than moving along lines of constant λ, the equilibria move along a curve of
constant power, which is marked in Fig 3.10(b). For the wind variation shown, they can
In Fig 3.11, a time series is shown to illustrate dynamics for the case where τ is large.
The position of both equilibria is shown. It can be seen how they influence ωh . During
the time that no equilibrium exists, ωh must decrease, as occurs in Fig 3.11 at t = 44s.
In the event that ωu (t) reappears below ωh , ωh will remain within the region of
attraction of ωs (t). If ωu (t) reappears but remains greater than ωh , the hub speed must
eventually collapse to zero. This is the outcome in Fig 3.11. At t = 95s, the unstable
equilibrium ωu (t) reappears, but ωh has dropped below it. The time derivative of ωh
increases sharply, and ωh falls quickly. Of special note is the coincidence of a peak in the
aerodynamic torque with this decrease. This peak is the one occurring at λstall . From
Figure 3.10: Movement of equilibria for two extremes of filter time constant τ . Brackets
mark the range of equilibrium movement (y-axis) corresponding to the sinusoidal wind
speed variation about the mean value vavg (x-axis). In 3.10(a), the range of equilibrium
motions for a small τ is relatively narrow and predictable by 3.34. In 3.10(b), where a
large τ is used in the filter, the range of movement is wider. At some low wind speed,
the equilibria meet and disappear in a saddle-node bifurcation (open circle), reappearing
later as this threshold speed is crossed during the wind’s increase in speed.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 56
The first condition is not sufficient to guarantee collapse. An increase in wind can cause
λ(t) to drop below λstall , but also raise Pmax (t) well above Pgrid , ensuring the existence
of ωu (t) at some low speed. The situation of concern is when the stall region λ(t) < λstall
has been entered due to a slow decrease in speed, as shown in Fig 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Hub speed and torque time series demonstrating a hub speed collapse. The
stable and unstable equilibria ωs (t) and ωu (t) are shown as dashed and dotted lines,
respectively. At t = 45 s, both equilibria disappear, and reappear at t = 95 s such that
ωh is within the unstable region. The hub speed then decreases rapidly. In the torque
time series, the two terms of (3.27) are shown. The peak of the aerodynamic torque is
apparent as collapse occurs. One also perceives a sharp increase in the controlled torque
Pgrid
ωh
.
The preceding example has demonstrated how choosing a Pgrid based on a filtered
version of the wind power can result in hub-speed collapse, if the wind filter time constant
ωh < ωu (t)
(3.36)
∄ωu (t)
However, the comparison of equilibrium motion offered by Fig 3.10(a) and 3.10(b)
shows another important effect of increasing τ from zero. The motion of equilibria are
wider, encouraging larger hub speed variations. While it is not evident from Fig 3.10(a),
a τ of zero prevents the turbine hub from tracking changes in the wind speed, which
it must do to maintain its efficiency of conversion. To cause the turbine hub to track
an increase, for example, in wind, and subsequently produce more power, the extracted
power must lag the available power in such a way that the turbine hub is accelerated.
Thus, it is important to select a τ large enough that useful hub-speed variations for
tracking or filtering can occur, but not so large that instability becomes an issue. In the
next section, a supervisory system and controller are designed that ensure the identified
instability will not cause a violation of the safety objective S3 (i.e. operation with the hub
speed bounded above zero). Then, section 3.8.4 shows how the problem of determining
a range of τ for safe operation can be solved using model data and the wind turbulence
A block diagram of Cexternal is provided in Fig 3.12, showing the reference Pperf
∗
based
on a filtered version of the wind, and a recovery controller used to generate Psaf
∗
e . The
logic used to switch between the references Pperf ∗ and Psaf e ∗ is depicted in Fig 3.13.
