Biomaterials, Artificial Organs and

Tissue Engineering

Chapter 2

Metals

Dr E. Jane Minay and Dr Aldo R. Boccaccini

Imperial College London
 The Periodic Table
H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rare
Cs Ba earth Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
series
Acti-
Fr Ra nide
series

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw

Fig. 2.1 The periodic table showing the metals (yellow), non-metals (red) and
intermediate (blue) elements. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, opaque
to visible light, and have a familiar metallic lustre.
 Model 1
e- e -
+ + + + e- + + + +
e- e- e- e-
e- e-
e- e- e-

+ + + + e- + + + +
e- e- e- e- e- e-
e- e-
+ e +
-
+ + + + + +
e-e- e- e- e- e- e-
+ + + + e- + + - + +
e- e - e
e- e- e- e-
e-
e-
+ + + + + + + +
e-

Fig. 2.2 One model of a metal, positive ions are surrounded by a sea or cloud of
electrons. These ‘free electrons’ are not bound to any particular metal ion but are free
to move around within the structure. It is these ‘free electrons’ that result in some of
the typical properties of a metal including the good conductance of heat and
electricity, and the metallic lustre of a polished surface.
 Model 2: f.c.c.

A A A A A
B A
A B BB A B B A B BA
CC CC CC
A A A A
A BB A BB A BB A
C CC CC C
C
A
A AA AA AA AA

Fig. 2.3 (animated) The face centred cubic (f.c.c.) structure can be considered as a
repeating stack of closely packed layers of hard spheres.
Fig. 2.3 shows that the face centred cubic (f.c.c.) structure can be considered as a
repeating stack of closely packed layers of hard spheres. Each layer has the
highest possible density of spheres, each sphere touching six neighbouring
spheres. The first layer can be considered as being in the A position. The next
layer ‘sits’ on top of this layer in the B position. The third layer can sit on the
second layer either with each sphere directly above the spheres in the A layer or
in the third possible position, C. In the f.c.c. structure the third layer sits in the C
position. The overall structure is a sequence of layers stacked in the order
ABCABCABC…. Each sphere touches 12 others.
Aluminium, nickel and iron (at high temperatures) all have this type of structure.
Fig. 2.4 (animated) The face centred cube structure
Fig. 2.4 shows that the face centred cube in this structure can be easily seen if you
take two closely packed layers, each containing 6 spheres arranged in a triangle,
pointing down in the lower layer and up in the other layer. Place one sphere in the
recess of the spheres below the lower layer and another sphere in the recess above
the upper layer. Now stack the two structures so the atoms sit in a ABCA
sequence. The cube has a sphere centred on each corner and a sphere in the centre
of each face.
 Model 2: h.c.p.

A A A A A
B
B BB B
B B
B
C C C
A A A A
BB BB BB
C C C C
A A A A A

Fig. 2.5 The hexagonal close packed structure also consists of a stack of closely
stacked planes, however this time the stacking sequence is ABABAB…. Like the
f.c.c. structure each sphere is touching 12 others.
Zinc, magnesium and titanium (at room temperature) all have this type of structure.
 h.c.p.

Fig. 2.6 A hexagonal prism can be seen in this structure by taking atoms from
three of the closely packed planes, ABA.
 Model 2: b.c.c.

<B>
<B> <B>
<B>

Fig. 2.7 The bcc structure does not contain closely packed planes. The structure can be
contained in a cube with a sphere centred on each corner and a sphere in the centre of
the cube. Each sphere is only touching 8 other spheres.
Chromium, Iron (at room temperature) and Ti (at high temperature) all have this type
of structure.
 Microstructure of a steel

50µm

Fig. 2.8 Microstructure of an Fe-C alloy observed using an optical microscope. The
material has been polished to give a smooth surface and etched using nital to reveal
grain and phase boundaries. Light coloured grains are outlined and dark areas
consist of a finer structure which is not resolved at this magnification.
 Metallic Fracture

5µm
10µm

Fig. 2.9 Scanning electron microscope image of a metallic fracture surfaces. The top
image is of a metal which has fractured along the grain boundaries in a brittle
manner. The lower image shows a typical fracture surface of a metal that has failed
in a more ductile manner. The large depth of field can be seen in these images.
 Precipitation

