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PV - TD PDF
PV - TD PDF
The fast growing market (see Fig. 3.1) and manifold applications involving photovoltaic (PV) power, has
lead to a large development of different power converters needed to adapt the output voltage (current)
of the PV cell to the voltage (current) levels and waveforms needed by the consumer (or user).
Off-grid applications : where the PV power is directly used by the consumer, which is
consequently unplugged from the grid. Often, the PV power is stored in a electrochemical
accumulator (battery), in order to allow an independent (off-grid) functionality of the
application, even in case of absence of irradiated (sun-) power.
Each of above two categories can be further subdivided into domestic (or distributed) and non-
domestic (or centralized) applications, depending on the amount of power and use of PV energy.
Fig. 3.1: Evolution of WW installed PV power in GWp [1] Fig. 3.2: Grid-connected vs. off-grid PV power [1]
The Fig. 3.1 shows the strong increase of installed PV power (worldwide statistics), whereas the fig. 3.2
shows the evolution of the grid-connected PV power versus the off-grid PV power. Even if the off-grid
applications represent a large range of applications, the total installed power of the off-grid applications
is small compared to the off-grid PV power. As power is linked to the surface size (and therefore costs)
of the solar panels, the grid-connected applications show a bigger economic potential compared to the
off-grid applications.
Fig. 3.7 (above): Typical domestic Fig. 3.8 (above): Typical domestic charge controller
off-grid system[1]. (B) with battery (C) and inverter (D) for AC-loads (F).
Non-domestic off-grid systems: where the PV power is supplying the load and or used to
charge a backup battery. The battery supplies the load in “off-light” conditions (i.e. during
night or when sun irradiation is insufficient to supply the load.
As for the off-grid lighting system above, the battery size needs
Fig. 3.10 (above): Public
to be adapted to the power consumption profile of the load. lighting off-grid system[1].
A solar array is constituted by different solar panels, which are in turn subdivided into different
modules (also called strings). Each module is an assembly of different solar cells, connected in
series. Depending on the application (and on the irradiation conditions), the modules may be
connected in series or parallel to constitute the solar panel. The same comment applies between the
solar panels and the solar array.
Each module is covered by a glass protection and
bordered by a metallic frame (usually aluminium). In
order to alloy high lifetimes, the module frame is
usually leak tight and offers an adequate protection
against dust and corrosion effects.
The different panels are usually mounted on
adjustable (aluminium) supports, allowing an optimal
inclination and orientation to the sun irradiation.
CELL MODULE PANEL ARRAY
Special care needs to be applied in the selection of
the different interconnection cables and connectors. Fig. 3.11 (above): Illustration of a solar array
Thus to ensure a safe and failure free operation. subdivision.
A solar cell is basically a pn-junction, which is submitted to solar irradiation. If the energy absorbed
by the irradiation is sufficient to “kick-out” electrons from the valence-band to the conduction-band
(and therefore to generate “holes” or “lack” of electrons), the electrons will move from anode to
cathode, under the effect of the junction field. As the “holes” move in the opposite direction, a
photovoltaic current will be generated from cathode to anode.
Anode Cathode
C (log)
p zone n zone
Incident Irradiation
p n
- +
Cathode Idiffusion
Photovoltaic current
E - +
n p
Junction Load x
voltage Q(x)
+
x
-
Hole n zone E(x)
x
depletion zone
p zone V(x)
Electron x
Anode
Fig. 3.12 (above): Illustration of a solar cell and photovoltaic current. depletion zone
Consequently, the static I-U-curve of a solar cell is basically the same than the I-U-curve of a diode,
which is shifted by the photocurrent intensity on the I-axis (see figure below). Mathematically this
can be expressed by: U
I = I P − I S ⋅ e U th − 1
Where Ip is the photocurrent
Is is the junction saturation current
Uth = kT/q is the thermal potential
Obscurity
Following above equation, the short- and open-
circuit conditions become:
ISC = I p
and Ip
VOC = U th ⋅ Ln
IS
Note that on temperature dependence:
• Is depends exponentially on the temperature
and doubles every increase of 10°K.
