Origins of gypsum in AUTHORS

Faith O. Amadi  Department of Geology

deep carbonate reservoirs: and Geological Engineering, University of
Mississippi, University, Mississippi;
Implications for hydrocarbon foamadi@olemiss.edu
Faith Amadi received a master’s degree in fluvial
exploration and production geology from Southeast Missouri State Uni-
versity in May 2004. During the summers of 2005
Faith O. Amadi, R. P. Major, and Lawrence R. Baria and 2006, he worked as an intern for Occi-
dental Petroleum Corporation in Long Beach,
California, and Houston, Texas. He continued
his studies at the University of Mississippi, where
ABSTRACT he received a Ph.D. in carbonate sedimentology,
sequence stratigraphy, sulfate diagenesis, and
Gypsum can form penecontemporaneously in carbonate sedi- basin analysis in May 2009. He is currently
ments, and it may be altered to anhydrite during burial. Some serving as a visiting assistant professor in the
workers have suggested that gypsum dehydration is complete Department of Geology and Geological
at burial depths of 3500 ft (1067 m); however, gypsum has Engineering at the University of Mississippi.
been documented at depths as great as 13,100 ft (3993 m). R. P. Major  Department of Geology and
Two examples of deeply buried gypsum illustrate con- Geological Engineering, University of Mississippi,
trasting origins. Gypsum in the Permian San Andres Forma- University, Mississippi; rpm@olemiss.edu
tion in the Permian Basin of west Texas at a depth of 6000 ft R. P. Major holds a Ph.D. in geology from
(1829 m) occurs as anhydrite nodules with an outer rind of Brown University and was a National Research
gypsum, suggesting that anhydrite was rehydrated to gypsum Council postdoctoral associate with the U.S.
by interaction with interstitial brines. In contrast, gypsum in Geological Survey in Denver. He has taught at
Union College and the University of Colorado
the carbonate beds of the Cretaceous Ferry Lake Anhydrite of at Denver, and he served as a research geologist
the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin at 13,100 ft (3993 m) occurs at the Bureau of Economic Geology, University
as gypsum nodules with a rind of anhydrite, suggesting that of Texas at Austin. He is a former senior geolo-
the gypsum is primary and in the process of dehydration to gist with the Amoco Production Company, and
anhydrite. he has served on the editorial boards of the
These contrasting origins are likely a function of evaporite Journal of Sedimentary Research and the AAPG
Bulletin. Since 1998, he has been a professor
and carbonate stratigraphy. In the Permian Basin, a thick sec- in the Department of Geology and Geological
tion of carbonate rocks is overlain by a relatively thin section of Engineering at the University of Mississippi.
evaporites. In the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin, carbonates are
interbedded with multiple evaporite beds, which inhibit cir- Lawrence R. Baria  Jura–Search Incor-
porated, Flowood, Mississippi;
culation of interstitial brines. The burial temperature, pressure, bearlear@bellsouth.net
and salinity of these formations suggest that gypsum could be
Lawrence Baria, after receiving a B.S. degree
preserved as primary or secondary gypsum. in geology in 1967, pursued a master’s degree in
The presence of gypsum in reservoir rocks can affect po- stratigraphy and sandstone petrology at North-
rosity calculations, especially calculations using neutron po- east Louisiana University and a Ph.D. in carbon-
rosity logs, which measure bound water of hydration in gypsum ate facies, stratigraphy, and sulfate diagenesis
as porosity. Identification of gypsum at the depth of 13,100 ft at the Louisiana State University (LSU). After
leaving LSU, he went to work for Getty Oil Com-
pany in its E&P Research Laboratory, specializing
in Cretaceous and Jurassic stratigraphy. Since
1980, he has been a consulting and exploration
Copyright ©2012. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
geologist active in the Haynesville, Smackover,
Manuscript received November 12, 2010; provisional acceptance January 17, 2011; revised manuscript
received April 21, 2011; final acceptance May 10, 2011.
and Norphlet formations throughout the central
DOI:10.1306/05101110179 and eastern Gulf Coast.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 96, no. 2 (February 2012), pp. 375–390 375