During normal operation, the turbine hub speed ωh is permitted to take on any value
necessary to achieve the requested power. Thus, the nominal performance reference
Pperf ∗ is not a function of ωh . However, if the supervisory system detects the onset of a
hub speed collapse, it becomes necessary to stabilize the speed. The reference for Pgrid is
based on hub speed feedback. This controller regulates the speed of the turbine hub ωh
to a reference speed
λ∗
ωh ∗ = vf ilt (3.39)
R
which is derived from the filtered wind speed and the desired operating tip-speed ratio
λ∗ . It is the speed at which the requested power would be obtained, if the wind speed
vw (t) were in fact equal to the filtered value vf ilt . During normal operation, the actual
hub speed tends to vary around ωh ∗ , because the wind contains significant variations at
The hub speed feedback controller ensures that ωh approaches ωh ∗ . Because the actual
wind speed vw (t) varies around vf ilt , the power required to reach the speed ωh ∗ can be
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 59
different from the filtered power Pperf ∗ . However, at some point in time tresume
vf ilt = vw (t)
(3.40)
Pperf ∗ = Psaf e ∗
and the supervisory system resumes the nominal performance control reference.
An example of the system’s action during a recovery is shown in Fig 3.14. At a time
tonset , the system detects the onset of a hub speed collapse, and switches the reference
for Pgrid to Psaf e ∗ . The speed ωh increases until it closely approaches ωh ∗ . The power
Psaf e ∗ is at some level determined by the actual wind speed vw (t) at this point, but a
short time later, at tresume , Psaf e ∗ matches Pperf ∗ , and the supervisory logic resumes the
nominal reference.
The detection of collapse onset is performed using measurements of the turbine hub
speed ωh and the wind speed vw (t) to evaluate the conditions listed in Fig 3.13. The
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 60
Psaf e ∗ = KP (ωh − ωh ∗ ) + KI η
(3.41)
η̇ = ωh − ωh ∗
At the instant tonset when a switch of control reference is made, it is important to ensure
This is achieved by initializing the integral state η appropriately using the values of
ωh , ωh ∗ , and Pperf ∗ at tonset . Substituting (3.42) in the first line of (3.41) and solving for
η, one obtains
Figure 3.14: Action of recovery control: Time series of Pgrid reference, and variables
associated with the turbine hub speed. Before tonset , the hub speed ωh falls during a
period where ∄ ωu (t). After activation of the recovery controller at tonset , the equilibrium
ωu (t) reappears at t = 2235 s and drops below the hub speed ωh (t), which then increases
and approaches the reference speed ωh ∗ . A short time later,Psaf e ∗ matches Pperf ∗ , and
the supervisory logic resumes the nominal reference.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 62
The reference to extract a filtered power from the turbine hub was first introduced as a
dvf ilt 2π
= (vw (t) − vf ilt )
dt τ
Pperf ∗ = Pwind (vf ilt )Cp (λ∗ ), λ∗ ≥ λopt
τ and the desired tip-speed ratio λ∗ . It was noted in section 3.8.2 that a minimum τ is
necessary for tracking wind variations. It was also established that the phenomenon of
hub speed collapse poses a stability limit on how large τ can be. When filtering of power
by the turbine hub is desired, τ should be made as large as possible, within this stability
limit. Thus, there is an operating envelope defined by a τmin and τmax for each tip-speed
ratio λ∗ .