200nm

Fig. 2.10 Transmission electron microscope image taken through a thin film of metal
showing small bright cubic precipitates in a darker matrix.
 Effect of grain size
500

450

400
Yeild Stress MPa

350

300

250

200
0 5 10 15 20 25
d-1/2

Fig. 2.11 Graph showing the effect of grain size on the yield stress of a commercially
pure titanium alloy. σYS=231+10.54 d-1/2 where the yield stress is in MPa and the grain
size is in mm.
 Tensile properties of metals
Plastic Deformation
Tensile
Non-reversible
Strength

Yield
Stress Fracture

σ
σ0

Recoverable ε
Elastic Strain
Fig. 2.12 Typical stress strain behaviour of a metallic material tested in tension. The
metal behaves elastically for the blue portion of the curve, permanent (plastic)
deformation (red section) begins at the yield stress of the metal, a maximum stress is
reached, the stress then decreases until ultimately the metal fractures.
 Mechanical properties of metals

Young’s Yield Stress Tensile % Fracture

Modulus (MPa) Strength elongation Toughness
(GPa) (MPa) (MPam1/2)
Steels 210 210-1600 400-1800 10-40 50-90
(General)
Stainless 190-210 200-1650 400-1800 5-40 80
Steels
Titanium 100-115 170-1100 400-1200 10-30 40-70
Alloys
Platinum 170 10 120-240 1-40 -

Fig. 2.13 Table of typical properties of some metals and alloys

 Fatigue properties of metals
400
Bending Stress, S, MPa
Mild Steel
300
Fatigue Limit

200 Aluminium

100

0
105 106 107 108 109
Number of Cycles to Failure, N
Fig. 2.14 The typical way of presenting fatigue data is a graph of the alternating stress
against the log of number of cycles to failure. The two types of fatigue behaviour are
shown here, the first in green is the behaviour of many non-ferrous alloys such as
aluminium. The number of cycles to failure increases as the alternating stress decreases.
The second type of behaviour, in red is typical of ferrous alloys and titanium alloys, a
fatigue limit is observed. Below this stress the metal has an effectively infinite fatigue life.
 The shape memory effect

Correspondence
Heat Variant A
Correspondence
Variant B
Cool
Correspondence
Variant A

Correspondence
Fig. 2.15 Variant A
Correspondence
Variant B
Correspondence
Variant A
Figure 2.15 shows a schematic mechanism of the shape memory effect. As
the metal is heated and cooled the atomic arrangement changes between one
of high symmetry at high temperature (in this schematic a square array) to a
lower symmetry arrangement at low temperature (in this case a diamond
array). Several variants of the lower symmetry phase will form. The
arrangement will change backwards and forwards as the metal is heated and
cooled with no overall shape shape being observed. If the metal is deformed
whilst it is in its low temperature structure the atoms move in such a way that
one variant grows at the expense of the others. If the metal is then heated to
return to the higher symmetry structure (the square array) the metal will
return to is original shape. This is the shape memory effect.
 Crevice Corrosion

Magnification of metal joint and crevice

O2
Cl-
OH- O2 OH- e
O2 M+ e e O2 O2 OH-
e
Na+ Na+ Cl-
O2 OH- e
O2 M+ M+
Na+ M+ Cl- -
Na+ O2 Cl- M+ H+ Cl
O2 Cl- O2 O2 O2 +

M+ M+ M+
Na+
Cl- O2 Cl-
O2 H Cl- H+
OH- OH- OH- M+
OH- OH- M+

e e e e e

Fig. 2.16 The mechanism of crevice corrosion.

Figure 2.16 shows the mechanism of crevice corrosion. A stagnant zone exists in the
crevice. Initially corrosion occurs at a uniform rate over the entire surface of the
metal. After a short time the oxygen in the crevice is used up. No reduction of
oxygen to hydroxyl ions occurs in this area, although the dissolution of metal
continues. An excess of positive charge is produced in the solution by the metal
ions. This is balanced by the migration of chloride ions into the crevice. The
concentration of metal chloride increases within the crevice. The metal ions and
chloride ions react with water to form an insoluble metal hydroxide, MOH and a
free acid H+Cl-.Both chloride and hydrogen ions accelerate the dissolution rates of
most metals and alloys and the process becomes auto catalytic.