FOSSILS

The fossil record is vital to the understanding of geologic time. A fossil is any remnant or indication
of prehistoric life preserved in rock. The study of fossils is called paleontology, an area of interest
to both biologists and geologists. Evidence of ancient plants and animals can be preserved in two
different ways.
1. ORIGINAL REMAINS. Ancient insects have been preserved by the sticky tree resin in which
they were trapped. The hardened resin, called amber and often used for jewelry. The entire bodies
of woolly mammoths have been found frozen in the permafrost of Alaska and Siberia. More often,
only the hardest parts of organisms are preserved, such as bones. Shark teeth and the shells of
shallow-water marine organisms that were buried in ancient sediment are common types of
original remains.
2. MOLDS AND CASTS OF REMAINS. When an embedded shell or bone is dissolved
completely out of a rock, it leaves a hollow depression called a mold. When new mineral material
fills the mold and hardens, it forms a cast of the original shell or bone. MOLDS AND CASTS
CAN SHOW ONLY THE ORIGINAL SHAPE OF THE REMAINS.

RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME is obtained when rocks and the geologic events that they record
are placed in chronologic order without regard to actual dates. As an analogy, you might find out
that a friend of yours graduated from college, then served in the military, and then got married.
You know the relative time, or the order in which the events occurred, but what if you knew the
actual date of each of these events in your friend’s life? Then you would know what geologists
call ABSOLUTE TIME.

Fossils typically formed when all or part of an organism was buried in layers of sediment. As the
organism decomposed the surrounding rock preserved their shapes. Geologists have discovered
large numbers of fossils with hard shells, skeletons, or bones, such as clam shells, fish skeletons,
and dinosaur bones. However, they have found far fewer remains of worms, slugs, and jellyfish
because the soft organisms (or parts of organisms) decompose quickly, before they are buried and
preserved. The more resilient shells, skeletons, and bones can also decompose after they are buried
if they come in contact with underground water afterward. For this reason, most fossils are
typically composed of some type of replacement material rather than an organism’s original
biological substance.
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Geologic Time Scale- a calendar of Earth's history. And subdivides geologic history into units.

STRUCTURE OF THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE:

1. PRECAMBRIAN ERA: This is the first era of the earth’s history and it is also the longest.
This era includes events from the earth’s formation until about 640 million years ago. At the end
of the Precambrian era, new life forms began to appear on earth.
a) Hadean Eon:
b) Archean (Ancient) Eon: Formation of the oceans and sea floors, meteor
bombardment, formation of small volcanic islands, and the evolution of blue-green algae,
floating in the oceans as algal mats (the only known life at that time).
c) Proterozoic (Early Life) Eon: Formation of two supercontinents, still a lot of volcanic
activity, and the evolution of multi-celled organisms at the very end of the Proterozoic.

2. PALEOZOIC (ANCIENT LIFE) ERA: During this time, plants and animals began to inhabit
the earth. When this era ended, many kinds of organisms became extinct.
(IN ORDER) the evolution of fish, evolution of land plants, evolution of terrestrial insects (e.g.
giant dragonflies and centipedes) evolution of terrestrial tetrapods (four- limbed vertebrates similar
to amphibians).

3. MESOZOIC (MIDDLE LIFE) ERA: this era was dominated by dinosaurs. Most of the earth
had a warm and wet climate. The era came to an end when most of dinosaurs and other life forms
became extinct. Although the exact cause is unknown, some scientists attribute the extinction of
the dinosaurs to large asteroid or rock form space colliding with the Earth.
(IN ORDER) evolution of small dinosaurs, the break-up the supercontinent Pangaea, evolution of
sauropod dinosaurs (long-neck dinosaurs), evolution of small rodent-like mammals, evolution of
ceratopsian dinosaurs and Tyrannosaurus rex, evolution of birds, and the giant meteor impact at
the end of the Mesozoic.

4. CENOZOIC (RECENT LIFE) ERA: evolution of modern mammals, build-up of the

Himalayas, continents attain their modern positions. Since the end of the Mesozoic Era, the earth
has existed within the Cenozoic Era. This era is marked by a cooler and drier climate. The earth
has experienced several ice ages during this era. Humans have lived on earth only for a small
portion of this era. It dates back roughly 66 million years ago.

VOCABULARY:
Eon = The largest unit of time.
Era = A unit of time shorter than an eon but longer than a period.
Period = A unit of time shorter than an era but longer than epoch.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
Hydroelectric power plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric energy is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to
generate electricity

PARTS OF A HYDROELECTRIC PLANT

DAM. The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam is built
on a large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It should be built at a
location where the height of the river is sufficient to get the maximum possible potential energy
from water. The dam raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also controls the
flow of water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.
WATER RESERVOIR. The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored.
The water in the reservoir is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water
in the reservoir decides how much potential energy the water possesses. The higher the height of
water, the more its potential energy. The high position of water in the reservoir also enables it to
move downwards effortlessly.
The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water flowing in the river,
so it is considered to have an altered equilibrium. This also helps to increase the overall potential
energy of water, which helps ultimately produce more electricity in the power generation unit.

INTAKE OR CONTROL GATES. These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water
from reservoir is released and controlled through these gates. When the control gates are opened
the water flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing
through the gates possesses potential as well as kinetic energy.

THE PENSTOCK. The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from
the reservoir towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and generator. The
water in the penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its
height.
The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the
water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water
flowing through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.
TURBINE. The force of falling water pushing against the turbine's blades causes the turbine to
spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill, except the energy is provided by falling water
instead of wind. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy.
GENERATOR. Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears so when the turbine spins
it causes the generator to spin also. Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electric
energy. Generators in hydropower plants work just like the generators in other types of power
plants.
TRANSMISSION LINES. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and business.

HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY CAN A HYDROELECTRIC PLANT MAKE?

The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors:
1. How Far the Water Falls. The farther the water falls, the more power it has. Generally, the
distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The higher the dam, the farther the
water falls and the more power it has. Scientists would say that the power of falling water is
"directly proportional" to the distance it falls. In other words, water falling twice as far has twice
as much energy.
2. Amount of Water Falling. More water falling through the turbine will produce more power.
The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the river. Bigger
rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is also "directly proportional"
to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water as another river can produce twice
as much energy.

NOTE:
Read the environmental changes greatly changed the surface of earth on PAGES 89-90.
Read the Themes in the Study of Life (Hierarchy of Organization, Emergent Properties,
and the Cellular Basis of Life) on PAGES 93-95
Read the life processes that organisms undergo (GaRaNaTaSaCEI) on PAGES 102-105

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE: