D A N I E L R .

A G U I N A L D O N A T I O N A L H I G H S C H O O L
Matina, Davao City
A Project Sterling Silver Accredited Public Secondary School
S C I E N C E D E P A R T M E N T
“Preparing Scientifically, Technologically and Environmentally Literate and Functional Members of Society"

EARTH AND SPACE Different fault types and the deformation they cause:

REVIEW SHEET
EARTHQUAKES AND FAULTS
 Earthquakes occur when rocks along a fault suddenly
move.
 1. Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the sides of the
fault together.
 2. The friction across the surface of the fault holds the rocks
together so they do not slip immediately when pushed
sideways.
 3. Eventually enough stress builds up and the rocks slip
suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel through the
rock to cause the shaking that we feel during an earthquake.

1.

 The “size” of earthquakes is commonly expressed in two

2.
3.
 A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust along which significant
movement has taken place.
 Focus is the place, underground along the fault plane,
where the earthquake starts.
 Epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface that is directly
above the focus.
 Fault line is the trace of the fault on the surface of the Earth.
 Fault plane is the surface between the two rock blocks
where fault slip or fault movement happens during an
earthquake.
 Hanging wall is the block of rock above the fault plane.
 Foot wall is the block of rock below the fault plane.
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ways- magnitude and intensity.
 Magnitude measures the amount energy released by an
earthquake. The Richter scale is used to rate the
magnitude. Information is gathered by a seismograph.
Expressed using Hindu-Arabic Numerals (1, 2, 3…)
 Intensity measures the observable effects of earthquake’s
destructive power on people and places. The extent of
damage is rated on the Mercalli scale. Expressed using
Roman numerals (I, II, III…).
 When an earthquake occurs, different places will have
different intensities. That is because different areas will
experience different degrees of shaking. Near the
epicenter, shaking is great, so the intensity there will be
high. Away from the epicenter, the intensity is less.
 The intensity also depends on the type of material that
makes up the ground. If the ground is made of solid rock,
it will shake less. In comparison, loose materials such as
sand and silt will undergo greater shaking and will result
in more damage.
 Active fault is one that has generated earthquakes in
the past (within 10,000 years) and is expected to move
again. Example: Philippine West Valley Fault and the
Philippine Fault.
 Inactive fault is a structure which can be identified but
had not displayed any seismic activity for more than
10,000 years.
 Tsunami is a very high, large seismic wave in the
ocean that is usually formed when an underwater fault
suddenly moves in a sudden vertical (upward and
downward) direction.
 A sign of a tsunami is that the water rushes away from the water or the liquid layers of the earth and gaseous
shore, then comes back to higher levels. materials. Also known as compressional waves. Rock
particles move back and forth – pushing them apart and
 A tsunami is so powerful because the wave involves the then back together – parallel to the direction of the waves
whole depth of the ocean, not just the water on the surface. as it passes through. These waves typically arrive at the
The wave is long, about 100 km or so. When the “front” end surface as an abrupt thud. (science.howstuffworks.com)
reaches the shore, it slows down. But the “tail” end keeps on
coming at great speed. So the water piles up and grows to
dangerous heights, destroying everything in its path.
 Scientists have used data from earthquake or seismic
waves to figure out the internal structure of the Earth.
 Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the
sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.
o Secondary waves (S-waves) – the second wave you
 Seismographs are instruments located at or near the feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P
surface of the Earth that record seismic waves. When the wave. Also known as shear waves. As S waves move,
waves reach a seismograph, the seismograph creates a they displace rock particles outward, pushing them
seismogram. perpendicular to the path of the waves. This results in the
first period of rolling associated with earthquakes. Unlike
 Seismogram is a tracing of earthquake motion created by a
P waves, S waves don't move straight through the
seismograph.
Earth. They only travel through solid material, and so
are stopped at the liquid layer in the Earth's core. It is this
property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude
that the Earth's outer core is a liquid.

