Geo Assignment

Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Sumiran Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 04
Roll No.: 47 Date of Submission:
Discuss the importance of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock.

Correlate its importance in civil engineering field with suitable examples.
Ans. Rocks have a broad range of uses that makes them significantly
important to human life. Rocks are classified as Igneous, Metamorphic and
Sedimentary rocks.
When sheets of igneous rocks are cut and polished, they are used inside
buildings such as banks and offices, and are also used as gravelstones.
 Granites: used for building stone and decorative rock materials.
 Basalt: used as an ingredient of concrete
 Pumice: used as an ingredient in lightweight construction material
 Gabbro: used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate
The study of metamorphic rocks play a significant role in reconstruction of Earth’s

history.
 Quartzite: used in building railroad tracks
 Marbles: used for statue and decorative items like vase
 Schist and Slate: used as building and landscape materials
 Gneiss: used as roadstones and in some cases as building stones
Sedimentary rocks contain important information about Earth’s history.
They contain fossils unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Sandstone: mainly used in the building construction
 Limestone: used for manufacturing Portland cement, which is a component
of concrete, production of lime etc.
 Shale: Cement production and aggregate in road construction
 Conglomerate: used in the construction industry
Write down specific use of the following rocks.
a. Limestone: Used in building and construction in the form of crushed

stone. Also it is used in the manufacture of Portland cement and
production of lime.
b. Dolomite: Used as an ingredient in the production of glass, bricks and
ceramics. It is often used as an aggregate for both cement and bitumen
mixes.
c. Granite: Used for building stone and decorative rock material
d. Chalk: Used in construction industry for the production of cement, lime,
various plastering and painting materials
e. Marble: Used for sculpture and as a building material. Also used for
flooring of home and kitchen items etc.
f. Slate: Used in building roofs and floors
g. Sandstone: Used mainly used in the building construction and paving
h. Clay: Used for making pottery and construction products such as bricks,
walls and floor tiles.
Discuss the significance of internal structure of earth.

Ans.
The internal structure of earth, similar to the outer is layered.
The earth has an outer silicate solid crust a highly viscous mantle a liquid outer
core that is much less viscous than the mantle and solid inner core. It is
fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.
The significance of internal structure of earth are mentioned
below:
 It is impossible to know about the earth’s interior structure by direct
observation because of huge size and the changing nature of its interior
composition.
 It is almost impossible distance for humans to reach the center of the
earth.
 Through mining and drilling operations we have been able to observe the
earth’s interior directly only up to a depth of few kilometers.
 The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly
impossible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.
Based on velocity and density distribution in the different layers of earth’s

structure, give suitable explanation for the formation of layers.
Ans.
The outer surface is covered by thin layer of air which is called
atmosphere. According to the structural point of view, earth is divided into three
parts. Based on the velocity and density distribution different layers of earth’s
structure can be listed as:
1. Crust:
 The outermost layer of the earth, the lower boundary of which is
mohorovic discontinuity (Moho) is called crust.
 It has density of 2.5 gm/cm3.
 The boundary surface that separates the earth’s crust from the mantle is
called mohorovic discontinuity in which the seismic p-wave velocity
abruptly changes from 7km/s to 8.2km/s.
2. Mantle:
 The zone within the earth that extends below the crust to core at a depth
of 2900km is called mantle.
I. Upper mantle:
 It has p-wave velocity of 8.1km/s with density 3.32gm/cm3.
 On the lower layer of upper mantle, there is also increase of seismic
p-wave velocity recorded 10.27km/s.
II. Lower mantle:
 Here, p-wave seismic velocity further increases.
 The upper most part of lower mantle has a velocity of 10.75km/s.
With density of it abruptly changes to a velocity of 13.71km/s.
3. Core :
 In this region, the p-wave velocity decreases from 13.71km/s to 8.06km/s.
 It has density of 9.90gm/cm3.
i. Outer core:
 It is composed of liquid with high density of 9.90gm/cm3 with p-
wave velocity of 8.06km/s, below which s-waves are not
transmitted.
ii. Inner core:
 It has a density of 12.8gm/cm3 on the upper part of the inner core
and velocity is about 1.3kmls.
 At the lower part i.e. at the center of the earth, it has a density of
13.1gm/cm3.
Describe the types of rocks and compositions found in each layers. Write down
the possible causes of problems in engineering on the basis of earth’s internal
structure.
Ans. The Earth's crust is made up of about 95% igneous and
metamorphic rocks, 4% shale, 0.75% sandstone, and 0.25% limestone. Oxygen
is the most abundant mineral in the crust and the most common minerals are
silicates. Carbonates are also very important at the surface of the Earth because
these minerals are formed directly or indirectly from carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
Crust:
The rocks that make up the crust can be classified as below:
 Igneous rocks: rocks that cool from a magma. The two most common
types are granite and basalt.
 Metamorphic rocks: rocks that have been altered by high pressures,
temperatures and/or chemical reaction while still in the solid state. Two
common types are marble, which comes from limestone, and slate that
comes from shale.
 Sedimentary rocks: rocks that are formed from the lithification of
sediments, chemical precipitation or by direct biogenic deposition. Some
common types are sandstone, shale, coal, limestone and coral.
Mantle:
The mantle is composed mainly of iron and magnesium silicates. The
temperature increases with depth from 870 deg to 2200 deg C.
Core:
The core is mainly composed of hot metallic nickel and iron. The outer
core is liquid but the inner core is solid due to higher pressure. Currents within
the mantle have broken the crust into blocks, called plates, which slowly move
around, colliding to build mountains or rifting apart to form new seafloor. Except
in the crust, the interior of the Earth cannot be studied by drilling holes to take
samples.
Describe the types of plate boundaries with suitable diagrams in detail.