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
F. O. Amadi acknowledges partial funding from
AAPG and the Gulf Coast Association of Geo-
logical Societies. We thank Crawford Elliott of
Georgia State University for providing the x-ray
diffraction analyses. The conventional core-plug
analysis for porosity and permeability was
conducted by Houston Core Laboratory. The
analysis for water chemistry was conducted
by Halliburton Laboratory. We thank Seismic
Micro-Technology, Inc., for providing a Kingdom
software grant used for the project. We are
grateful for the encouragement of R. C. Murray,
F. J. Lucia, and S. C. Ruppel.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Wayne M. Ahr
and an anonymous reviewer.
EDITOR’S NOTE
A color version of Figures 1, 4 and 5 may be
seen in the online version of this article.
376 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs
(3993 m) indicates that log estimates of porosity in some deep
carbonate reservoirs containing gypsum could have significant
porosity and water saturation measurement errors.
INTRODUCTION
Several workers have suggested that the complete transition of
gypsum to anhydrite will occur at a depth less than 3500 ft
(<1067 m), thus leading to the generalization that gypsum is
not expected to exist below this depth (Murray, 1964; Billo,
1986; Rosen and Warren, 1990; Kasprzyk, 1995; Williams-
Stroud and Paul, 1997; Kasprzyk and Orti, 1998; Warren, 2006).
However, examples of gypsum at depths greater than 3500 ft
(>1066 m) (Tilly et al., 1982; Bouquillon, 1984; Jowett et al.,
1993; Major and Holtz, 1997; Amadi et al., 2008) exist, thereby
leaving in doubt the origin of gypsum at such great depth. The
possibility of gypsum being present in reservoir rocks deeper
than 3500 ft (1066 m) is commonly not considered when
evaluating deep reservoir rocks. This article evaluates the ori-
gin of gypsum in deep carbonate reservoirs from two basins
and its implications for hydrocarbon exploration and produc-
tion: gypsum in the Lower Cretaceous Ferry Lake Anhydrite of
the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin and in the San Andres For-
mation of the Permian Basin in west Texas.
PREVIOUS WORK
Conversion of gypsum to anhydrite is influenced by three
factors: (1) intense solar heating in very arid regions at shallow
depth, (2) reaction to high-salinity brines, and (3) burial dia-
genesis (Murray, 1964; Hardie, 1967; Lock et al., 1983; Warren,
1991; Testa and Lugli, 2000; Kendall, 2001).
Deep carbonate reservoirs commonly contain evaporite
nodules (Lowenstein, 1987; Machel and Burton, 1990, 1991;
Machel, 1993; Schreiber and El Tabakh, 2000; Warren, 2006).
These evaporite nodules could have formed from any of these
processes: concretionary growth, syndepositional flowage of
semifluid sediment (Riley and Byrne, 1961), replacement of
displacive gypsum nodules concomitant with partial replace-
ment of the surrounding carbonate sediment (Alsharhan and
Whittle, 1995), subaqueous growth as cement (Langbein, 1987),
growth as floating nodules (Richter-Bernburg, 1985), and com-
paction of bedded gypsum or anhydrite (Langbein, 1987).
Conversion of gypsum to anhydrite with depth has been
extensively studied as a function of temperature, pressure,
water activity, and geotechnical processes. Jowett
et al. (1993) noted that gypsum is very susceptible
to dehydration, producing water and anhydrite when
subjected to elevated temperatures and pressures.
A review of some recent contributions suggests
that conversion will occur at a temperature range
of 95 to 200°C (Ostroff, 1964; Kosztolanyi et al.,
1987; Worden et al., 1997; Kontrec et al., 2002;
Freyer and Voigt, 2004; Vanko and Bach, 2005), a
pressure range of 1 to 14,503 psi (0.007–100 MPa)
(Blount and Dickson, 1969, 1973; Berdugo et al.,
2008), and chlorinity of 145‰ (Butler, 1969; Ali
et al., 2005). Warren (2006) suggested that, with
less saline brines in the pores of buried evaporite
beds, conversion of gypsum to anhydrite may not
occur until burial depths of hundreds of meters. At
such depths, compaction may have greatly de-
pleted intercrystalline porosity in gypsum beds and
nodules. Jowett et al. (1993) proposed that gyp-
sum converts to anhydrite at shallow depths ap-
proximately 1312 ft (∼400 m) when overlain by
low-heat conductors such as shale in a rift envi-
ronment, and at a depth greater than 13,123 ft
(>4000 m) when overlain by high-heat conductors
such as salt in a stable cratonic region.
Major and Holtz (1997) documented second-
ary gypsum at 6000 ft (1800 m) in the Jordan (San
Andres) field of the Permian Basin, west Texas.
Figure 1. San Andres Formation rocks. (A) Nodular anhydrite
They reported a diagenetic alteration of the outer (an) displaying outer edges hydrated to gypsum (g). Note that a
edges of anhydrite nodules to secondary gypsum. halo of light-colored dolomite (diagenetically altered texture)
This diagenetic process is associated with leaching surrounds the partly hydrated nodules. (B) Anhydrite hydrated to
and partial dissolution of dolomite crystals (Figure 1). gypsum. Note that the outer margin of the anhydrite nodule has
Most anhydrite nodules with outer edges altered been hydrated to gypsum (cross-polarized light photomicrograph).
to gypsum are commonly surrounded by a halo of
altered dolomite (Figure 1). The outer parts of an-
hydrite nodules that are rehydrated to gypsum sug- 1997), and the Zechstein Basin (Peryt and Scholle,
gest that gypsum is secondary instead of primary 1996). These basins contain thick sequences of
(Figure 2). Hydration of anhydrite to gypsum in carbonate rocks that are overlain by or interbedded
the Permian Basin has also been reported by Baria with evaporites.
(1976), Longacre (1976), Lucia et al. (1987), and
Tilly et al. (1982).
Gypsum within carbonate rocks in most deep METHODS
basins associated with bedded evaporites is com-
pletely altered to anhydrite. Examples of such basins Six Ferry Lake cores from Hancock County, Mis-
are the Williston Basin (Tanguay and Friedman, sissippi, were used for this study (Figure 3). These
2001), the Permian Basin (Harris and Walker, 1990; cores are not continuous, anhydrite beds were not
Sonnenfeld and Cross, 1993; Major and Holtz, cored, and only the last 15 to 20% of limestone beds