 Types of surface waves: L-waves or Love waves and R-

waves or Rayleigh waves

 Two main types of seismic waves are body waves and o Love waves (L-waves) – this kind of surface waves causes
horizontal shifting of the earth during an earthquake. They
surface waves. are much slower than body waves but are faster than
Rayleigh. They exist only in the presence of semi-infinite
medium overlain by an upper finite thickness. Confined to
the surface of the crust. Love waves produce entirely
horizontal motion.

o Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and

surface waves.
o Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers
and provide information about the nature and
composition of the Earth.
o Surface waves can only move along the surface of the o Rayleigh waves (R-waves) - These waves follow an
Earth like ripples on water. Surface waves are to blame elliptical motion. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just
for most of an earthquake’s damage. They move up and like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls,
down the surface of the Earth, rocking the foundations of it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the
man-made structures. Surface waves are the slowest same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking
moving of all waves, which means they arrive the last. felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which
So the most intense shaking usually comes at the end of can be much larger than the other waves.
an earthquake.
 Types of body waves: Primary wave or P wave and the
Secondary wave or S wave.
o Primary waves (P-waves) – fastest moving kind of
seismic wave, traveling at 1.6 to 8 kilometers per second
(generally 1.7 times faster than S-waves), and,
consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The
P wave can pass through solid rock and fluids, like
https://www.clearias.com/earthquakes/
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 Seismic waves arrive at the seismograph station in the o Heat makes air rise more, and air in the surroundings will
following order: keep coming in.
o The air starts to spin and a tropical cyclone develops.
o P waves arrive first, followed in order by S waves, and
o Note: Rising air rises because of high temperature, high
finally surface waves (Love and Rayleigh) waves
pressure and its low density.
o Average speeds for all these waves is known. After an
 The Philippines is prone to typhoons, with an average
earthquake, the difference in arrival times at the
of 20 typhoons every year. Our country is located near
seismograph station can be used to calculate the
the equator. Thus, it is warm and humid in the vicinity of
distance from seismograph to the epicenter. If
the Philippines, both on land and in the surrounding bodies
information from three or more points are gathered, the
of water. It is surrounded by the warm water of the
location of the focus can be determined in a process
Pacific Ocean which supplies the water vapor that a
called trilateration. (science.howstuffworks.com)
tropical cyclone needs to keep it going.
 Tropical cyclones weaken when they hit land. They die out
over land because they need warm water to sustain them.
They need water vapor to keep them going. Even when
the tropical cyclone is still in a body of water, it may weaken
and die out if the water is cold.
 Anatomy of a tropical cyclone

Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) - government agency

under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;
is responsible for the conservation, management, development
and proper use of the country’s mineral resources including
those in reservations and lands of public domains.