Ans. The plate boundaries are classified into following types:
1. Convergent plate boundaries:
These are the plate boundaries where plate move together
causing one plate to go beneath other. The denser plate sink in a
processes called sub-duction. Convergence begins when oceanic
lithosphere decouples, that is, breaks at some place and descends into
mantle along a sub-duction zone. Continental crust is too light to sub duct.
A chain of volcanoes often forms parallel to the boundary, to the mountain
range, and to the trench.
2. Divergent plate boundaries :

These are the plate boundaries where plate move away from
each other. It is also known as tensional or constructive plate boundary.
New divergent plate boundaries are created at continental rifting centers
by tension. Any condition that pulls the earth apart can cause this faulting.
For this to occur something must create the tension, must pull the earth
apart.
.
3. Transform plate boundaries :

These are the plate boundaries where two plates move parallel to
each other in opposite direction neither convergence nor divergence. The
San Andrian Fault California is a transform boundary.
Name: Sumiran Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Groundwater conservation:
Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces
in soil, sand and rock. It is also called subsurface water to distinguish it from
surface water, which is found in large bodies like the oceans or lakes or which
flows overland in streams. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic
formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. Groundwater is a source of
recharge for lakes, rivers, and wetlands.
Due to over usage and exploitation of ground water for irrigation,
industries , drinking water and encroachment of tank beds, river banks,
catchments by developing housing colonies, further destroying the forest cover
leading to depletion of ground water. It’s imperative to conserve and improve
ground water levels. Watershed management helps in improving the ground
water levels. It involves in improvements of land use, protect and improve the
quality of water and natural resources in the catchments. Constructing check
dams, farm ponds, rock dams, trenching, etc. helps in increasing the infiltration of
water in the ground and also helps in increasing the holding capacity.
Groundwater occurs when water recharges the subsurface through
cracks and pores in soil and rock. Use of fewer chemicals around the homes
must be initiated. Proper disposal of wastes plays a vital role in the conservation
of these resources.
Discuss the types of seismic waves with suitable diagrams. Explain the reason
for most destructive seismic wave.
Ans. Seismic waves can be classified into following types:
1. Body Waves:
 Primary Waves (P-waves)
 Secondary Waves (S–waves)
2. Surface Waves:
 Love Waves (L-waves)
 Rayleigh Waves (R-waves)
1) Body Waves:
The body waves which travels in the earth/rock below the surface the
Earth is called body wave. The body wave is of two types:
 Primary Waves (P-waves):

It is the fastest wave which travel through solids, liquids or gases. It
is the compressional wave in which the material movement is in the same
direction of the wave movement. In other words, it is the longitudinal waves
because their oscillations are parallel to the direction of the wave, like a spring
being pulled back and forth.
 Secondary Waves (S-waves):