Amadi et al. 377

Figure 2. Rehydration of anhydrite to
secondary gypsum in the San Andres
Formation, resulting from Ca-rich connate
water released from the overlying and
underlying gypsum beds.
were recovered. The cores were carefully stored
and handled during preparation to prevent contact
with water. Low-temperature core sample analysis
was used in cleaning the samples to prevent gyp-
sum from losing its water of crystallization (Tilly
et al., 1982).
Standard petrographic analysis was conducted
on 40 thin sections to document the diagenetic
development, grain types, depositional fabrics, and
porosity amount and type. A representative subset
of 20 thin sections was stained with alizarin red S
and potassium ferricyanide and was point counted
using a petrographic microscope equipped with a
swift automated stage and counter; 400 points were
counted on each thin section using the Glagoley-
Chayes method (Chayes, 1956; Van der Plas and
Tobi, 1965).
Limestones were classified using the method
of Dunham (1962). X-ray diffraction analysis from
two representative samples selected from the same
samples used for thin sections was performed to
augment results from thin-section analyses. X-ray
diffraction analysis was performed on the pulver-
ized fine fraction (<235 mesh) using a Philips PW
1729 x-ray diffractometer. All samples were ana-
lyzed with a scanning speed of 0.02° 2q /min range
with Cu radiation (40 kV and 35 mA). Porosity and
permeability values were determined from con-
ventional core-plug analysis using 10 representative
samples randomly selected from the same depths
as samples used for thin sections. The results from
378 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs
core plugs were compared with those from po-
rosity logs and thin-section point counting.
RESULTS
Evaporites in Ferry Lake limestones of the Mis-
sissippi Interior Salt basin occur at a depth greater
than 13,000 ft (3962 m) in different forms—as
nodules, replacement of dissolved fossils, and along
styolitic zones (Figure 4). Evaporite nodules occur
in variable shapes and sizes ranging from 2 to 10 mm
in diameter. Some sections of the evaporite nod-
ules were dissolved and replaced by carbonate crys-
tals. In some areas, poikilotopic anhydrite cements
bind carbonate rock grains. The nodules bear no
relationship either in the direction or the orien-
tation to sedimentary structures in the limestones.
Evaporite nodules are composed predominantly
of anhydrite crystals and some gypsum crystals in
both displacive and replacive forms. Anhydrite
crystals are mainly prismatic (laths), felted crystals,
fascicular (bundlelike), fibrous radiating, and spe-
rulitic. Anhydritization of microgranular gypsum
is partial to complete with anhydrite laths oriented
preferentially. The contacts of carbonate with cal-
cium sulfate are dominantly characterized by an-
hydrite with fibrous calcite growing into the cleav-
age planes. Numerous fossil molds are cemented by
blocky anhydrite and, in very few cases, with fibrous
Figure 3. Index map of Hancock County, Mississippi, showing Waveland field and the location of six wells used for petrographic analysis
of Ferry Lake rocks.
Figure 4. (A) Core sample of nodular evaporite from Ferry Lake
Anhydrite at 13,100 ft (3993 m). (B) Primary gypsum (g) engulfed
by anhydrite (an) crystals (cross-polarized light photomicrograph).
anhydrite cements. Most gypsum crystals are com-
pletely engulfed by anhydrite. Microfractures are
pervasively plugged by blocky anhydrite.
Ferry Lake bulk rock contains calcite as the most
abundant mineral, with anhydrite and gypsum pre-
sent in lesser amounts. Dolomite is completely ab-
sent from Ferry Lake carbonate rocks. Limestone
constitutes the dominant carbonate-rock lithology,
with minor amounts of very thin layers of terrige-
nous clastic material that grades from fine to me-
dium sand size.
Carbonate facies have similar textures and
structures, although they vary in the amounts and
types of fossils present. Ostracod, mollusk mud-
stone, miliolid ostracod wackestone, and packstone
dominate. Few lenses of oolitic intraclast packstone,
fecal pellets, and peloidal grains are observed. Fecal
pellets were difficult to recognize because of coa-
lesce during compaction.
Four kinds of porosity occur in carbonate beds:
intergranular, intragranular, vuggy, and fracture
porosities. Average porosity from point counting is
9%, with fracture and vuggy porosities dominating
(Table 1). Porosity calculated from neutron logs
ranges from 9 to 15% (average, 12%), and porosity
Amadi et al. 379
Table 1. Point-Count Data from Ferry Lake Anhydrite Thin Sections Highlighting the Amount of Gypsum and Porosity