This design problem will be more precisely defined and solved through the introduc-
tion of a simplified model of the controlled system and a simplified model of the wind
input vw (t). The form of the model for the controlled system immediately yields a par-
ticular τ that facilitates the tracking of speed variations. In order to obtain an estimate
of the stability limit on large τ , the two models are combined with a geometric criteria
The simplified model of the controlled system is obtained by substituting the reference
dvf ilt 2π
= (vw (t) − vf ilt )
dt τ
dωh 1 Taero (ωh /N, vw (t)) Cp (λ∗ ) · Pwind (t)
= −
dt Jh N ωh
a single-input, single-output linear system with a transfer function G(s) from the wind
speed to the turbine hub speed:
∆ωh = G(s)∆vw
∂Taero (3.44)
∂vw (s + ωzero)
= ∆vw
Jh (s + ωpole ) (s + ωf ilt )
where
∂Taero 1 ∂Pwind
− op
2π ∂vw ωh ∂vw
ωzero =
τ ∂Taero
∂vw
∂Taero Pwind (vw op ) (3.45)
−
∂ωh (ωh op )2
ωpole =
Jh
2π
ωf ilt =
τ
λ∗
(3.46)
R
A distinctive value for τ is that which causes the zero ωzero and the pole ωpole to be
equal, defined as τmatch . Such a choice compensates the natural time constant of the hub,
leaving the system (3.44) with a first-order response to wind changes (Fig 3.15, dashed
line). The relatively flat magnitude and small phase of the response indicates that the
hub-speed will tend to follow the variations of the wind up to the corner frequency at
∆ωh ∼
= |G(0)| ∆vw
(3.47)
∼ λ∗
= ∆vw
R
This implies that the tip-speed ratio λ∗ is preserved, to the extent that the above relation
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 64
holds. Such a result is more clearly shown by expressing λ(t) in terms of the linearization
variations and operating point:
r rωh op
∆λ = ∆ωh − ∆vw
vw op
(vw op )2
r rωh op
∆ωh = ∆vw
vw op (vw op )2
ωh op
∆ωh = op ∆vw
vw
λ∗
= ∆vw
R
In the case where τ > τmatch , the simplified model of the controlled system develops a
resonant peak located between the two poles (Fig 3.15, solid line). This peak corresponds
to the large variations in hub speed that occur when the turbine hub is absorbing wind
power fluctuations. These speed variations are larger than those necessary to track a
desired tip-speed ratio, and so significant variations in λ(t) can also be expected.
The large speed variations due to the resonant peak are clearly of importance to the
stability of the hub. Their allowable size has much to do with their phase relationship
with the wind, which, from Fig 3.15, can evidently be a leading or lagging one around
the frequency of the resonant peak. Both the gain and phase of the system response are
significant for stability. In order to combine them, the variation of the tip-speed ratio
For simplicity, the analysis of the system (3.44) will be based on single representative
frequency. The frequency most relevant to the stability of the hub is the resonant peak
ωpeak , which occurs at the logarithmic mean of the two poles of (3.44):
Figure 3.15: Bode plots of the transfer function G(jω) for two τ . λ = 8.7, Solid line:
τ = 100, Dashed line: τmatch = 48.85
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 66
For the purposes of this design problem, the wind vw (t) must therefore be approxi-
mated as a single representative sinusoid with a certain frequency ωpeak and amplitude
Vw :
it can be usefully decomposed into a slowly varying mean wind speed vw and turbulence
distribution
N
X
vw (t) = vavg + Ai cos(2πfi t + ψi )
i=1
approximation of the entire wind spectrum, Vw must capture the effects of those wind
fluctuations in wind energy that are absorbed into the hub as speed variations. It will
be assumed that only the frequency components above the cut-off frequency of the wind
filter are likely to result in such fluctuations. Thus, a representation of the relevant wind
frequency components is simply the sum of all components having frequencies greater
N
X
Vw = Ai
i=k
The simplified models (3.44) and (3.48) are useful because they can be used to describe
Figure 3.16: Discrete harmonics used to artificially represent turbulence (line arrows),
and the sinusoid at used to represent components of the wind that are absorbed in hub
speed fluctuations (solid arrow). Components of the wind at frequencies lower than the
cut-off frequency ωf ilt of the wind filter (shaded area) are not included in Vw .
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 68
vw op = vavg
λ∗
ωh op = vavg
r
The response of the simplified model to the representative wind input can then be deter-
mined. The trajectory of the operating point is given by the two components
Definitions concerning the curve and examples of the effect of the parameter τ are shown
in Fig 3.17. In particular, a minimum angle αmin , which corresponds to the lowest
operating λ, is defined graphically. From Fig 3.17(b) it can be seen that increasing τ
results in a curve that deviates more from the line of constant tip-speed ratio λ∗ , such
that the angle αmin decreases. In the previous subsection on stability, it was established
that hub speed collapse occurred when the hub speed ωh was lower than the unstable
equilibrium ωu (t), whose is roughly given by λunstable . Thus, the following stability limit
αmin ≥ αunstable
Having defined a geometric way to estimate the stability limit on the design parameter
τ , it becomes possible to make a more precise formulation and solution of the filter
Given the mean wind speed vw , and a desired tip-speed ratio of operation λ∗ ≥ λopt ,
define an operating point ωh op , vw (t)op for the transfer function G(s) ( (3.44),(3.45)) as
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 69
(a) (b)
Figure 3.17: Operating point trajectories of linearized model. 3.17(a): The magnitude
and phase response of (3.44) to a representative wind sinusoid with amplitude Vw deter-
mine a closed curve in the vw − ωh plane, which has a minimum angle αmin with respect
to the vw axis. 3.17(b): As τ increases, the minimum angle αmin decreases.
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 70
follows:
vw (t)op = vw
λ∗
ωh op = vw
r
Define the representative wind sinusoid vrepr as in (3.48), and through (3.49) obtain a
curve in the vw − ωh plane, for which αmin and αunstable are defined as in Fig 3.17(a) and
Fig 3.9.
The filter reference design problem is to determine, for every desired tip-speed ratio
t ∈ [0, 2π]
= αunstable
The problem associated with finding τmax can be solved using a number of approaches.
For each λ∗ over a range starting from λopt , a τ was calculated in order to construct an
estimate of the stability limit as a function of the operating tip-speed ratio λ∗ . Simu-
lation trials were conducted over the same range of λ∗ for a range of τ . During these
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 71
trials, interventions by the supervisory control system to avert a hub speed collapse were
counted. It was found that for each λ∗ , there was a threshold τ greater than which the
In Fig 3.18, this threshold is plotted against λ∗ as an indicator of the actual stability
limit on the size of τ . The calculated stability limit τmax obtained from the simplified
models is plotted as a comparison, and appears to be a conservative but reasonable
estimate.
Figure 3.18: τ -λ operating envolope. Comparison of the stability limit on the filtering
time constant τ indicated by simulations and the estimate τmax obtained from simplified
models. The apparent threshold implied by the simulation study is 30% larger. A basic
tradeoff exists between a wider operating envelope for τ , and the operating conversion
efficiency, which decreases with λ. The bottom range of operation is demarcated by
τmin = τmatch , as defined by (3.50).
Chapter 3. Control Methodology, Design and Performance 72
3.8.5 Summary
In this section, a controller Cexternal was designed to generate a reference for the power
delivered to the grid. The structure of the controller is variable. For the majority of the
time, it generates a reference that is independent of the turbine hub speed ωh and based
dvf ilt 2π
= (vw (t) − vf ilt )
dt τ
Pgrid ∗ = Pwind(vf ilt )Cp (λ∗ )
However, the imposition of an arbitrary power on the turbine hub by such a reference
creates a potential instability. The nature of this instability was studied for the case
of the power reference above in Section 3.7.1. A conservative estimate of how the filter
time constant τ determines a stability limit for a given operating tip-speed ratio λ∗ was
developed in Section 3.8.4. This provides an operating envelope, depicted in Fig 3.18,
within which the reference can be designed to deliver the filtered power reference while
surements are also likely to be error prone. Therefore, the controller Cexternal is given
the ability to detect the onset of the instability, and apply a speed-feedback controller
that ensures the stability of the turbine hub speed. In the event of an instability, the
controller switches to a reference Psaf e ∗ based on hub speed feedback.
The result of applying such a controller is that in nominal operation, the model of
the wind energy conversion system reduces to a simple linear filter of the available wind
dip in power and a coupling of turbine hub dynamics to the grid would occur.
Chapter 4
Results
In this chapter, the proposed control methodology and controller designs are evaluated.
Through simulation studies, the efficacy of the control system in achieving the control
objectives outlined in Section 3.2 is examined. First, the behaviour of the controlled
system is studied with respect to the safety objectives. Then, performance trade-offs and
The controller Cinternal was assigned the task of satisfying safety objectives S1 and S2:
the regulation of capacitor voltage and the damping of torsional vibrations. A sample of
the performance of the controlled system is shown in Figs 4.1 and 4.2, which show the
In Fig 4.1, two extreme cases for the power reference are considered; nominal opera-
tion using the filtering reference Pperf ∗ with a large time constant, and a speed feedback
controller that regulates the hub speed to the optimal speed reference. The feedback
controller causes a power flow with a higher frequency content, and results in larger fluc-
73
Chapter 4. Results 74
tuations of the states controlled by Cinternal . Thus, it can be concluded that the controller
can achieve the safety objective for range of cases, but not with uniform performance.
Fig 4.2 shows the variations of Sf ast over a short time period, and demonstrates
that variations in the capacitor voltage are slow compared to typical converter switching
frequencies.
Time series have already been presented in Section 3.8.2 of the behaviour of the
recovery controller that ensures that the turbine hub speed is bounded above zero. It is
also of interest, however, to examine the variations in hub speed that occur nominally.
Typical variations of the hub speed as a function of operating point are summarized
in Table 4.1; all operating points were simulated with τ = τmax in order to study the
limit on how large speed variations can become. Average speeds are higher for operation
at larger tip-speed ratios, and the speed range also increases as a result of the larger τ
that become possible. From the table, it seems likely that physical speed limits would
Figs 4.3 - 4.5 show typical variations in ωh and Pgrid during nominal operation. Figs
4.3 and 4.4 compare two extremes using the filtering Pperf reference: operation around
the optimal tip-speed ratio with a minimum filter time-constant, and operation at a high
The tip-speed ratio chosen for comparison in Fig 4.4 results in especially smooth
power output, but involves speed variations that may be unrealistic. The variations
of speed Fig 4.3 are more moderate, but would not necessarily be allowable at higher
Chapter 4. Results 75
Figure 4.1: Performance of Cinternal . Plots of the states of Sf ast demonstrate the degree
of regulation possible with the proposed control structure. The case of both the nominal,
filtered Pgrid reference (black) and optimal power tracking using speed feedback (gray)
are shown. The steady state value ωg varies between 100-300 rad/s, θdif f varies between
0.05-0.3 radians, and vdc is 600V. It is evident from the plots that while the regulation is
acceptable, its quality is determined by the nature of the power flow.
Chapter 4. Results 76
Figure 4.2: Performance of Cinternal , short time-scale. The steady state value ωg varies
between 100-300 rad/s, θdif f varies between 0.05-0.3 radians, and vdc is 600V. The fluctu-
ation of the capacitor voltage is relatively slow compared to typical converter switching
frequencies.
Chapter 4. Results 77
wind speeds. In both cases, the filtered power (gray line) is less on average than the
power extracted through operation around the optimal tip-speed ratio. Thus Fig 4.3 and
4.4 both illustrate how either smooth power delivery or optimal power delivery can be
Fig 4.5 demonstrates the range of operation at a given tip-speed ratio made possible
Figure 4.3: Comparison of operation around the optimal tip-speed ratio of 6.93 (black)
with a wind filter time constant of τmin = 32s, and operation around the tip-speed ratio
λ = 9.82 using a wind filter time constant close to τmax at τmax = 200s.
Chapter 4. Results 78
Figure 4.4: Comparison of operation around the optimal tip-speed ratio of 6.93 (black)
with a wind filter time constant of τmin = 32s, and operation around the tip-speed ratio
λ = 10.4 using a wind filter time constant close to τmax at τmax = 600s. Considerable
smoothing is evident, but very large variations of hub speed and tip-speed ratio are
occurring.