• The temperature dependence on Is
compensates the kT – factor in above
expression for Voc , which has finally a Irradiated
negative temperature coefficient.
Finally to obtain an accurate static model, following parasitic elements need to be taken into
account:
• The serial resistance Rs, due to the connection wires and interfaces.
• The parallel resistance Rp, due to the leakage effects in the junction due to impurities and the
housing of the cell.
The static model is represented in the figure below. The voltage-current ratio corresponding to
following equation:
U + RS ⋅ I
U + R ⋅I
I = I P − I S ⋅ e U th
− 1 − S
RP
I
A solar array composed by strings of n cells in
series and m strings of cells in parallel, can be
represented by an similar equivalent model
having:
U
• a total short-circuit current m•Isc
• a total serial resistance of n•Rs/m
• a total parallel resistance Rp of n•Rp/m
The dynamic model can be obtained by adding a junction capacitance in parallel to Rp and a stray
inductance in series with Rs. The junction capacitance depends highly on the cell size (surface),
whereas the stray inductance depends on the wire length and diameter. Note that both reactance
have a non-linear behaviour and strongly depend on frequency, voltage and current values.
Observing the static I-U curve of a solar cell (or solar cell assembly), the temperature (θ) and
relative irradiation (ε), have different effects (see figures below):
• The irradiation intensity (ε) influences (linearly) the photocurrent (Isc).
• The temperature (θ) mainly influences the open-circuit voltage (Voc).
Id Id
ε= 1
ε= 1
Isc
ε = 0.6
θ = 0° θ = 0°
θ = 70°
Ud Voc Ud
Concerning the test conditions for the acquirement of the I-U curve, we distinguish between SRC
and STC (see also §3.1.5.1).
The current is logically the same in each solar cell of the serial string and is imposed by the
“weakest” cell (lowest irradiation).
The module is normally mounted in a metallic frame (usually aluminium alloy) and protected by a
cover glass (alternatively a Tedlar plastic cover), having usually a thickness comprised between
8mm and 10mm.
Electrically the module is characterized by the equivalent maximum voltage and current values as for
the solar cell (i.E. the open- and short-circuit voltage and current values, as the mpp-values for
power current and voltage, see also §3.1.4). The reported values are measured according the SRC
(Standart Reporting Condition) or STC (Standart Test Condition) standarts.
can therefore rise to destructing levels and create Vinv = (nc-1)*VOC- Vdiode-Vbatt = 71*0.5 - 0.8 - 24 = 10.7V
an overheating (and destruction) of the respective
cell. Solar cell connecting points
• This “hot spot” can in turn generate a general over-
heat situation in the entire module.
- NC
+
To avoid such situation, bypass diodes are mounted in anti-
parallel (ex. by groups of 18 cells), allowing by-pass of the
photo-current of the other cells and limiting also the inverse by-pass diodes
voltage appearing on the bypassed cell(s).
Leak-tight connectors
I SC ⋅ VOC
U
The form factor FF can be used to determine the serial Uoc
resistance parameter RS of the cell.
Fig. 3.16 : Form factor illustration
Rs can be computes using the relative open –circuit voltage voc and the reference form factor FF0,
rS = RS ⋅ I SC VOC
a
a = υOC + 1 − 2υOC ⋅ rS and b=
1+ a
[
I mpp = I SC ⋅ 1 − a − b ] and U mpp = VOC ⋅ 1 −
b
( )
⋅ ln a − rS 1 − a −b
υOC
The above determination of the MPPT voltage and current is rather empiric than scientific, but the
resulting MPP Power is usually within the 1% error range, compared to the manufacturer’s data.
The I-U behaviour of a solar cell is highly dependent on the irradiation and temperature level of the
cell (or module). To compute the values for a given effective irradiation Geff and cell temperature Tc,
we can use:
( )
*
I SC
I SC (G ) = * ⋅ Geff + I coeff ⋅ TC − TC*
G
VOC (TC ) = VOC
*
(
− U coeff ⋅ TC − TC* )
PM = PM* ⋅
Geff
G *
[ (
⋅ 1 − ∆Pcoeff ⋅ TC − TC* )]
where: • I*SC , U*OC , P*M and G* are the STC short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, MPP
power and irradiation values
• T*C is the STC cell temperature (25°C)
• Icoeff is the current-temperature coefficient (0 if not given by the manufacturer)
• Ucoeff is the voltage-temperature coefficient (2.3 mV/°K per cell if not given by the
manufacturer)
• ∆Pcoeff is the mpp power temperature coefficient (0.4%/°K if not given by the
manufacturer)
They are many variants to achieve the MPPT. The next few paragraphs will present some of them
with their respective advantages and disadvantages.
One of the simplest MPPT algorithm, is to admit a constant MPP to OC (Open Circuit) voltage ratio,
following:
U MPP
= const.
U OC
For some solar cell, this simple assumption is close to the reality. Nevertheless, in most cases this
simple assumption is not accurate enough (especially with high temperature variations) to achieve
high energy or power efficiencies. In most cases, the efficiency obtained with this algorithm is
roughly 90%. This is the lowest achieved efficiency compared to the other MPPT algorithm presented
hereafter.
Another disadvantage is inherent to the measurement (or observation of the open circuit voltage of
the solar array: the photovoltaic panel needs regularly to be disconnected from the load, in order to
evaluate the voltage ratio.
dP ∆I I
• MPP is on the right: <0⇒ <−
dV ∆V V
dP ∆I I
• MPP is on the left: >0⇒ >−
dV ∆V V
• MPP is achieved: dP ∆I I
=0⇒ =−
dV ∆V V
It is evident that this algorithm is independent of the
temperature and irradiation characteristics of the solar
array and presents the advantage of observing only the
voltage and current evolution at the output of the solar
array.
The disadvantage of this method is the superposition of a small perturbation to the operating
voltage, causing also a solar power variation. The main advantage is the continuous tracking of
the MPP.
• Allow the charging of the battery with photo-current from the solar array (SA)
• Control the end-of-charge situation of the battery (i.e. limit the charging current at the end-of-
charge state) and control the battery SOC (state of charge) and safe operating of the battery.
• Ensure the MPPT during the charge of the battery (usually this functionality is optional)
• Allow the user to connect electric (DC-)loads to the system, as long as the battery is not depleted.
Ubatt Ibatt
A typical charge curve is shown in Fig. 3.21. The charge is
divided into a constant current phase (CC-phase), where the
voltage increases steadily, and a constant voltage phase
(CV-phase), where the current decreases strongly until the CC-phase CV-phase
end of charge. Usually 90% to 95% of the charge is
achieved during the CC-phase. Some battery types need time
also a temperature survey during the CV-phase.
Fig. 3.21: Typical battery charge curves
which depend on the duty cycle D of the transistor. Fig. 3.31: step-down DC/DC converter
In other words, the duty cycle D (as defined in §3.2.1.1), is used to control the conversion ratio
Vout/Vin and therefore to adapt the load impedance and therefore ensure the MPPT functionality
(see also §3.1.6).
IIN L1
To analyse the input to output voltage behaviour, a
closer analysis to the ON, resp. OFF state of the
VIN C1 Rch Vout step-down converter is needed.
During ON-state, the transistor conducts the input
GND(PWR) current and applies to the diode the input voltage (in
Fig. 3.32: step-down ON-state reverse polarisation), which consequently blocks.
IIN L1 The inductor voltage is imposed at (Vin-Vout) > 0,
which causes an increase of the inductor current.