Fracture Total Classification

Interparticle Intraparticle Porosity Calcite Anhydrite Gypsum Miliolid Orbitolinid Others Porosity of Dunham
Well Name Porosity (%) Porosity (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (1962)
Union 32–11 3 2 4 64 13 9 4 1 0 9 Wackestone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 3 1 3 65 17 9 2 0 0 7 Packstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 3 0 5 62 16 11 1 2 0 8 Packstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 0 0 2 98 0 0 0 0 0 2 Mudstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 2 0 3 66 20 9 0 0 0 5 Mudstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 1 0 0 71 17 11 0 0 0 1 Mudstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 2 2 5 62 13 11 4 1 0 9 Wackestone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 1 5 6 63 13 2 3 1 6 12 Wackestone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 1 5 6 59 19 8 2 0 1 11 Packstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 1 3 7 67 15 3 2 2 0 11 Wackestone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 0 2 4 63 14 5 6 2 4 6 Packstone
Cinque Bambini
Union 32–11 0 2 3 70 13 4 2 2 4 5 Wackestone
Cinque Bambini
Hunt 1 Thigpen 0 2 5 79 3 1 2 0 8 7 Mudstone
Hunt 1 Thigpen 2 2 4 72 9 1 3 1 6 8 Wackestone
Hunt 1 Thigpen 1 1 3 75 11 0 2 2 5 5 Mudstone
Saga 20–4 Macc 2 1 5 50 23 17 2 0 0 8 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 3 0 4 50 20 18 3 1 1 7 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 0 4 1 65 15 5 2 2 7 5 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 2 7 3 59 18 3 3 2 3 12 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 1 5 6 67 12 2 5 1 1 12 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 1 5 5 54 11 17 3 1 3 12 Packstone
Saga 20–4 Macc 1 2 4 65 14 3 7 2 2 7 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 0 2 9 71 5 1 7 2 3 12 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 3 1 5 64 13 9 3 1 0 9 Wackestone
Saga 20–4 Macc 4 1 3 72 9 1 2 2 5 8 Wackestone
Tideway 12–7 1 3 5 65 14 2 3 3 4 9 Wackestone
Jack Lott
Tideway 12–7 1 4 5 67 10 3 5 1 4 10 Wackestone
Jack Lott
Tideway 12–7 2 0 4 53 21 18 1 1 0 6 Wackestone
Jack Lott
Union 27–11 0 2 6 75 9 2 1 0 4 9 Mudstone
Lindner J. R.

380 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs

Table 1. Continued

Fracture Total Classification

Interparticle Intraparticle Porosity Calcite Anhydrite Gypsum Miliolid Orbitolinid Others Porosity of Dunham
Well Name Porosity (%) Porosity (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (1962)
Union 27–11 0 2 6 70 10 7 2 0 3 8 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 1 1 5 81 2 0 4 1 5 7 Mudstone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 4 2 9 70 8 2 0 1 4 12 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 4 1 4 72 3 1 6 4 5 9 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 5 1 3 71 3 1 5 4 7 9 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 2 2 3 54 16 7 6 4 6 7 Packstone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 1 3 10 68 2 0 6 4 6 12 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Union 27–11 1 2 7 65 1 0 12 7 5 9 Wackestone
Lindner J. R.
Spooner 2 Bambini 2 5 6 52 14 12 4 2 3 13 Grainstone
Spooner 2 Bambini 3 6 6 50 15 13 3 2 2 15 Grainstone
Spooner 2 Bambini 2 5 9 52 14 11 3 2 2 16 Grainstone

from core-plug analysis averages 11% ( Table 2). Although anhydrite could possibly be incorrectly
Point counts from 40 representative samples in- identified as gypsum if viewed along the optic
dicate gypsum content ranging from 1 to 18%. axis, such errors in identification cannot account

Table 2. Porosity and Permeability Data from Core-Plug Analyses of Ferry Lake Anhydrite Samples

Permeability (md)
Depth Net Confining Porosity Grain Density
Well Name (ft) Stress (psig) (%) Klinkenberg Kair* bair* (psi) b* (ft–1) a* ( mm) (g/cm3)
Union 32–11 Cinque 13,333 Ambient 11.66 N/A* 0.379 N/A* N/A* N/A* 2.695
Bambini
Saga 20–4 Macc 13,550 800 10.57 0.276 0.389 9.75 1.28E+12 1.11E+03 2.706
Saga 20–4 Macc 13,463 800 10.91 0.433 0.602 9.00 7.25E+11 9.94E+02 2.711
Saga 20–4 Macc 13,360 800 13.15 0.858 1.12 6.85 1.44E+11 3.94E+03 2.695
Tideway 12–7
Jack Lott 13,351 800 12.91 1.05 1.33 5.90 3.02E+11 1.01E+02 2.718
Union 27–11 Lindner J. R. 13,130 Ambient 12.85 N/A* 2.70 N/A* N/A* N/A* 2.683
Union 27–11 Lindner J. R. 13,370 800 9.86 0.521 0.695 7.61 1.69E+11 2.78E+02 2.688
Spooner 2 Bambini 13,380 800 13.32 67.4 92.4 6.35 8.83E+08 1.92E+02 2.698
Spooner 2 Bambini 13,385 800 9.10 0.099 0.141 11.00 6.62E+12 2.07E+03 2.693
Spooner 2 Bambini 13,399 800 8.40 0.313 0.396 6.25 3.71E+12 3.69E+03 2.701
*Kair = permeability to air; bair = Klinkenberg slip factor; b = Forcheimer inertial resistance factor; a = a factor equal to the production of b and K∞; K∞ = equivalent
nonreactive liquid permeability; N/A = not applicable.

