Kathmandu University

Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Shradhye Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 7
Roll No.: 50 Date of Submission: 4/07/2017

Q. Describe the types of rocks and composition found in each layers. Write down
the possible causes of problems in engineering on the basis of earth’s interior
structure.
Basically, it is known that earth is 5 billion years old and in terms of gross structure, Earth is a layered
planet. Each of these layers can be defined by a certain composition, making up Earth’s core, mantle and
crust. (Earth is also layered according to the way rocks display different physical characteristics).These
layers are the lithosphere, a rigid outer layer, containing the crust and upper-most mantle; the
asthenosphere, a weaker layer in the mantle and the mesosphere, a stronger layer in the lower mantle.

The three main layers of Earth include:

 The crust (1 percent of Earth’s volume)
 The mantle (84 percent), and
 The core (inner and outer combined, 15 percent).

Crust:
Earth’s crust is the most accessible to study, but also is more complex with many more variations in
composition. The most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust include oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, and calcium. These elements combine to form the most abundant minerals in
the Earth’s crust. The crust of Earth is divided into two types: oceanic and continental. All three rock
types (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic) can be found in Earth’s crust. Basalt (dense
igneous rock) is a type of rock which is a good representative of most oceanic crust. This rock is mafic
(the name mafic refers to its high magnesium and iron content) primarily composed of plagioclase
feldspar (Calcium-rich), olivine, amphibole and pyroxene. Continental crust has more of a range of
compositions, but for our purposes we will assume that its average composition is granitic (less dense),
having many similar properties to the felsic rock granite (the name felsic refers to its high feldspar and
silica content). Granite is composed of quartz, potassium-rich feldspar, and micas. Since mafic rocks
contain heavier minerals, oceanic crust is denser than continental crust (with densities 3.0 and 2.7
gm/cm3, respectively). On average, continental crust is much thicker and older than oceanic crust. The
boundary between the crust and underlying mantle is termed the Mohorovicic discontinuity,
often referred to as the Moho.
Crust is further divided into two layers which are separated by a boundary called Conrad
discontinuity:
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Shradhye Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 7
Roll No.: 50 Date of Submission: 4/07/2017

SIAL

It is the upper most part of continental crust. It has extended up to a depth of 11km. In this
region, there is rich of silicon and Aluminum, hence called SIAL. Si-contents are predominant in
this region. It is acidic rock. All types of rocks are found to be exposed on the earth’s surface.
Rock composition is of granitic to granodiorite, light colored rocks.

SIMA
It is the lower part of continental crust. It extends up to a depth of 22km. In this region, there is
rich of silicon and magnesium. About 50% of Silica contents are available in this region.
Magnesium is predominant in this region. It is basic rock. Rock composition is of basaltic
composition, heavy and dark colored.

Mantle:
It is a Solid rock layer between the crust and the core. It is about 2,885 km thick; the mantle is
82% of Earth’s volume. Mantle composes of ultramafic rock called peridotite. Below ~100-150
km, the rock is hot enough to flow. It convicts hot mantle rises, cold mantle sinks. There are
altogether three subdivisions: upper, transitional, and lower. Laboratory experiments indicate
that peridotite has similar physical properties to account for the mantle’s density and observed
rates of seismic wave transmissions. Also, samples from the field show peridotites below crustal
rocks in areas of deformation where rocks have been uplifted and exposed at the surface.
Peridotite inclusions are also found in kimberlite pipes, cone-shaped bodies of rock where
magma has been volcanically emplaced into pre-existing rocks. Kimberlite deposits contain
certain minerals (one of which is diamond) which can only form under the high temperature
and pressure conditions found between 100-300 km depth. The inclusions of peridotite in the
kimberlites are thought to represent pieces of the mantle brought up to the surface during
eruption. A final piece of evidence used to determine the mantle’s composition comes from
stony meteorites, since they are thought to be remnants of material left over from the formation
of the solar system, and they have peridotite composition. In earth’s lower mantle, below the
transition zone, greater pressures cause rock of the same composition as peridotite to undergo
phase changes to form higher density material.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Shradhye Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 7
Roll No.: 50 Date of Submission: 4/07/2017

Core:
The inner part of the earth which is marked by Gutenberg Discontinuity near a depth of 2,900
km up to the center of the earth. The core is composed mostly of iron and nickel. It is further
divided into two parts:

Outer Core
The outer core is composed mostly of iron and nickel, with these metals found in liquid form.
The outer core reaches between 7,200 and 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit (4,000 and 5,000 degrees
Celsius) and is estimated to be 2,300 km thick. It is the movement of the liquid within the outer
core that generates Earth’s magnetic field.

Inner Core
The inner core is the hottest part of our planet, at temperatures between 9,000 and 13,000
degrees Fahrenheit (5,000 and 7,000 degrees Celsius). This solid layer is smaller than our Moon
at depth (1,200 km) thick and is composed mostly of iron. The iron is under so much pressure
from the overlying planet that it cannot melt and stays in a solid state.

The causes of problems in engineering on the basis of earth’s interior structure are as follows:

Tectonic Plates:
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is
broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major
plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet,
their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along
these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to
100 mm annually.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Shradhye Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 7
Roll No.: 50 Date of Submission: 4/07/2017

The movement of tectonic plate results to earthquake, which is one of the most
prominent natural causes of problems in engineering. The effects are listed below:

 One of the most alarming features of a great earthquake experienced on land

near place of origin is the passage of ground waves which throw the surface into
ever-changing undulations
 The dislocation of structures built across a fault when stress is suddenly
released in an earthquake, the most spectacular and perilous effects in great
earthquake are due to the passage of surface waves( long waves generated by
the energy brought to the surface by P and S waves)
 Ground and its movement gets disturbed, results in the change of courses of
streams and rivers
 Earthquake cause structural damages and total losses may be amounted to
millions of dollars. It brings about large-scale destruction of life and property.

VOLCANOES:
Volcanoes affect people in many ways, some are good, some are not. Some of the bad ways are
that houses, buildings, roads, and fields can get covered with ash. As long as we can get the ash
off (especially if it is wet), our house may not collapse, but often the people leave because of the
ash and are not around to continually clean off their roofs. If the ash fall is really heavy it can
make it impossible to breathe.

Lava flows are almost always too slow to run over people, but they can certainly run over
houses, roads, and any other structures.

Pyroclastic flows are mixtures of hot gas and ash, and they travel very quickly down the slopes
of volcanoes. They are so hot and choking that if we are caught in one it will kill us. They are
also so fast (100-200 km/hour) that you cannot out-run them
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Shradhye Shrestha Assignment/Tutorial No.: 7
Roll No.: 50 Date of Submission: 4/07/2017

GALLERY

Fig: interior structure of earth Fig: Tectonic Plates

Fig: Mechanism of Volcanic Eruption