UNDERSTANDING TYPHOONS
 Tropical cyclone (bagyo) is a system of thunderstorms
that move around a center. It is characterized by
excessive rain and strong winds that go around a
center. Universal name for storms.
Different names for storms where the storm occurs:
o Hurricane - northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and
northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean
o Typhoon - in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean
o Cyclones - in Indian Ocean
 Tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere moves in a
counter clockwise direction  Location A and E is within the Eye – light winds, little
precipitation, air pressure is less than the air pressures
 Tropical cyclone in the southern hemisphere it moves in
away from the eye.
a clockwise direction.
 The clouds at Location F make up the Eyewall – strongest
 Four (4) categories of tropical cyclone depending on
winds (warm rising air), heaviest precipitation
the wind speed:
Maximum Wind Speed kilometers
 Locations B, C, and D are Spiral rain bands –
Category precipitation bands that flow toward storm center, are
per hour (kph)
Tropical Depression 64 locations that are more and more distant from the eye. Air
Tropical Storm 118 pressure is greater as the distance from the eye increases.
Typhoon 200  The Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) is an area
Supertyphoon greater than 200 of the Earth’s surface enclosing the Philippines, Palau,
Taiwan, and the northern tip of Borneo. The Philippines
 Conditions for tropical cyclones to develop:
monitors the formation, arrival, movement, and track of
o Warm ocean water, 26.5˚ or greater tropical cyclones within the PAR.
o Warm ocean water heats up the air above it
 The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and
o Warm air rises, resulting in a low-pressure area (LPA).
Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) is
o Air in the surroundings will then move toward the area
the government agency that monitors and issues warnings
replacing the rising warm air.
and bulletins about weather disturbances that occur within
o Water vapor in the rising warm air will condense and heat
the PAR. It gives the typhoons that enter the PAR its own
is given off.
Philippine name from a pre-published list of names
assigned for each annual typhoon season. In addition,
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 such storms are given an international name from a list
contributed by different countries.
 Public Storm Warning Signals (PSWS) issued by
PAGASA to warn people about approaching weather
disturbance.
SIGNAL WIND SPEED
INTERPRETATION
# (kph)
Signifies a threat of an approaching
1 30-60 typhoon within 36 hours.
Indicates the likelihood of a typhoon
2 60-100 within 24 hours. People are instructed to
plan for emergency action.
Means that a typhoon is expected within
3 100-185 18 hours. Everybody is advised to stay
at home. Evacuate from low-lying areas.
Is used to denote a direct hit by an
intense typhoon within 12 hours.
4 > 185 Evacuation to safer shelter should be
completed by now.
COMETS, ASTEROIDS AND METEORS
 Comets and asteroids orbit the Sun similar to the way the
Earth does. Scientists believe many of these small worlds
have changed very little since they first formed. They are
unlike Earth with all its weathering, volcanoes and
earthquakes, asteroids and comets can tell us what the early
solar system was like. They are remnants of the solar
system.
 Comet - A ball of cosmic snow, ice, dust and rocks left over
after the Sun, the planets, and the moons formed, comes
from the icy cold edges of the solar system and orbits the
Sun.
 Structure of a comet
o Nucleus - 10 km “Dirty Snowball”; solid part, primarily
made of frozen gas and dust
o Coma - Cloud of evaporated ices and ions, may be
100,000 km in diameter
o Tail - always points away from Sun
 Why can we see a comet? the ice turns to vapor (from the
Sun melting it), particles of dust trapped in the ice break free.
Develop comas and tails (always points away from the Sun)
as they approach the Sun. These particles reflect sunlight,
and it is this reflected sunlight that makes the comet visible
to us on Earth.
 Where do comets come from? Most comets come from the
Kuiper belt, a region beyond the orbit of Neptune, and in Oort
Cloud in outer solar system.
o Probably formed in the outer solar system.
o Diameters range from about 6 – 25 miles.
 Short-period comets - Comets from the neighborhood of
the Kuiper Belt usually take up 200 years or less to make
one orbit around the Sun.
 Long-period comets – comets from the Oort Cloud, a far-
distant cloud of possibly a trillion comets that surrounds the
solar system. One trip around the Sun could take one of
these comets 30 million years.
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 Orbit can be disturbed to toss comet into elongated orbit,
so we see it in the inner solar system.
 May have contributed large part of Earth’s water.
 Asteroid - small rocky or metallic body that orbits the
Sun. Hundreds of thousands of asteroids exist in the solar
system.
o range in size from a few meters to over 500 km (300 mi)
wide.
o generally irregular in shape and often have surfaces
covered with craters.
o like icy comets, asteroids are primitive objects left over from
the time when the planets formed.
o Most reside in Asteroid Belt between orbits of Mars and
Jupiter.
o Probably formed inside the orbit of Jupiter.
o Composed of rock, metals, and silicates
o Surface is solid and stable, showing craters where other
objects have crashed into it.
o Surface does not boil off, thus no coma or tails.
o Orbit is stable and fairly circular in between Mars and
Jupiter.
o Have left craters on Earth, and may have caused mass
extinctions, such as of dinosaurs.
o Orbital period (years) – 1- 100
METEOROID, METEOR, AND METEORITE
 Asteroids are the biggest space rocks. These rocks break
into smaller pieces that sometimes fall to Earth.
 Meteoroid is a broken up rock and dust from either a
comet, asteroid, the Moon, or from Mars. Meteoroids orbit
our Sun just like asteroids and planets.
 Meteor, or shooting star, is not a star but a light
phenomenon or a streak of light or a fast-moving bright
object that appears to have a tail, just like a comet.
o Occurs when a meteoroid burns up because of friction and
makes the air around it glow as it enters Earth’s
atmosphere. Most meteor burn up.
o Scientists think up to 10,000 tons of meteors fall on the
Earth each day, but most are no bigger than a speck of dust.
 Meteor shower - When Earth orbits the Sun and passes
through the orbit of a comet where these comet fragments
are found, we observe many streaks of light from Earth
which is called a meteor shower.
o Usually, the meteoroids that cause meteor showers come
from comets, but they may also come from an asteroid like
in the case of the Geminids.
o Meteoroids from comets appear fuzzy because of the ice
particles
o Meteoroids from asteroids are clearer and distinct
because they do not have those ice particles.
 Difference between a meteor and a comet:
o Comet moves slowly and appears in the sky for a longer
time. It is difficult to see with the unaided eye because it
is farther from the Earth compared to a meteoroid
entering the Earth’s atmosphere.
o Meteor moves swiftly and seems to fall on the ground, it
“shoots” from a point in the sky.
 Meteorite is a meteor that makes it all the way to ground
without burning up. Meteorites range in size from tiny
pebbles to boulders.
 Some planets and moons don't have enough atmosphere to
protect them against meteor and asteroid impacts. Earth's
moon, Mercury and even Mars are covered with round impact
craters from these collisions.
-end- sjabermejo2019