During the OFF-state, the transistor blocks. The
VIN C1 Rch Vout
inductor current is forced to pass through the
diode, which enters in conduction and imposes an
GND(PWR) inductor of (-Vout) < 0. This causes the inductor
Fig. 3.33: step-down OFF-state current to decrease. uL
ULON
In steady state conditions, the mean voltage across the
inductance needs to be zero, which means : t
ULOFF
iL tON tOFF
U L = 0 ⇒ U LON ⋅ tON = −U LOFF ⋅ tOFF IL ∆iL
U out
(U in − U out ) ⋅ tON = U out ⋅ tOFF ⇒ =D
U in
(U in − U out ) ⋅ D ⋅ TP = U out ⋅ (1 − D ) ⋅ TP
t
TP
Fig. 3.34: inductor voltage & current
U out D GND(PWR)
Step − up / down : =
U in 1 − D Fig. 3.36: step-up/down DC/DC converter
Note that on the step-up/down, there is no common ground between input and output voltage.
IP
3.2.3.2 Losses in shunt & serial regulators Current
source
Using the same numeric data than for the previous Isc
example, a serial regulator operating in pulsed Impp
operation, will impose a voltage on the SA, which is
lower than the Vmpp: assuming a total voltage drop
(over T1 and D1) of 1V, we obtain: Voltage
• SA voltage: UP = Ubatt + 1V ≤ 14.5 V source
This means that the SA is operating as a “current
source” having an output current of Isc (= 5.5A):
• Regulator losses: Ploss = 1V x Isc = 5.5 W
UP
The mean output power is therefore given by the Vmpp Voc
mean battery voltage:
Serial Regulator
• Mean output power: Pbatt = Ubatt x Isc = 66 W
This time we will reach a charge time of approx.
9.09h, which finally gives us the total solar energy IP ID1 D1
T1
needed to charge the battery:
UP Controller UBatt
• Solar Energy: Wsol = Tch x Psol x SurfSA
= 9.09h x 1000 W/m2 x 0.5 m2
= 4.55 kWh
The user (or system engineer) has to ensure that the different sensors are compatible with the
electric signal specification of the different sensing interfaces as well as with the accuracy and
measurement ranges required. Apart from a decrease of efficiency resulting from inadequate
sensor use or connection, the system could also be subject to safety hazard resulting from.
The use of battery and electronic power devices need a solid understanding of the different devices
and their functionality, in order to avoid safety issues:
• The polarity of different connections needs to be checked, as well as
• The grounding (earth connection) of the different devices. Example:
as seen on Fig. 3.36 the mass connection of input and output
connections of some DC/DC devices are not necessarily at the same
potential. Consequently they cannot be connected to the same earth.
• The use of power electronics and battery need also a special attention
to the power dissipation capabilities of the operating environment, in
order to avoid any overheating of components.
• Battery are also subject to leakage or flooding effects resulting from
damages or ageing. As the involved materials and liquids are
corrosive, retention tanks and/or leak-tight battery housing need to be
foreseen. Some battery even present a risk of flaming when subject to
inadequate charging or discharging conditions.
• Finally, it has to be noted that (long) connection lines between PV
panels and the converter (or charge regulator) present some inherent
leakage inductance. If this lines are interrupted, high (over-)voltage
spikes may appear on the input connections of the converter.
according:
ton 1Uˆ
D= ≅ sin(ωt ) 0
ton t
TP U e
Tp
Consequently, the maximum peak voltage of –Uin
T/2
the 1st harmonic is lower than the DC input
voltage of the inverter (max. duty cycle D = 1). Fig. 3.50: Inverter symbol and signals
The output voltage (Uo) contains also some higher order harmonics, which are multiples of the
pulsing frequency fp = 1 / Tp (see also § 3.3.6 for further information about harmonics). In general
the pulsing frequency is much higher than the frequency of the 1st harmonic (ex. 5-50 kHz vs. 50 Hz).