Amadi et al. 381

for almost 18% gypsum point counted from some
of the Ferry Lake evaporite nodules.
The chlorinity of producing water from the
Ferry Lake Anhydrite in Waveland field ranges from
114 to 127‰, with measured bottom-hole pressure
(BHP) values of 6200 to 6500 psi (43–45 MPa) and
bottom-hole temperature (BHT) range of 110 to
137°C. The salinities, BHT, and BHP of San An-
dres Formation reservoirs of the Permian Basin are
based on 161 samples of brine water that yielded a
chlorinity range of 50 to greater than 200‰, BHP
of 1661 to 1944 psi (11–13 MPa), and BHT of 131
to 140°C (Dutton and Orr, 1986; Dutton, 1987).
DISCUSSION
Depositional Environment
The presence of normal marine-salinity fossils and
abundant burrows in mudstones and wackestones
indicates that Ferry Lake limestones were depos-
ited in a low-energy shallow-water marine environ-
ment shoreward of the bioherms and grainstone
banks at the platform edge. These bioherms caused
the restriction necessary for sufficient concentra-
tion of seawater to deposit gypsum. The fossils are
indicative of a normal marine environment and
were transported during small-scale transgressive
sequence events.
Evaporite nodules in these rocks indicate a
hypersaline environment. The shapes of the nod-
ules are slightly horizontally elongated, suggesting
that the nodules were precipitated contempora-
neously with deposition of limestone beds. Some
nodules are nearly isometric, with no indication of
compaction, suggesting that they formed after the
limestone beds were compacted and as a replace-
ment of skeletal grains or as cements in molds.
Circulation of normal marine waters into the
lagoon may have been induced by periodic small-
scale transgressive-regressive cycles formed during
high-frequency eustatic sea level fluctuations. Hyper-
saline and normal marine environments alternated
as the Ferry Lake was deposited, resulting in the
cyclic depositional pattern of relatively deeper wa-
ter limestone and shallow-water evaporites.
382 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs
Primary Gypsum
Staircase cleavage planes of most anhydrite laths
are filled with calcite crystal overgrowths, suggesting
that most nodules were formed before compaction.
The presence of calcite overgrowths is an indica-
tion that anhydrite laths predate calcite. Blocky an-
hydrite crystals formed as a replacement of primary
gypsum that precipitated in the fractured zones
during burial diagenesis. Partly deformed and dis-
solved limestone grains are pervasively filled by an-
hydrite that has microcrystalline to coarse-crystalline
textures.
During anhydritization of gypsum, fractured
zones served as pathways to drain hypersaline fluid
from gypsum. As sulfate-rich water drained through
fractured zones, anhydrite precipitated as a blocky
and fibrous crystal. Anhydrite cements are present
as blocky laths and elongate fiber-shaped forms
displaying random orientations. The blocky crys-
talline microstructure occurs mainly as a secondary
fabric, characteristic of transformation of the gyp-
sum precursor, whereas most of the felted fabrics
are inherited from an initial early anhydrite texture.
These cements, found in intercrystalline, interpar-
ticle, and moldic pores, are free of inclusions. Sparry
anhydrite replaces ooids and peloids and fills pores
between calcite crystals. Most of the nodular an-
hydrite represents growth of gypsum by displace-
ment of soft sediments after deposition of the host
material and is considered to be an early diagenetic
feature.
The orientation of anhydrite laths with refer-
ence to gypsum and the nature of anhydrite en-
gulfing gypsum are indications of gradual replace-
ment of primary gypsum by anhydrite (Figure 5).
Anhydrite enclosed and in touch with calcite crys-
tals indicates that Ferry Lake gypsum nodules may
have been formed concomitant with soft calcite
sediment (prelithification). Displacive growths of
the nodules and preservation of primary lithologic
features are evidence for transformation of gypsum
to anhydrite in the nodules beginning during early
burial diagenesis.
X-ray diffraction and petrographic observa-
tions confirm the presence of gypsum at 13,000 ft
(3962 m) (Figures 5, 6). The presence of gypsum