It is slower than P‐waves which travel through solids only. It is also
called shear waves in which the material movement is perpendicular to the wave
movement. In other words, it is also called transverse or shear waves because
their oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of the wave, like a wave in a
swimming pool.
2) Surface Waves :
Surface waves are long waves generated by the energy brought to the
surface by the P and S waves. These are confined to the outer skin of the crust.
They cause more destructive.
 Love Waves (L-waves):
The second kind of surface wave in which the motion is horizontal and
at right angles to the direction of propagation. It is the fastest wave where ground
moves from side to side. It is the fastest wave where ground moves from side to
side. It was an Oxford mathematician, A.E.H. Love, who explained them by an
extension of Rayleigh’s theory.
 Rayleigh Waves (R-waves):

The British Physicist Lord Rayleigh in 1887 determined the
surface wave called Rayleigh waves. The motion of particles is in elliptical orbits
in the vertical plane of propagation. The energy rolls the ground up and down like
waves on the surface of the ocean. As a result damages on the surface features
are highly noticeable.
In between body and surface wave the surface wave is more destructive
and dangerous than body wave. Because surface wave have larger amplitude
than body wave and have slower velocity. Surface wave have higher impact on
us human because its movement can destroy structure on earth surface and
bring causalities. With consideration for seismic load in building design, we may
reduce number of building to collapse. While proper mitigation and alarm to
public may save people lives.
In between body wave S-wave are more destructive and dangerous than
p- wave, due to larger amplitude and transversal movement. While S-wave
cannot passes through air or liquid. In between body and surface wave the
surface wave is more destructive and dangerous than body wave. Because
surface wave have larger amplitude than body wave and have slower velocity.
Elaborate terminologies of foreshock, main shock, after shock, magnitude and

intensity. Tabulate magnitude scale and intensity scale with suitable examples.
Ans.
1. Fore shock:
A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger seismic
event (the main shock) and is related to it in both time and space.
2. Main shock:
The main shock is the largest earthquake in a sequence,
sometimes preceded by one or more foreshocks, and almost always
followed by many aftershocks.
3. After shock:
After a large earthquake, land masses continue to move and
adjust to a new position. This results in a series of small shocks. These
small shocks after a major earthquake are called aftershocks.
4. Magnitude and Intensity:
Magnitude is a measure of the energy released during the
earthquake. For instance, an earthquake of magnitude ‘8’ is ten times
larger than an earthquake of magnitude ‘7’ and hundred times larger
than that of magnitude ‘6’ and thousand times larger than the
magnitude of ‘5’.
Intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the degree of damage
and destruction it can cause. The intensity of an earthquake diminishes
outward from the epicenter.
Discuss seismicity in Nepal. Explain the mechanism of recent Gorkha

Earthquake in 2015.
Ans.
Nepal is one of the long-identified high seismic hazard nations
lies in the central most segment of the Himalayan collided zone with an entire
population exceeded 26 million. During its history, Nepal has experienced six
large/great damaging earthquakes (1255, 1408, 1505, 1833, 1934, and 2015)
with magnitudes equal to or greater than 7.6 and several strong earthquakes
since and have caused serious disasters with huge human casualties and
countless monetary losses. The entire territory of Nepal lies in high seismic
hazard zone. The country's high seismicity is related to the movement of tectonic
plates along the Himalayas that has caused several active faults. A total of 92
active faults have been mapped throughout the country by the Seismic Hazard
Mapping and Risk Assessment for Nepal carried out as part of the Building Code
Development Project.
The latest most destructive earthquake (Mw=7.8, 25 April 2015
Gorkha earthquake) and its accompanied aftershocks caused a high toll of
casualties (>8,600 deaths and injuries >20,000), damage (>5 million houses) and
monetary losses (~ 7 billion in US dollars) in Nepal (Government of Nepal 2015).
Until recently, an update of earthquakes catalogue in this region is received a
very little attention. However, some studies have well-documented past seismic
activity of Nepal and the surrounding region in the course of preparing the
seismic ground motion hazard maps of Nepal. This study focuses on updating
and analyzing an earthquakes catalogue for Nepal and the surrounding region
spanning the period from 1255 to 2015. The magnitude (Mw) 7.8 April 25th, 2015
earthquake in central Nepal occurred where the Indian and Eurasian plates
collide. The earthquake ruptured the large, gently dipping Main Himalayan Thrust
fault, which represents the boundary between the plates, at shallow depth.
Describe the prediction of earthquakes. Elaborate geographical distribution of