The phase γ of the output voltage Uo is also influenced by the output inductance
L and its associated impedance jωL.
Usually, if a PV inverter is used, the output inductance is part of the inverter Fig. 3.52: complex
itself and the user has not to care further about, except that the inverter phasor
diagram
respects the applicable standards for the current harmonics (such as EN61000-
3-2) injected into the AC grid.
Using above expression, it is possible to compute the evolution of the efficiency of the converter in
dependence of the output power, expressed in percentage vs. the nominal power (i.e. η10 is the
efficiency at 10% of the nominal output power): −1
P0
η p = 1 + k +
0.01 p ⋅ PN
Taking into account of the solar power distribution available in european countries, a mean
efficiency ηEUR of the converter could be computed with (according [7]):
P 1 I s ⋅ cos1ϕ
The power factor is given by: PF = = where 1ϕ is the phase between 1Is and Ugrid
S Is
P cos1 ϕ
Consequently the power factor becomes: PF = =
S 1 + THD 2
As the general complex phasor diagram (fig. 3.52) remains also valid for the n
UO
harmonics (except that nUgrid ≈ 0 for n>1), the output current harmonics can be
n
IO =
estimated with the output voltage harmonics, using:
n ⋅ ωL
In general the THD is limited to 5% for typical grid-connected PV applications. Fig. 3.64 shows typical
voltage harmonic distribution for a H-bridge inverter. Detailed harmonic voltage amplitudes for
mono-phase and 3-phase inverter can be found in annex of this document.
n
Û o
U in
Fig 3.65 shows the bloc schematics of a typical (mono-phased) household PV AC system with
battery backup capabilities: the PV power is converted by a DC/DC-converter to DC power link,
which drives the inverter and the battery.
As mentioned above, grounding has to be performed in accordance to the galvanic separation
capabilities of the inverter used.
The battery does not only represent a higher investment cost, but also increases the maintenance &
running costs. Moreover the aging of the battery influences its lifetime and depends on operational
conditioning of the battery (depth of discharge, temperature and charge conditioning).
As Gdim is a mean value, the effective solar irradiation energy G de pends on a statistic distribution,
which depends strongly on the geographical location of the PV system (see also part 4 : System
design). The availability a of a PV system is defined as a quantity indicating the energy effectively
received versus the mean quantity requested:
As the battery is able to “smooth down” the effect of the statistic variation of the irradiated energy
G, it is also able to increase, up to a certain amount the availability of the system.
The evolution of the mean availability in function of the required energy Gdim has been represented
on fig. 3.68 for two different geographic sites and its evolution showed for different autonomy
factors AF. Analysing the figure, we can conclude:
• For autonomy factors (AF) of 7 and above the
availability reaches asymptotic limits. site b
• The mean availability does not significantly
increase for AF > 3.
Mean Availability
• For AF > 3 the mean availability reaches the site a
asymptotic value of 1 for Gdim < GA
• Remark : GA is the mean available irradiated
energy for each site (site a : GA = 4.2 kWh/m2,
site b : GA = 5.5 kWh/m2)
From above conclusions, we see that the autonomy Required Energy
factor of the battery should be within:
3 ≤ AF ≤ 6 Fig. 3.68: System availability & Required Energy [7]
The resulting nominal battery capacity CN can then be easily calculated with the nominal battery
voltage UN, using:
The power of the DC/DC converters respectively the DC/AC inverter of a PV AC System are then
calculated with the maximum SA power and the maximum injected AC power respectively.
Due to the fact that PV system may also help to stabilize (power peak shifting) the AC network and to
prevent from (minor) network breakdowns, the simple question of connection or disconnect ion
criteria and network fault criteria are controversial.
Fig. 3.70 shows an example of grid voltage limit
in dependence of the fault duration (Irish grid
code). If the grid voltage is above the depicted
limit, the (PV) power plant may not be
disconnected from the AC network as the fault
(or voltage breakdown) may be considered as
“minor”.