Chapter 4. Results 79
The performance objectives defined for the controller Cexternal in Chapter 3 were con-
cerned with the regulation of the grid interface and the nature of power variations. Only
the latter objectives P 2 − P 4 will be examined. First, the trade-off between achieving
the goal P 3, optimal power tracking, and P 4, filtering of wind fluctuation by the tur-
bine hub, is examined. Then, the spectra of power flows in various parts of the system
will be studied to evaluate the efficacy of the proposed control structure for containing
Higher λ∗ values allow the use of longer wind filter time constants. This comes at
the price of poorer conversion efficiency due to a sub-optimal λ∗ . In Fig 4.6, the amount
of energy by the conversion system over 100 minutes is plotted. As may be expected,
it decreases as λ∗ increases away from λopt . Also, a large wind filter time constant τ
further reduces the average efficiency of conversion. This is because speed changes cause
Chapter 4. Results 80
variations in the tip-speed ratio λ(t). cause the conversion efficiency to drop below that
achieved at λ∗ much of the time.
Figure 4.6: Energy captured over a 1 23 hour time period over a range of operating tip-
speed ratios λ∗ . It can be seen that operation at higher tip-speed ratios has a lower
efficiency of conversion, and that this is worsened when τ is τmax .
The benefit of operating at a more inefficient tip-speed ratio would be the increase
in wind filter time constant τ . As shown in the previous section during the discussion
of hub-speed and power time series, larger filter time constants result in smoother power
delivery. This is more clearly shown by examining the spectra of power variations.
Figure 4.7 schematically depicts how power flows through the wind energy conver-
sion system. A portion of the wind power Pwind (t) is extracted by the turbine blades,
depending on the power conversion efficiency Cp (λ(t)). Some of the converted power,
Pshaf t (t), is removed through the shaft to Sf ast . The rest flows into the turbine hub,
causing changes in speed. This power is marked as Phub (t). A portion of the shaft power
Pshaf t (t) is removed from the conversion system as Pgrid (t). The remaining power flow
Phub (t) and Pf ast (t) are the power fluctuations that are contained within the blocks
Chapter 4. Results 81
Figure 4.7: Power flow through the wind energy conversion system.
Sslow and Sf ast . An examination of the spectra of the three power flows Pwind (t), Pshaf t (t)
and Pgrid (t) should show that as power passes through the blocks Sslow and Sf ast , its
content at higher frequencies is lowered. The nature of the fluctuations being removed
should be evident from the spectra of Phub (t) and Pf ast (t).
In order to demonstrate these effects clearly, an artificial wind input is applied to the
system. The spectrum of such a signal is much cleaner than a measured wind time series,
as was first observed in Section 2.2, Fig 2.4. This makes an evaluation of the spectral
response of the system easier. However, it should be pointed out that the spectrum of
the wind power is less clean due to the cubic nonlinearity involved, as is evident from
Two extreme cases are compared: the use of the filtering reference Pperf with τ = τmax
and a high λ∗ , and the use of hub speed feedback to track the optimal speed ωopt (t). The
first case is shown for the artificial wind input in Fig 4.9. In general, the observations
that follow are also apparent in the spectra for a measured wind input, Fig 4.10.
From Fig 4.9(a) it is clear that Pgrid is a low-pass filtered version of the wind power
Pwind (t), as one would expect from the filtered reference Pperf . A comparison of Pshaf t
Chapter 4. Results 82
Figure 4.8: Comparison of wind spectrum and wind power spectrum. Harmonics present
in the wind power are a result of its cubic dependence on windspeed.
Chapter 4. Results 83
with Pgrid shows that it contains slightly more energy at high frequencies.
Fig 4.9(b) shows how the spectra of Phub contains the peaks present in the wind power
above a certain cut-off frequency (approximately 5 mHz) where the power Pshaf t does not.
Below this frequency, the opposite is true; the spectrum of Pshaf t has the low-frequency
spectrum of the wind power, but Phub does not. This demonstrates the achievement of
Fig 4.9(b). This is reasonable, given the relative energy storage capacities of the two
subsystems. Above 0.1 Hz, Pf ast begins to possess more high frequency content than
Pgrid , and a bump can be observed in the spectrum in the 1-2 s range. This is the
frequency range of the internal modes of the controlled system, which are excited by
wind power fluctuations but not transfered to Pgrid . Thus, the objective P 2 is also being
met.