Figure 5. Ferry Lake rocks showing partly replaced gypsum (g)
crystals completely engulfed by anhydrite (an), indicating gradual
replacement from the rim closing in to the core. (A) Blocky gyp-
sum crystal almost replaced by anhydrite lath. (B) Prismatic
gypsum and anhydrite with anhydrite lath preferentially oriented
and in touch with the host calcite rock. (C) Pseudomorphs of
gypsum precursor can be traced in the anhydrite. The gypsum
pseudomorph also suggests a volume-for-volume replacement of
the gypsum to anhydrite (cross-polarized light photomicrographs).
at this depth is significant because of what has
been previously published regarding gypsum. The
total transformation of gypsum to anhydrite does
not exclusively depend on depth; regional tectonic
activity, geothermal gradient, and availability of
diagenetic fluids have substantial functions (Lock
et al., 1983; Warren, 1991; Jowett et al., 1993).
The presence of Ferry Lake gypsum at 13,000 ft
(3962 m) can be explained as follows. The gradual
process of anhydritization of gypsum nodules con-
stitutes one of the pathways. This process starts
after precipitation of gypsum, followed by an in-
crease in burial depth, a rise in ambient tempera-
ture, and an increase in lithostatic pressure. As these
processes continue, gypsum begins to convert to
anhydrite. Conversion to anhydrite was initiated at
the rim and gradually progressed toward the core
as compaction and dehydration continued. These
processes caused anhydrite laths to encase gypsum
crystals (Figure 7). Such configuration character-
ized most gypsum and anhydrite crystal contacts.
This interpretation suggests that the conversion
process from precursor gypsum nodules in the
Ferry Lake limestones is still in progress.
The gypsum crystals in the nodules are all
engulfed by anhydrite laths, which are more pref-
erentially oriented to those of gypsum and sub-
parallel to the host bedding planes. This demon-
strates that the process of anhydritization is still in
progress, with the rims of the evaporite nodules
consisting of anhydrite that has replaced gypsum.
In some nodules, porphyroblastic gypsum crystals
are partly replaced by anhydrite. Rehydration (re-
placement of anhydrite by secondary gypsum)
would have destroyed gypsum pseudomorph fab-
rics in the anhydrite laths. Instead, primary gyp-
sum fabrics are well preserved in most anhydrite
laths, indicating that gypsum textures were not de-
stroyed because they were replaced by anhydrite
and providing evidence of a gypsum origin of the
anhydrite nodules. The gypsum pseudomorphs also
indicate a volume-for-volume replacement of gyp-
sum for anhydrite (Figure 5).
Burial conversion of gypsum to anhydrite is fa-
cilitated in systems that are high in Ca++ and SO4–.
The source of Ca++ in a closed system is commonly
the dolomitization of calcium carbonate. Dolo-
mitization of precursor calcite increases the Ca++/
Mg++ ratio in the system. Both petrographic and
x-ray diffraction analysis did not show evidence of
Amadi et al. 383
Figure 6. X-ray patterns of carbonate samples from the Ferry Lake Anhydrite at a depth of 13,100 ft (3993 m). The patterns indicate
that calcite is dominant, followed in abundance by anhydrite then gypsum. d = diffraction peak.

Figure 7. Gradual and direct anhy-

dritization of original nodular gypsum in
Ferry Lake rocks. Gypsum conversion to
anhydrite started from the outer rim of
gypsum nodules and progressed gradually
toward the core.