Other directives consider the variation of the grid
frequency as criteria for power (active and
reactive) variation.
As already mentioned, in absence of any
international (or even european) standard, the
Fig. 3.70: Grid code extract (fault voltage tolerance in
anti-islanding procedure as well as power quality Ireland)
acceptance criteria have to be considered from
case to case with the local power network operator. The inverter control and regulation parameters
may then be adapted to comply with these “local” standards or grid codes. In central Europe, the
UCTE (Union for Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity) assumes the harmonization of the
“conditions for the development of the (liberalized) electricity market”.
In addition, the distribution supply operator (DSO), has to face the highly time dependent nature of
the PV power generation and therefore
A time dependent reverse
power flow effect and grid
parameter variation.
Fig. 3.72 shows an example
of highly time dependent
power load measured on a
sub-station level.
The seasonal, and to
certain extend daily, power
variation may be absorbed
or counterbalanced by
adequate grid source
management. Fig. 3.72: Example of Sub-station load power variation [9], Bayern (D) 2011
On the opposite, short-time variations appearing locally, need an adequate active and reactive power
control of the PV power sources to stabilize the grid parameters.
It is evident, that the situation shown in fig. 3.72 is only representative for a high amount on total PV
power compared to the total power consumption respectively generation.
Example : end of 2012, the total PV energy, resp. power generation represent:
Germany Switzerland
Energy 5.6% 0.5% of total electricity consumption
Power 45% 2.2% of total electric power generation
source: EPIA 2012
String in parallel
this solution may be cost- and
efficiency effective from an inverter
AC line
point of view. Apart from this
advantage, this “centralized”
topology presents some inherent
inconvenients: Fig. 3.80: centralized inverter with strings in parallel
• The serial diodes represent additional losses
• The MPPT of the inverter will try to find a global MPP, which my not well adapted to each module
• The characteristic mismatch between the modules may impose an operating point which is less
efficient than each module operating at its MPP individually.
• This centralized approach is not flexible enough to allow power improvement(s) of the system.
For PV system with battery based backup capabilities the battery has also a major contribution to
initial investment and running costs. Moreover:
• Typically 2/3 of the energy flow trough the battery in a autonomous power supply. Therefore the
battery reduces considerably the over-all efficiency of the system.
• The battery voltage influences the voltage of the DC/DC and DC/AC converters and vice versa.
• The battery is subject to aging. The aging depends very much on operating conditions (depth of
discharge, discharge and charge characteristics, temperature), which in turn influence the
system capabilities.
• The lifetime of the battery determines the running costs through the replacement investment.
• The battery needs regular maintenance, adequate housing (room) and venting/cooling.
As mentioned in the introduction chapter (see §3.1.1 and fig. 3.2), the grid connected systems
represent the essential part of the installed PV power. This means that there might be a big market
potential for the DC/AC inverters. The large power plants will also become an important part of
installed PV power, which does not necessary mean that the DC/AC inverter of high power (> 1 MW)
will increase their sales; the required and efficiency effective modularity will keep or even increase
the demand on medium and small sized DC/AC inverter .
On the technical evolution, following trends are actually observed:
• The increasing demand on DC/AC inverter will certainly impact high pressure on the production
(and sales) cost of said inverters, which in turn will keep reinforce the trend for simple and
production effective (less components) inverters.
• The power efficiency of modular equipment, may reinforce the smaller sized converter and may
also produce incentives for inverter incorporated into PV modules.
• The increasing demand for “renewable” energy power supplies will also increase the need for
“intelligent”, smart-grid compatible equipment, able to comply or adapt with more complex grid
codes.
• Increasing importance of PV systems limited to local power consumption with energy storage
capabilities (battery) in order to avoid active power limitations as foreseen in existing grid codes.
