The thyroid secretes thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3),
as well as calcitonin, which is discussed in Chapter 39. The
release of T3 and T4 is controlled by the pituitary hormone thyrotrophin (thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH). This binds to receptors on thyroid follicular cells and activates adenylyl cyclase, which stimulates iodine trapping, iodothyronine synthesis and release of thyroid hormones. TSH is secreted by basophil cells in the adenohypophysis. Secretion of TSH by the anterior pituitary is stimulated by the hypothalamic peptide thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH). Circulating T4 and T3 produce negative-feedback inhibition of TSH at the pituitary and hypothalamus. Drug treatment is highly effective in correcting under- or over-activity of the thyroid gland. The diagnosis of abnormal thyroid function and monitoring of therapy have been greatly facilitated by accurate and sensitive assays measuring TSH, because the serum TSH level accurately reflects thyroid state, whereas the interpretation of serum concentrations of T3 and T4 is complicated by very extensive and somewhat variable protein binding. Negative feedback of biologically active thyroid hormones ensures that when there is primary failure of the thyroid gland, serum TSH is elevated, whereas when there is overactivity of the gland, serum TSH is depressed. Hypothyroidism caused by hypopituitarism is relatively uncommon and is associated with depressed sex hormone and adrenal cortical function. Hyperthyroidism secondary to excessive TSH is extremely rare. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT Thyroid disease is more common in women than in men, and is manifested either as goitre or as under- or over-activity of the gland. Hypothyroidism is common, especially in the elderly. It is usually caused by autoimmune destruction of the gland and, if untreated, leads to the clinical picture of myxoedema. Treatment is by lifelong replacement with thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism is also common and again autoimmune processes are implicated. Treatment options comprise: • antithyroid drugs; • radioactive iodine; • surgery. Antithyroid drugs enable a euthyroid state to be maintained until the disease remits or definitive treatment with radioiodine or surgery is undertaken. Radioactive iodine is well tolerated and free of surgical complications (e.g. laryngeal nerve damage), whereas surgery is most appropriate when there are local mechanical problems, such as tracheal compression. In older patients, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism is multinodular toxic goitre. In young women it is usually caused by Graves’ disease, in which an immunoglobulin binds to and stimulates the TSH receptor, thereby promoting synthesis and release of T3 and T4 independent of TSH. In addition to a smooth vascular goitre, there is often deposition of mucopolysaccharide, most notably in the extrinsic eye muscles which become thickened and cause proptosis. Graves’ disease has a remitting/relapsing course and often finally leads to hypothyroidism. Other aetiologies of hyperthyroidism include acute viral or autoimmune thyroiditis (which usually resolve spontaneously), iatrogenic iodine excess (e.g. thyroid storm following iodine-containing contrast media and hyperthyroidism in patients treated with drugs, such as amiodarone; see below and Chapter 32), and acute postpartum hyperthyroidism.