earthquakes.
Ans. Even though there has been tremendous progress in the field
of science, in the recent years, it has not yet become possible to have any
scientific method for accurate prediction of earthquakes. The indication about the
place and the strength of the coming earthquakes can be provided to a
satisfactory extent by maps of seismic zones. It involves the study and analysis
of the frequency of the previous earthquakes, the location of their epicenters and
hypocenters etc. However, in regions that have not been affected by the
earthquakes the problem becomes complicated. In such cases, a close study of
the geological structure of the seismic areas is made against the background of
the geological structure of the region in which earthquakes have never been
registered.
Earthquakes are distributed unevenly on the globe. In certain places
they are more frequent and intense whereas in other places that are extremely
rare and feeble or their effect is hardly perceptible. The earthquakes are
concentrated in two main belts.
1. Circum-Pacific Belt: This belt includes all the coastal areas around the vast
Pacific Ocean. This belt extends as an isostatically sensitive zone through the
coasts of Alaska, Aleutian Islands, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand, North
and South America. This zone accounts for 68% of all earthquakes on the
surface of the earth. The most talked about earthquake areas in this zone
include Japan, Chile, California and Mexico.
2. Mediterranean-Asia Belt: This belt begins from Alps mountain range and
passes through Turkey, Caucasus Range, Iran, Iraq, Himalayan Mountains
and Tibet to China. One of its branches passes through Mongolia and Lake
Baikal and another branch extends to Myanmar. About 31% of world's
earthquakes are located in this region,
Discuss the effects of volcanism.

Ans. Primary effects of volcanic activity include lava flows, ash flows (hot
avalanches), lateral blasts, or ash falls. Secondary effects include mudflows,
floods, and fires. These effects may be responsible for the alteration of
geomorphic features as well as the settlements created by human beings. Some
of them are quoted below.
1. The flow of lava may cover and damage huge areas of lands, forests,
agricultural lands, settlement areas and transform them into waste lands.
2. The volcanic eruption releases many highly poisonous gases which may
be responsible for killing many living beings including people.
3. Volcanic erupted area may be blanketed by ash after eruption, blowing off
its dome and spewing a cloud of smoke and debris many kilometers into
the air. Apart from burial of land and buildings, extensive fall‐out can
seriously disrupt communications and interfere with water supplies.
4. It causes extensive damages on infrastructures such as road, bridge,
building, dam, and so many other things.
5. Huge amounts of released ash and dust particles may be blown on the sky
for many days which blocks the sun light.
6. A further risk that has only been taken seriously over the past decade or so
is that to aircraft encountering ash clouds. Intake of fine ash into jet
engines can result in catastrophic loss of power. So far there have been no
major air disasters from this cause although there have been incidents
where crashes have been narrowly avoided.
Discuss the prediction of volcanism.

Ans.
Volcanologists attempt to forecast volcanic eruptions, but this has
proven to be nearly as difficult as predicting an earthquake. Many pieces of
evidence can mean that a volcano is about to erupt, but the time and magnitude
of the eruption are difficult to pin down. This evidence includes the history of
previous volcanic activity, earthquakes, slope deformation, and gas emissions.
Possible methods of predicting volcanic eruptions include geophysical
observations of thermal and magnetic properties, topographic monitoring of tilting
or swelling of the volcano, monitoring seismic activity, and studying the geologic
history of a particular volcano or volcanic center. Geophysical monitoring of
volcanoes is based on the fact that, prior to an eruption, a large volume of
magma (liquid rock) moves up into some sort of holding reservoir beneath the
volcano. The hot material changes the local magnetic and thermal conditions. As
the surrounding rocks heat, the rise in temperature of the surficial rock may be
detected by infrared aerial photography.
Monitoring of topographic changes and seismic behavior of
volcanoes has been useful in predicting some volcanic eruptions. The Hawaiian
volcanoes, especially Kilauea, have supplied most of the data. The summit of the
volcano actually tilts and swells prior to an eruption and subsides during the
actual outbreak. The inhabitants were evacuated before the activity, which
overran, thrust aside, and floated away lava barriers and eventually destroyed
most of the village. According to past experience on occasions of volcanic
eruptions, it is confirmed that the following phenomena are useful for predicting
volcanic eruptions:
(1) Earthquakes originating from the volcanoes;
(2) Crustal movements on or near the volcanoes;
(3) Variations of the geothermal temperature on the volcanoes;
(4) Variations of the geomagnetic and gravity fields on and near the volcanoes.
Illustrate the types of volcanic products in detail.