Fig 4.11 shows the case of optimal power tracking using speed feedback. The spec-
trum of Pgrid is close to that of the wind. In both Fig 4.11(c) and Fig 4.12(c), a small
bulge in the spectrum Pf ast not transferred to Pgrid is evident. Thus, even when tight
speed regulation is employed using Cexternal , the control structure still results in some
containment of fluctuations.
Chapter 4. Results 84
Figure 4.9: Artificial wind input: Power flow spectra for Pperf .
Chapter 4. Results 85
Figure 4.10: Measured wind input: Power flow spectra for filtering mode
Chapter 4. Results 86
Figure 4.11: Artificial wind input: Power flow spectra for optimal power tracking.
Chapter 4. Results 87
Figure 4.12: Measured wind input: Power flow spectra for optimal power tracking.
Chapter 5
Conclusions
5.1 Contributions
The objective of this thesis was to explore the concept of extracting a well-regulated
power from a wind energy conversion system. The two main contributions of the thesis
are as follows:
A) a control structure that eliminates the interaction of grid dynamics with fast
conversion system dynamics, and allows the specification of real and reactive power at
B) a control design procedure that allows the use of the turbine hub as a power filter
controlled conversion system can be modeled simply as a first-order filter of the available
wind power.
However, the contributions can also be evaluated separately. The first main contri-
bution is independent of the power requested from the system by the controller Cexternal .
The fast dynamics of the turbine are never directly introduced into the grid. This comes
with a trade-off discussed in the next section. The second main contribution is a general
88
Chapter 5. Conclusions 89
procedure that could be applied to other types of wind turbine systems, and may have
applications to other problems concerning energy storage in the hub.
5.2 Limitations
implications of these limitations can be partially discussed, but also extend into the
domain of future work.
LA1. It has been suggested that the use of energy from the grid to achieve the regula-
tion of states ‘internal’ to the conversion system should be avoided, and that the energy
of the turbine hub may be made employed instead. However, the available control is lim-
function of wind turbulence and conversion system parameters. In particular, the dc-link
capacitor must be sized large enough to ensure that fluctuations are within acceptable
limits. The bandwidth of Cinternal is also limited, due to the underlying limitations of
LB1. Operation that employs the wind turbine as a filter involves larger speed vari-
ations and operation at sub-optimal efficiency (i.e λ∗ > λopt ), which implies a higher
average turbine hub speed. For some operating points, physical limitations on hub speed
and generator speed would define the operating envelope, rather than stability limits.
The only speed limits discussed in the literature assume that rated power is flowing at
rated speed, which would not the case in the technique proposed. Further research is
can be estimated to some degree of accuracy with knowledge of the turbine characteristic
Chapter 5. Conclusions 90
[19], [37], [38], approaches that employ torque and hub speed measurements are more
practical. While use of the windspeed has simplified analysis and design, it would be
necessary to evaluate and possibly reduce the dependence of the method on windspeed
Possible future work includes both immediate extensions and verification, as well as
studies involving more background research.
mitigation of this sensitivity. Some form of self- adjustment in the control system
could also correct for a changing Cp curve, and other factors that cause the actual
• Further evaluation of the practicality of the proposed method would require a closer
with those attributed to other methods. The physical origin of the safety limits
on generator and hub speed should also be investigated, and used to evaluate the
nominal speed ranges found in simulation.
• An examination of the specific nature of power controls useful for ancillary services
should be studied for the case of a specific variable speed system in a known power
grid. The extent to which small power variations may be commanded from a wind
energy conversion systems on ancillary services would also consider the practical
• A grid interface controller to regulate the voltage at the point of common coupling
Chapter 5. Conclusions 91
should be designed based on a more detailed model of the grid. Its performance
in regulating voltage for the case of the proposed turbine controller could then be
compared with that of a more conventional method for the same wind power input.
Technical Specifications
92
Appendix A. Technical Specifications 93
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