Exercise 2
Consider a step-up/down converter replacing the step-down converter in fig. 3.57.
a) Compute and trace the evolution of the duty cycle of the step-up/down converter with following
input and output voltage conditions: Uin = 18 V (constant)
Uout = 36∙│sin(ωt) │, ω = 314 rad/s
b) Represent the corresponding input and output currents of the converter, with an input power of
80W and a mean efficiency of the converter of 95%.
Exercise 3
Consider a step-up & down converter of fig. 3.37.
a) Indicate the ON, OFF or pulsing state of each transistor of the converter in order to ensure a step-
down conversion (from U1 to U2).
b) Determine with the diL/dt value (see fig 3.34) of a step-down converter the ∆IL computation method
and calculate the inductance needed to ensure ∆IL < 0.5A with a switching frequency of 100 kHz
(Uin = 18 V, Uout = 12V).
Exercise 4
Consider a H-bridge inverter with 50 Hz transformer (see fig. 3.58). The grid voltage has an rms value
of 240V, the transformer ratio Uo/Ugrid is 1/5 and its short-circuit impedance is : Rcc=50mΩ, Lcc=500µH
a) Estimate following output values of the inverter: Uo, Qo, Po for Io=50A.
b) Compute the needed PV mpp power, with a mean efficiency of the inverter of 95% and determine
the required mpp voltage for a modulation index ma = 0.8.
c) How many BP585-type modules need to be connected in series and how many serial strings in
parallel to reach the required voltage and power?
d) Estimate the first 3 harmonics generated by the inverter around mf, with a pulsing frequency of 10
kHz. Compute the THD and the PF (power factor) resulting from these harmonics.
Exercise 5
Consider two different inverters (one for centralized applications the other for module or string based
designs) with following data:
Inverter 1: PN=3kW, η100=95%, η10=88% Inverter 2: PN=200W, η100=92%, η10=82%
a) Determine the characteristic values (P0 and k), necessary to compute the efficiency for a given
partial load for both inverters. Evaluate for both inverters the mean european efficiency ηEUR.
Exercise 6
The E20/327 Solar Panel from Sunpower, made of 96 monocristalline cells in series, has the electrical
data as shown below (measured in STC conditions).
a) Estimate the area, the form factor (FF) and the equivalent serial resistance (RS) of the panel.
b) With the parameters a and b (see §3.1.6), compute the Impp and Vmpp values and compare them with
the values given by the manufacturer.
c) Determine the main characteristics of the panel
for Tc = 50°C and Geff = 800 W/m2. (compute the
new Isc and Voc values, then determine the new
Pmpp value).
[1] Trends in photovoltaic applications: Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992
and 2011, IEA-PVPS T1-21:2012, website : www.iea-pvps.org
[2] Photovoltaic Energy: Electricity from the Sun, European Photovoltaic Industry Association,
EPIA December 2009, website : www.epia.org
[3] String inverters for PV power plants, Crystalline Modules, Danfoss Solar Inverters A/S, May
2009, website : www.solar-inverters.danfoss.com
[4] Handbook of photovoltaic science an engineering, A. Luque & S. Hegedus, J. Wiley & Sons,
2006
[5] Convertisseurs statiques, H. Bühler, Presses Polytechniques Romandes, 1991
[6] EPU1, “Electronique de puissance 1”, Dr. M. Carpita, Polycopié cours Bachelor HEIG-VD,
2008
[7] Photovoltaic Engineering, Dr. A. Wagner, Springer-Verlag Berlin, 2006
[8] Transmission Code 2010 (TC 2010), Industry recommendations for the Swiss electricity
Market, Swissgrid AG Frick (AG), website: www.swissgrid.ch
[9] German perspectives on future energy system challenges by photovoltaic, Power Hub
January 2013, Frauenhofer IWES, Frank Marten
[10] PV grid integration, 4th edition May 2012, SMA-solar, website: www.sma-solar.com
Uˆ ∆
1
Ue
Harmonic distribution
f
f fondamentale