Ans.
The drama of a volcanic eruption transfers materials from inside
the Earth to our planet’s surface. Products of an eruption come in three forms
lava ﬂows, pyroclastic debris, and gas.
1. Gases:
Gases are invariably emitted during volcanic eruptions. Indeed, the
clearest characteristic of many eruptions is the column of ash‐laden gas rising
above them. The gases can be released with immense energy, driving columns of
ash tens of kilometers high. Velocities of up to 600 m/s been calculated for the
gases leaving the vent in some historic eruptions. The best sampling procedures
have shown that H2O and CO2are by far the major species. Whereas for most
volcanic emissions, water composes 90% or more of the gas, in some CO2
appears to be the dominant component.
SO2, HCl, H2, and H2S plus He, and other noble gases, together with
those metallic halides and sulphides that are volatile at magmatic temperatures,
are generally present as subsidiary constituents. The actual gas compositions are
no doubt, highly variable and dependent on the precise geochemistry of the
associated magma. Yellow crystals of sulphur grown around high‐temperature gas
vents provide a common.
2. Lavas:
The liquids congeal fast as they lose heat and volatiles, forming rocks
that are typically finely crystalline or even glassy. The magma that has flowed out
on to the surface is called lava. All lavas contain gases, but due to the high
pressure that prevails in the interior of the earth the content of gases and vapors in
the magma are more.. Like magma, lava is also divided into three types such as
acidic, intermediate, and basic depending upon the silica content.
 Acidic lava:
Acidic lava contains a high proportion of silica which has a high melting
point and is usually very viscous and therefore their mobility is low. They cool very
slowly and contain many gases in a dissolved state. Rhyolite composed of
orthoclase feldspar and quartz is the example of acidic lava.
 Intermediate lava:
Intermediate lava has the silica content between 55 to 60%. Andesite
lavas are the best examples of it and they mostly characterize extrusions around
the margins of the Pacific.
 Basic lava:
Basic lava contains low percentage of silica, which is usually 50% or
less. They melt at lower temperature, and have a high density as well as liquid
consistency. They cool rapidly and contain little gas. They are highly mobile and
spread over large distances, forming flows or sheets. Basalts are the best
examples of the basic lava.
3. Pyroclastic deposits:
The violent release of gas from volcanic vents is associated
with expulsion of fragments of rock and/or disrupted lava. The
accumulation of such fragments gives rise to a pyroclastic deposit.
Numerous terms are employed to denote different types of pyroclast.
Cinders and ashes are terms originating from older
hypothesis concerning subterranean combustion. Lapilli denote smaller
(2‐64mm) are designated as ash. The term tephra (a Greek word meaning
ash) can be employed to describe all of the assorted fragments blown out
during explosive eruption, regardless of size. Tuff is another useful term
referring to all consolidated pyroclastic deposits, again regardless of
particle size. In certain instances, a great cloud of superheated vapors and
incandescent rock material and volcanic ash are violently emitted during
the eruption. These are called Nuées ardentes and are sometimes
referred to as glowing avalanches. Volcanic blocks are the largest
masses of rock blown out. These are either the masses of the solidified
lava of earlier eruptions or those of the pre-existing rocks. Volcanic
bombs are rounded or spindle‐shaped masses of hardened lava, which
may develop when clots of lava are blown into the air and get solidified
before reaching the ground. Their ends are twisted, indicating rapid
rotation in the air while the material was plastic. The diameters of these
fragments are always above 32 mm.
Discuss the types of river system with suitable figure.

Ans. River system is a larger system of rivers and its tributaries.
These are the streams of water which is flowing through a particular channels.
Groups of these streams together called a river system. There are 4 types of
river system.
1. Braided Rivers:
These rivers are developed in mountainous terrain on higher
gradients. During the low flow periods, permanent channels are developed.
These channels are constituting ripple crossed bedded sands. These
channels are active during flood stage and these can produce the cross
beds in larger scales. The sediments formed are pebbly and sandy in
nature.
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2. Meandering Rivers:
These are formed in coastal areas, lower gradient. Because of the
continuous flow, fine sediments were seen. In inner bends of meanders
cross laminated sands are constructed. Channels are separated by levees
from flood plains that are comprised of finer grained muds and sands
deposited after breach of levees during flood stage, usually vegetated.
Flood stage can lead to cut off of meanders and breakthrough of river.
3. Anastomosing Rivers:
Anastomosing rivers constitute an important category of multi-
channel rivers on alluvial plains. Most often they seem to form under
relatively low energetic conditions near a base level. It appears to be
impossible to define anastomosing rivers unambiguously on the basis of
channel plan form only. It can be defined as an anastomosing river is
composed of two or more interconnected channels that enclose flood
basins.
4. Straight Rivers:
Straight River is generally regarded as one of the typical river
patterns in conventional classifications in terms of their channel plain land
forms. However, very few straight patterns were found to be distributed in
wider spatial and temporal spans in the self-adjusted fluvial rivers.
Discuss the mechanism of river in detail.