384 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs

the Ferry Lake carbonate being dolomitized, there-
by creating a system that is relatively starved of
Ca++. It may be that conversion of gypsum nod-
ules to anhydrite at early burial depth was shut off
once the system could not generate sufficient Ca++.
The loss of primary porosity at this early stage of
burial may have inhibited the flow of fluids rich
in Ca++.
Subsurface Environments of Primary and
Secondary Gypsums
Quantitative evaluation of diagenetic environment
of both Ferry Lake and San Andres formations
suggests environments that could support gypsum
preservation. This conclusion is especially true of
the Ferry Lake, with BHT (110–137°C), BHP (6200–
6500 psi [43–45 MPa]), and chlorinity (114–127‰)
comparable to established values where gypsum
converts to anhydrite (Ostroff, 1964; Blount and
Dickson, 1969, 1973; Butler, 1969; Kosztolanyi
et al., 1987; Worden et al., 1997; Kontrec et al.,
2002; Freyer and Voigt, 2004; Ali et al., 2005; Vanko
and Bach, 2005; Berdugo et al., 2008). The chlo-
rinity and BHT from the San Andres Formation
indicate that complete anhydritization and rehy-
dration of gypsum nodules are possible.
Because sampling of gypsum and anhydrite
from the Permian Basin is commonly limited to
hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs, migration of hy-
drocarbons into those reservoirs and dilution or
expulsion of early diagenetic connate brines may
also be a factor in the conversion of anhydrite to
gypsum below 3500 ft (1067 m). In fact, gypsum
rinds around some anhydrite nodules are com-
monly surrounded by an outer rind of calcite and
elemental sulfur. This diagenetic continuum from
nodule core to outer rind has been attributed to
thermal and organic processes caused by hydro-
carbon migration (Baria, 1976; Longacre, 1976).
Stratigraphy and Gypsum
The lithology of the Lower Cretaceous Ferry Lake
Anhydrite of the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin
varies in thickness from an evaporite-dominated
facies to a carbonate-dominated facies in the sea-
ward dip direction. This lithologic sequence indi-
cates environmental changes from a very restricted
lagoonal condition to a normal marine environ-
ment. The Stuart City reef (Lock et al., 1983) was
a pivotal factor in separating the Ferry Lake depo-
center from the open marine environment together
with tectonic subsidence of the depocenter, which
promoted small-scale high-frequency transgressive-
regressive cycles (Amadi et al., 2009). These fac-
tors led to the unique rhythmic stacking patterns
(carbonate-anhydrite cycles) of the Ferry Lake,
thereby establishing an important stratigraphic
marker that has been used as a datum for correla-
tion, interpretation of seismic reflectors, and struc-
tural mapping throughout the Lower Cretaceous
of the Gulf of Mexico Basin.
Comparing the Ferry Lake stratigraphy with
stratigraphies of other basins with carbonate and
evaporite sections is pertinent to understanding the
presence of primary gypsum in Ferry Lake lime-
stone. These basins contain predominantly thick
sequences of carbonate rocks that are overlain by
relatively thin anhydrite beds. Stratigraphic se-
quences of these carbonate-evaporite basins con-
trast with the stratigraphic sequence of the Ferry
Lake Anhydrite. The Ferry Lake comprises mul-
tiple cycles of small-scale carbonate-evaporite se-
quences (Figure 8). Carbonate beds from the Ferry
Lake are interbedded with several anhydrite beds
with thicknesses ranging from 4 to 60 ft (1–18 m).
The Upper Permian (Guadalupian) San Andres
Formation of the Permian Basin comprises a thick
sequence of dolostone that is capped by relatively
thin evaporite beds. In some sections, the Upper
Permian of the Zechstein Basin of Poland con-
sists of more than 328 ft (>100 m) of carbonate
rocks that are overlain by massive evaporite ex-
ceeding 984 ft (300 m) in thickness (Peryt, 1989).
The stratigraphy of the Ordovician Red River
Formation of the Williston Basin contains a thick
section of carbonate rocks overlain by anhydrite
beds (Montgomery, 1997; Tanguay and Friedman,
2001).
The stratigraphic patterns from these three
formations contrast with that of the Ferry Lake,
which has multiple cycles of anhydrite and carbon-
ate beds. Cyclic anhydrite beds may have possibly
Amadi et al. 385
Figure 8. Generalized stratigraphic sections from three different basins with formations similar to the Ferry Lake Anhydrite. Note the
dolostone in all of these sequences except the Ferry Lake. The Ferry Lake stratigraphy contains more small-scale carbonate-evaporite
cycles compared with the other basins that contain only one or two anhydrite beds. Multiple small-scale cycles of carbonate-evaporite
parasequences are instrumental in inhibiting free flow of diagenetic fluids in the Ferry Lake, which is in contrast with the other formations.

hampered free circulation of diagenetic fluids rich
in Ca++ that could have enhanced complete con-
version of gypsum nodules to anhydrite. Conversely,
conversion of gypsum to anhydrite was complete
in the other formations partially because of fewer
impermeable anhydrite beds and thick porous car-
bonate beds. These stratigraphic settings would have
promoted free flow of diagenetic fluids. Although
secondary gypsum occurs in the San Andres For-
mation, the general geometry and orientation of
nodule conversion differs from those of the Ferry
Lake Anhydrite.
The Ferry Lake evaporite nodules, with anhy-
drite rinds engulfing gypsum, are enclosed within
the carbonate beds. Multiple stacked anhydrite
beds may have restricted circulation of diagenetic
fluids that could have completed anhydritization
of gypsum nodules. Although the thicknesses of
anhydrite beds in the Ferry Lake are less than those
in other basins, the Ferry Lake contains more cycles
of carbonate-anhydrite sequences, whereas in the
other basins with carbonate-evaporite sequences,
carbonate beds are thicker, ranging as much as 1000 ft
(305 m) or more with anhydrite beds at the top of
the sequence. Such stratigraphic settings and stack-
ing patterns probably affect the rate of anhydriti-
zation of gypsum (Figure 8).
Carbonate beds in the three basins discussed
above are partially to completely dolomitized, in-
creasing the Ca+/Mg++ ratio in an enclosed system.
Such elevated levels of Ca++ and free circulation
of diagenetic fluids in an enclosed system will in-
crease the chances of gypsum conversion to anhy-
drite. Stratigraphic sequence patterns will likely af-
fect the general circulation of diagenetic fluids that
are capable of transforming gypsum to anhydrite.
IMPLICATIONS FOR EXPLORATION
AND PRODUCTION
Effects of Gypsum on Porosity Logs
Gypsum in reservoir rocks has a significant effect
on neutron- and density-log responses and little ef-
fect on acoustic-log response (Tilly et al., 1982; Lucia

