CHAPTER – 12

ELECTRICITY
Think life without “electricity” in this modern society. Is it possible to survive without
electrical energy in world of technology. Since we are science student, so it is
necessary to understand the basic concept behind the word “electricity”
Charge :- (q)
It is a very small particles present in an atom. The charge possessed by the proton is
called positive charge (+1.6 x10-19C) and charge possessed by electron is called
negative charge (-1.6 x10+19C). Neutron has the particle that has no charge.
SI unit of charge - Coulomb (C).

Net charge (Q) :- Total charge

IC Net charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly electrons 61018

Q = ne (n is no: of electron)
If Q = 1C, e = 1.6 10 –19
C (negative charge on electron)
Q 1
n= e = 1.6 10–19
100
= 1018= 6.2 1018
16
n = 6 1018electron

Conductors :- are the material that conducts electricity. Electrons are free to move anywhere
in matter. All metals are conductors.

Insulator :- are the material that doesn’t conduct electricity. Electrons are not free to move
anywhere in matter. E.g, plastic, wood, etc.

Electric Current (I)

The rate of flow of electric charge is known as electric current.
If a net electric charge (Q) flows through any cross-section of time (t)

Q
I= t

SI unit of current = Ampere (A)

Ampere :- Defined as one coulomb of charge following per Second.

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb
1 Second
− If positive charge flows, direction of Positive charge is same as direction of electric current .
− If negative charge flows, direction of negative charge is opposite to direction of electric
current.
 + Positive
 - Negative
 Current
Electric current can't flow through insulator because in insulator, protons and electrons are
fixed at their position.

Small quantity of current are expressed in

mA (milli Ampere) = 10–3 A
uA (micro Ampere) = 10–6 A

Potential difference :- Potential difference between two points is the work done per unit
charge in taking the charge from one point to another.

V= W
Q

One Volt :- When 1 Joule of work is done to carry one coulomb (1C) of charge from one
point to another of a current carrying conductor then the potential difference is send to be
1V.
1J
1V =
1C

As water flows from high level to low level similarly, electric current flows from high potential
to low potential.

Cell :- The Difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more
electric cells.

Potential difference across the terminals of the cell generated due to chemical reaction within
the cell. When cell is connected to a conducting wire, current flows from high potential to
low potential.

Electric Circuit :- It is a closed path along which an electric current flow.

Bulb
The arrow shows the direction
– of electric current in circuit.

A In this circuit ammeter is

Ammeter connected in series.
+
Key
+ –

Battery
(Having 3 cells)

The electron can only flow when there is difference of electric pressure.
Circuit Diagram :- A diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have to
be connected by using symbols for different electric components is called a circuit diagram.

We know that electric circuit is a continuous path consisting of cell, switch (plug key), electric
components and connecting wires. Electric circuits can be represented conveniently
through a circuit diagram.

Ammeter :- It is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.

It is always connected in series in a circuit
It has low resistance.
It is represented by the symbol +A – in an electric circuit.

Voltmeter :- It is an instrument, used to measure the potential difference in a circuit.

It is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is
to be measured.
It has high resistance.
It is represented by the symbol +V – in an electric circuit
 Symbols for some commonly used instrument in circuit diagrams

(1) Cell + –

(2) Battery + –

(3) Key (switch) open

OR

(4) Key (Close) OR

(5) Joint wire

(6) Wires with no join

(7) Bulb

+ –
(8) Ammeter A

+ –
(9) Voltmeter V

(8) Resistor (R)

(10) Rheostat (Variable resistance)

Georg Simon Ohm (physicist) 1787 – 1854

Found the relationship between the current (I) flowing through a conductor and
potential difference (V) across the terminals of a conductor using the circuit diagram.
+ –
V GRAPH

–
A
+ V V I
(V)
O I (A)
+ –

In this circuit diagram we come across two new symbols

RESISTANCE (R)

OR RHEOSTAT (Variable Resistance)

Ohm’s Law :- Ohm's Law states that the electric current is directly proportional to
potential difference between two points.
Electric Current  Potential Difference

V = IR I= V
IV R

Where R is constant for the given conductor and called resistance. Resistance is the property
of conductor which resists the flow of electric current through it. Component that is used to
resist the flow of electric current in a circuit is called resistor.

Resistance (R) :- It is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current. It
is represented by ‘R’ and symbol is
SI unit of resistance = Ohm ()

1 Ohm :- 1 ohm () of Resistance (R) is equal to the flow of 1 A of current through a
conductor between two points having potential difference equal to 1 V.

1 = 1V
1A

Rheostate (Rh) (Variable resistance):-

As we know that
V = IR

I= V
R
So to increase or decrease the current accordingly in the circuit a component is used is
called “Rheostat”, that regulates the current without changing potential difference.
Represented by “Rh” and that resistance is called variable resistance

Its symbol is OR
it a conductor has less Resistance, then more current will flow through it.

Factors on which Resistance Depends

Resistance in a conductor depends on following factors :-

Length of conductor: Resistance R is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

This means, Resistance increases with increase in length of the conductor. This is the cause
that long electric wires create more resistance to the electric current.
R L ...(1)

Area of cross section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross

section ( A ) of the conductor. This means R will decrease with increase in the area of
conductor and vice versa.
More area of conductor facilitates the flow of electric current through more area and thus
decreases the resistance. This is the cause that thick copper wire creates less resistance to the
electric current.
R 1
A ...(2)
Nature of material: Wire used in electric circuit is made up of different materials and
different materials have different value of resistivity ( p). It is the property of material.

Resistance R is directly proportional to resistivity ( p) of material.

R p...(3)

From eq 1,2,3, :- pl
R=
A

l
R=
A
Where “ ” (rho) is a proportionality constant known as resistivity of the material of
conductor.
Resistivity ( ) :- the resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross-
sectional area is called resistivity.
SI unit of Resistivity = m

For a material irrespective of length and area, the resistivity is a constant.

− Materials having resistivity in the range of 10-8 m to 10-6 m are considered as very good
conductors. Silver has resistivity equal to 1.60 X 10-8 m and copper has resistivity equal to
1.62 X 10-8 m.

− Rubber and glass are very bad conductors or very good insulators. They have resistivity in the
order of 1012 m to 10 m. EQ

Resistantly of a material vary with temperature

Resistivity of an alloy (homogeneous mixture of metals) is generally higher than of its
constituent metals. Example Constantan (alloy of Cu & Ni)
Alloys have high resistivity and do not oxidise (burn) readly at high temperature, for this
reason they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron, heater,
toasters etc. For example “Tungsten” as filament of electric bulb.
Resistance in Series :- (Maximum Effective Resistance)
When resistors are joined from end to end, they are said to be in series combination.

Value of current in the ammeter is same irrespective of its position in the circuit. So we
conclude that in a series combination of resistors the current is same in every part of the
circuit or same current flow through each resistor. If we add potential difference across each
one of resistors (RI, R2 and R3) then we get
V = V1 + V2 + V3
OR IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 (V = IR)
 R = R 1 + R 2 + R3 (I get cancel)
So in this case, the total resistance of the system is equal to the sum of the resistance of all the resistors in
the system.
If n resistors are connected in series combination then,
R = R1 + R2 + R3...... + Rn

Thus, we conclude that effective Resistance of the several resistors joined in series is
equal to the sum of their individual resistance.

Resistance in Parallel (Minimum Effective Resistance)

When resistors are joined in parallel, they are said to be in parallel combination.

In parallel combination, the potential difference across each resistor is equal to the voltage
of the battery applied.
When resistors are connected in parallel, the sum of the currents flowing through all the
resistances is equal to total current flowing in the circuit.

I = I1 + I2 + I3
V=V+V+V
Or R R1 R2 R3
1 = 1 +1 + 1
 R R1 R2 R3
So in this case, the reciprocal of total resistance of the system is equal to the sum of
reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.
If n resistors are connected in parallel combination then,

1= 1+1 1 1
R R1 R2+ R3+.......+ Rn

Note : When number of resistors are connected in parallel then their combined resistance
is less than the smallest individual resistance. While in series combination, equivalent
resistance is always greater than any individual resistance.
Devices in series and parallel :-
There are 2 ways to connect multiple devices to a power source, series and parallel.

Series connection Parallel connection

Advantages of parallel connection :-

1. In series connection, either all devices are ON or all are OFF. But in parallel connection,
devices can be selectively switched ON or OFF.
2. In series connection, if one device fails, all devices will turn OFF. But in parallel connection,
if one device fails, rest all work fine.
3. In series connection, all devices will get same current. But in parallel connection, different
devices need different current for proper working.

That's why all devices like fan, TV, refrigerator, bulbs are connected in parallel.

Disadvantage of series connection in an electric circuit :–

1. In series connection if any of the component fail to work, the circuit will break and
then none of the component (ex. TV, bulb, fan..) will work.
2. It is not possible to connect a bulb and a heater in series, because they need
different value of current to operate properly.