Ans. There are three main types of processes that occur in a river. These are
erosion, transportation and deposition.
Process of erosion:
1. Hydraulic action: There are three main types of processes that occur in a
river. These are erosion, transportation and deposition. All three depend on
the amount of energy there is in a river.
2. Abrasion/corrosion: When a load is carried by the river, the load hits
against its bed and the sides (banks) of the river (i.e. bounced and dragged).
As a result, bed and bank materials started to pluck out and erodes rapidly.
Abrasion is the most powerful process of river erosion.
3. Attrition: When particles of the load themselves break into smaller pieces
(worn down), the process is said to be attrition. When thrown against the bed
and banks of the rivers, shapes of load turned into rounded and the edges of
the load changes to smooth.
4. Solution/Corrosion: When chemicals in the water dissolves certain minerals
in rocks, it is said to be solution. For example, carbonic acid slowly dissolves
limestone.
Transportation:
Transportation of material in a river begins when friction is
overcome. Material that has been loosened by erosion may be then transported
along the river. There are four main processes of transportation. These are:
1. Traction 2. Saltation (saltim: by leaps/jumps)
3. Suspension 4. Solution
Deposition:
When the river loses its ability to carry sediments/loads, it will
suddenly drops the materials on the bed and sides of the river. The phenomenon
is called deposition. This happens when a river loses energy. A river can lose its
energy when rainfall reduces, evaporation increases, friction close to river banks
and shallow areas which leads to the speed of the river reducing and therefore
the energy reduces, when a river has to slow down it reduces its speed (and
ability to transport material) and when a river meets the sea.
Explain relationship between velocity and size of sediments prior to erosion,

transportation and deposition.
Ans.
Hjulstrom effect: The contrast between the flow velocity at which a fine-grained
cohesive sediment, may be deposited and that at which it will be eroded. F.
Hjulstrom published an important diagram which plots the relationship between
grain size and velocity for erosion, transportation, deposition, and settling
velocity. One of the many important consequences of these relationships is that
although fine-grained cohesive sediments (fine slit and clay) will be deposited
only if flow velocities are very low, a very high velocity is required to erode the
same sediment, once deposited. This is because of the cohesive nature of the
sediment, which makes silt and clay more difficult to erode than pebbly sediment.
The contrast between the flow velocity at which a fine-grained,
cohesive sediment may be deposited and that at which it will be eroded.
Although fine-grained cohesive sediments (fine silt and clay) will be deposited
only if flow velocities are very low, a very high velocity is required to erode the
same sediment, once deposited. This is because of the cohesive nature of the
sediment, which makes silt and clay more difficult to erode than pebbly sediment.
Description of Investigation techniques.

Ans. Investigation techniques are of following two types:
1. Regional Studies:
 It focuses questions of land and resource allocation.
 It usually undertakes to provide information for land‐use planning.
 It focuses on distinguishing, through use of geological information,
among locations for a particular use.
2. Site Investigation:
 It is the type of investigation associated with engineering geology.
 These studies are as varied as the kind of structures or facilities that
exist in our society.
Site investigations are performed in three phases for a typical
development of a project.
i. Preliminary Studies:
It focuses the feasibility study adopting geological factors in
order to determine the relative suitability of alternative sites or project
designs; the extent of detailed investigation required for construction; and
geological information for basing reasonable cost estimates.
ii. Site Exploration:
 It is the intensive investigation of a site. Its results are
incorporated into the final design and construction of a project.
 Often some of the information is used in preparing contracts. This
influences the bidding and final cost of constructing the project.
iii. Implementation Studies:
 Geological conditions encountered during project construction
may differ from what was expected. This is sometimes called
changed condition.
 Most contracts provide for billing increased costs owing to
changed condition in addition to the agreed on price for the work.
 The geologist can assist in determining whether this increased
cost is truly a consequence of a changed condition and an
appropriate item for payment.
Difference between soil and rock behavior. Description of investigation