386 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs


et al., 1987; Holtz and Major, 2004). Hydrogen
contained in chemically bound water in gypsum is
a major factor causing error in neutron porosity log.
Tilly et al. (1982) noted that most of the other
minerals found in hydrocarbon reservoirs are com-
pletely devoid of hydrogen.
Hydrogen is assumed to be found in reservoir
rocks as water and hydrocarbons. Water and hydro-
carbons fill the pores of reservoir rocks; neutron
logs measure the hydrogen ion content of the rock
and convert those measurements to porosity. For-
mations containing clay are an exception because
some clays contain chemically bound water. Neu-
tron logs do not have the capability to differentiate
hydrogen that is present in gypsum, hydrocarbons,
or water. Lucia et al. (1987) noted that, for every
cubic millimeter of gypsum in reservoir rocks, neu-
tron logs record 0.49% porosity. As a result, the re-
sponse of neutron logs to this chemically bound
hydrogen causes a higher apparent porosity.
Gypsum has a density of 2.35 g/cm3, which is
much lower than those of calcite, dolomite, and
anhydrite. Thus, a density log calibrated to lime-
stone would read approximately 0.3% porosity for
every cubic millimeter of gypsum because of dif-
ferences in mineral densities (Lucia et al., 1987).
Acoustic logs measure the transit time of sound
waves through rock, and porosity is calculated by
assuming an average transit time for the matrix and
fluids. The transit time of gypsum is 53 ms/ft, which
Figure 9. The effect of bulk gypsum in
limestone-reservoir porosity measure-
ments using wireline porosity logs (mod-
ified from Holtz and Major, 2004).
is close to that of anhydrite, 50 ms/ft. Every cubic
millimeter of gypsum will generate approximately
0.02% porosity, which is generally insignificant
(Lucia et al., 1987).
Effects of Gypsum on Ferry Lake Carbonate
Porosity Logs
The average porosity results from point counts
(9%), core-plug analysis (11%), and values calcu-
lated from neutron and density logs (13%) suggest
a 2–4 difference in porosity percent unit. Appar-
ent variation in porosity values obtained from vari-
ous porosity tools is attributed to 18% gypsum.
Holtz and Major (2004) calculated that 20% bulk-
volume gypsum will generate approximately 13%
error in porosity calculations (Figure 9). Based on
the porosity-log–error data calculation of Holtz and
Major (2004). The Ferry Lake limestone is esti-
mated to contain approximately 7% bulk-volume
gypsum (Figure 9). Seven percent bulk-volume gyp-
sum accounts for the 4% porosity error recorded in
the neutron log relative to point-count results.
Both x-ray diffraction results and petrographic
analysis indicate that clay minerals are not present
in the Ferry Lake limestone. The apparent discrep-
ancy from porosity measurements must be attrib-
uted to the presence of gypsum. Such porosity mea-
surement errors associated with nodular gypsums
at great depth are commonly overlooked because
Amadi et al. 387
of the assumption that anhydritization of gypsum
is normally complete above 3500 ft (1067 m).
CONCLUSIONS
Gypsum can exist at depths greater than 3500 ft
(>1067 m). The depth at which gypsum completely
converts to anhydrite differs from region to region.
Lithostatic pressure, local geothermal gradient, and
pore brine fluid availability are significant factors
in converting gypsum to anhydrite. Gypsum in the
Ferry Lake Anhydrite is a consequence of cyclic
stratigraphy, tectonic setting, and diagenetic en-
vironment. Limestones in the Ferry Lake are not
dolomitized, starving the system of the Ca++ that
could have promoted the conversion of gypsum to
anhydrite. Gypsum in the Ferry Lake is interpreted
to be primary in origin, whereas gypsum in the San
Andres Formation is interpreted to be rehydrated
anhydrite. Evidences from petrography, x-ray dif-
fraction analysis, wellbore environment conditions,
and stratigraphy explain the preservation of gypsum
in both the Ferry Lake and San Andres formations.
Recognizing gypsum in evaporite nodules at
13,100 ft (3993 m) in Ferry Lake limestones and at
6000 ft (1829 m) in San Andres Formation dolo-
stones suggests that deep carbonate reservoir rocks
should be evaluated using multiple porosity mea-
surement tools. Using only one porosity tool, es-
pecially neutron and density logs, to measure the
porosity of deep carbonate reservoir rocks can have
significant porosity and water saturation measure-
ment errors. This study recommends that multiple
porosity measurements, such as thin-section pe-
trography and core-plug analysis, be incorporated in
the evaluation of porosity in deep carbonate res-
ervoir rocks. Moreover, special low-temperature
core analysis should be used when gypsum is present
to minimize the loss of bound water from gypsum.
POSTSCRIPT
When discussing gypsum in subsurface cores dur-
ing the course of many years, some scientists have
suggested to us that gypsum may have formed by
388 Origins of Gypsum in Deep Carbonate Reservoirs
hydration of anhydrite after the core was recovered
and while the core was in storage. We cannot find
this assertion in print, but it continues to be part
of informal conversations and manuscript review
comments.
This is unlikely because rehydration would re-
quire saturation with water, not simply a humid
environment. Moreover, this transformation would
probably take a very long time by human measures.
The geometry of gypsum in slabbed core also in-
dicates that it was not formed during core storage.
Were hydration of anhydrite to occur during stor-
age, the anhydrite would form initially on the slab-
bed surface and recrystallization would proceed
from this surface toward the interior of the core.
This geometry is not present in any of the cores we
have examined. The most convincing data indi-
cating that gypsum in subsurface cores is present
in situ are that gypsum is present in cores that have
just been recovered and have not yet been placed
in storage.
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