Hence, to overcome this problem we generally use parallel circuit.

Heating effect of Electric Current :

Explanation® Battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.

Battery or Cell Electron

(Chemical reaction in will come in motion
it will produce potential to flow current
difference at its through resistor
two terminals)

Rest of energy of source is To maintain this current,

converted into heat, that Part of this energy is the source has to keep
raises the temperature of consumed in useful expending its energy
gadget. work (like rotating of fan)

This is known as heating This effect is utilized in

effect of electric current devices such as electric
heater, iron etc.
Heating effects of electric current :-
When electric current is supplied to a purely resistive conductor, the energy of electric
current is dissipated entirely in the form of heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The
heating of resistor because of dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating
Effect of Electric Current.

Heating effect of electricity is one of the widely used effects in the world. When electric
current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the resistance it offers to the
current flow. The work done in overcoming the resistance is generated as heat. This is studied
by James Prescott Joule

H = I2Rt and is well known as Joule’s Law.

Mathematical Expression
Consider current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let potential difference across it
be V. Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows across. The work done in moving the
charge Q through a potential difference V is
W = VQ
Since, Q = It,
 W = VIt
Using ohm’s law V = IR,
W = (IR)It
W = I2Rt
Now, assuming that all the work done is converted into heat energy we can replace symbol of
‘work done’ with that of ‘heat produced’. So,
H = I2Rt
This is known as Joule’s Law

The law stated that the heat produced in a resistor is

1. directly proportional to square of the current(I)
2. directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
3. directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow through resistor.

Application of Heating Effect of Electric Current :-

Every application of heating effect has a coil of wire called

element. When electric current flows through element, it becomes
hot and gives out heat.
1. Used in electric iron, toaster, oven, heater etc.

2. Electric iron :- In an iron the upper part is grooved. In this groove a coil is placed. Mica
as an insulator is placed between the metal part and the coil, so that there is no electrical
connection between them. Mica is a bad conductor of electricity but it is a good conductor of
heat. Due to the flow of current through the coil it becomes heated and the heat transferred to
the metal part through mica. Finally the metal part becomes heated. Iron is used with the
heating effect of an electric current.

Bimetallic plates and applying the heating effect of current helps the iron break the flow of
electricity when a certain temperature is reached. you may have noticed this when the red
light on an iron box comes on and off.

3. Electric bulb :- we see a thick metallic wire in the bulb. It is made of tungsten metal. In a
glass vessel or bulb the tungsten wire is kept sealed. The glass bulb is filled with neutral gas
or vacuum. Neutral gases are using now a days commonly. The tungsten wire is known as
filament when the current flows through the tungsten wire or filament it becomes heated and
emit of light. Due to the flow of current heating effect of an electric current used as the
source of light.

In an electric bulb, the filament of bulb gives light because of heating effect of
electricity. The filament of bulb is generally made of tungsten metal; having melting
point equal to 3380°C.

4. Electric heater :- In an electric heater one type of coil is used. A high resistance material
like nichrome or same type of material is used as coil. The coil is wound in grooves on
ceramic format or china clay. Flowing electric current through the coil it becomes heated.
Due to high resistance the coil becomes red color forms.

5. Electric Fuse :- It is also used in the ‘fuse connected in an electric circuit’. Fuse is
a safety device, protect the circuits and appliance by stopping the flow of high current.
The fuse is placed in series with the device. An electric fuse consists of a piece of wire
made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium,
copper, iron, lead, etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks
the circuit.

“ Fuses” used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A etc. for various
operation depending upon the power of appliance using.
Electric Power :- The rate of change electrical energy dissipated or consumed in an
electric circuit.
P = VI
Or P = I2R (V = IR Ohm’s law)
2
V ( I = V/R)
P= R
Electrical energy (E)
P=
Time (t)

SI unit of electric power = Watt (W).

1 Watt - Defined as the power consumed by a device, when 1A of current passes

through it at the potential difference of 1V.
P = VI
1 Watt = 1 Volt 1Ampere

Electrical energy :-
E
P= t E - Electrical energy
  = Pt t - time

SI unit of electrical energy = Ws or J

Commercial unit of electrical energy = KWh or One unit

E = P t
 KWh =1KW h
= 1000W 3600s
= 36 105Ws
= 3.6 106J (SI unit Ws = J)
KWh=3.6 106J

One horse power = 746W

…By Lokesh Mali

10th CBSE Passer 2017
82.6% KV Dhule