techniques.
Ans.
Soil Rock
1. It is formed when the disintegration 1. Rocks are formed when the molten
of rock occurs. magma reaches to the Earth’s
surface.
2. Soil is a loose mass. 2. Rock is a hard loose.
3. Soil consists of weathered rock 3. Rock has properties defined by
particles. existing failure surfaces i.e. cracks
in the rock formation.
4. A high gravel or cobble containing 4. A rock that has the small particles
soil mass may perform more like in the cracks may perform like a
rock. soil.
5. Most of the soil contains organic
matter (humus). 5. Most of the rocks does not contain
6. Soil is merely weathered (broken) organic matter.
Pieces of rock 6. In future, those weathered particles
may become compressed or
cemented to form a new rock.
Discuss the importance of rock forming minerals in civil engineering with at least
two specific examples.
Ans. Rocks refer to the aggregate of minerals. The study of
geology is the study of the Earth, and so is ultimately the study of rocks, Rocks
are basically classified as: Igneous rocks, Sedimentary rocks and Calcareous
rocks.
There are almost 5000 known minerals species, yet the vast
majority of rocks are formed when combination of a few common minerals,
referred to as ‘rock-forming minerals’. These minerals include: quartz, calcite,
micas, feldspars etc. These are the minerals that are important in order to
classify rocks. Thus, rock-forming minerals solely forms as an intimate part of
rock-forming processes. In contrast these minerals have a limited mode of
occurrence or are formed by unusual processes. Thus, these minerals are
present at the time of rocks formation and are important minerals in determining
rock’s identity.
Civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks
precisely to enable them to consider different rocks for any required purpose i.e.,
as foundation rocks, as concrete aggregate, as building stones, as flooring or
roofing material, as decorative material etc. All properties of rocks are depended
on the properties of their constituent minerals. The properties of civil engineering
importance such as their strength, durability and appearance of rocks can be
assessed only with the knowledge of the minerals that form rocks i.e. rock-
forming minerals.
For e.g.: Calcite (CaCo3) is a rock-forming mineral which
includes lime stones and marble as principle constituent. It is used as a
construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction
aggregate and more. Modern construction uses calcite to produce cement and
concrete.
Discuss the importance of studying crystallography and its system, form and
habit in civil engineering.
Ans. Minerals are geological resources of major economic
importance. Most of them are crystalline which explains the important role played
by crystallography in their study. Crystallography is the experimental sources of
determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. It includes the brief
explanation of the characters of crystals in their internal or atomic structure.
Furthermore, the determination of mathematical relation of the faces of crystal
and measurement of angles between them fall under this category.
Each crystal class is a member of one six crystal systems.
These systems include the isometric, hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic and triclinic systems. Every crystal of a certain crystal system will
share a characteristics symmetry element with the other member of its systems.
The crystal system of a mineral species may sometimes be determined visually
by examining a particularly well-formed crystal of the species.
Crystal habit refers to the characteristics shape of a mineral
unit (either an individual crystal or an aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-
developed faces are referred to as ‘euhedral’, for eg, garnet crystals are often
euhedral. Minerals also may occur as aggregates of crystals. The following list
gives examples of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that
may exhibit each habit.
 A Circular - needle like, eg: natrolite , rutile
 Bladed - blade like, slender and flattened, eg: kyanite
 Columnar - long, slender prisms, eg: calcite, gypsum
 Cubic - cube shaped, eg: pyrite, galena
 Fibrous - very slender prisms , eg: asbestos
 Hexagonal - six-sided , eg: quartz
Crystallography form refers to all crystal faces having similar
symmetry. Those forms that enclose space are called closed forms those that do
not, open forms. The faces that comprise a form will be similar in appearance,
even though of different shapes and sizes, this similarity may be evident. The
forms in all crystal systems the isometric are similar and may be generally
described as follows:
 Pedion : a single face
 Pinacoid : pair of opposite faces parallel to two of the principal
crystallographic axes
 Pyramid : 3,4,6,8 or 12 non parallel faces that meet in a point
 Dome : two non-parallel faces symmetrical to a plane of symmetry

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Kathmandu University

Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

Discuss the importance of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock.

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