Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A techno-commercial review on grid connected photovoltaic system MARK

a a b,⁎
Shantanu Chatterjee , Prashant Kumar , Saibal Chatterjee
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT, Arunachal Pradesh, India
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, NERIST, Arunachal Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Owing to rapid depletion of fossil fuels and environmental hazard, different non-conventional sources of energy
Anti-islanding like wind, geothermal, nuclear, photovoltaic etc, have been taken into consideration for power generation.
Filter Environmental familiarness, reduced installation cost, improved power quality, abundant availability of source
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) makes photovoltaic based distributed generation as one of the most popular alternative source of energy
Neutral point clamp inverter(NPC)
production. Improvement in power electronics technology makes synchronization of PV system with grid more
Phase locked loop(PLL)
viable. Power output from the PV module changes continuously with time depending upon the climatic
Photovoltaic(PV)
Pulse width modulation(PWM) condition. In order to get maximum output from the PV system different types of MPPT algorithm present in
Synchronous reference frame(SRF) literature are studied and improvement proposed are described in this paper. Furthermore, different types of
inverter topologies along with different grid synchronization technique and PWM topologies used to connect the
PV system with the 3-phase AC grid are presented. In order to minimize the harmonic content of the inverter
output, different types of filters used are presented in the proceeding section.
Nextly different commonly used advanced islanding detection techniques for the safety purpose of PV based
distribution generation system have been addressed and based on advantages and limitation of anti-islanding
techniques, a comparison table has been presented. Afterward based on parameters like input, output voltage &
current, MPP range, used standards etc, a comparison table between different commercially available grid tied
PV inverters are presented in this paper. Finally, drawbacks of the prevailing grid connected PV system have
been discussed.

1. Introduction
Increasing power demand, scarcity of fossil fuel, environmental
hazard have led the use of different non-conventional sources of energy
production. Moreover, the power production from different non-
conventional energy is environmental friendly (As PV can reduce CO2
emission by 970 g/kWh of electrical energy). In non-conventional
energy, growth of solar based power production has shown steady
upraise worldwide with a growth rate of 30% in past three decade
(Fig. 1). Till date many solar projects with capability more than
100 MW have been commissioned in different countries like
Germany, China, Japan, USA, India etc [1]. The 850 MW
Longyangxin Dam Solar Park project in China, 579 MW Solar Star
project in the United States, 300 MW Cestas Solar Farm project of
France, 166 MW Solar Park Meuro project in Germany, 148 MW Eurus
Rokkasho Solar Park project in Japan are some of the biggest projects
in different countries worldwide.
The solar irradiance received by India is 4 − 7 kWh /m2 /day with 270
sunny days on average, which makes India one of the most suitable
country for producing electrical energy using solar power. Some of the
major solar power projects in India are 360 MW Kamuthi Solar project
in Tamil Nadu, 345 MW Charanka Solar Park project in Gujrat,
151 MW Welspun Solar MP project in Madhya Pradesh. Out of
44783.33 MW installed grid connected renewable power capacity,
8062 MW are solar power based grid connected systems. According
to National Solar Mission of India, the installed capacity will be
increased up to 20 GW by 2020, 100 GW by 2030 and 200 GW by
2050 while reducing the cost/kWh less than 0.10$ .
PV system can be divided into two categories (1) Standalone PV
system and (2) Grid connected PV system. Power produced in the
standalone system is being utilized at the place where it is produced
and it is not possible to transmit over a long distance. For that reason
grid connected PV system is gaining much attention nowadays. For
high voltage range PV modules are connected in series or parallel
combination. There are different types of architectures to interface
multiple PV modules with the utility grid that are as follows [2]: (1)
Central Power Conditioning System (PCs) (2) String Power
Conditioning System (3) Multistring Power Conditioning System (4)

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: insrtu59engg@gmail.com (S. Chatterjee), pkab36@gmail.com (P. Kumar), saibalda@ieee.org (S. Chatterjee).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.045
Received 4 October 2016; Received in revised form 8 March 2017; Accepted 16 June 2017
Available online 29 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Chatterjee et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397

the PV modules different type of MPPT algorithm like Perturb &

Fig. 1. Annual growth of PV installation by different countries [1].
AC module Power Conditioning System. A comparison between these
PV PCs is given in Table 2.
This paper mainly focuses on grid connected PV system and its
architecture. The generic block diagram of grid connected PV system is
shown in Fig. 2. In order to connect the PV inverter to the grid certain
standards must be maintained, otherwise the utilities connected to the
grid will be malfunctioned. Section 2 describes different important
standard which should be maintained while installing PV system and
during operation. For the purpose of extracting maximum power from
Observe (P & O), Incremental Conductance (IC), Fractional Open
Circuit Voltage (FOCV) etc have been proposed. Section 3 describes
different MPPT algorithm along with their advantages over the other.
PV inverter is the core part of PV based DGs. The function of PV
inverter is to convert the DC into AC. Beside this the inverter is
responsible for controlling power supplied to grid, DC link voltage
control, grid synchronization etc [3]. Section 4 discusses about some
basic as well as advanced inverter topologies used for grid connected
PV system. Electrical grid are effected by many disturbance like
disturbance and resonance due to flow of harmonic current through
the line, fault due to lightning strikes, and gross error in the operation
of electrical equipment [4]. Some of the grid requirements are: (1)
Operation with certain power factor that are close to unity, (2) Limited
harmonic content of injected current, (3) Continuous operation under
voltage distortion, etc. So it is important to monitor the requirements
of grid and synchronize the variable according to the requirement of
grid [5].
Section 5 explains different relevant methods for grid synchroni-
zation techniques used in PV system. Section 6 discusses controller
structure for grid connected PV system. To get the desired output
from the inverter with low harmonics content, the inverter needs to
switched by using PWM technique. Section 7 presents different types
PWM topologies used in literature. The output current of inverter
contains harmonics but according to IEEE 519 maximum allowable
harmonics in current is 5%. So filters are introduced at the output of
inverter to suppress that harmonics [6]. Section 8 focuses on some
advanced version of filters used in grid connected PV system.
Islanding is a critical safety issue which occurs when grid is

Table 1
List of important Standards for grid connected PV system.

Standards Year Title Ref.

Grid connection
IEEE 1547 2003 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems [128]
DIN EN 50530 2011 Overall efficiency of grid connected photovoltaic inverters [129]
IEEE 2030 2011 Draft guide for smart grid interpretability of energy technology and information technology operation with the electric [130]
power system, and end-user applications and loads
IEC 62446 2009 Grid connected photovoltaic systems - Minimum requirements for system documentation, commissioning tests and [131]
inspection
PV-power converter
IEC 61727 2002 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristics of the utility interface [9]
DIN EN 61683 2000–08 Photovoltaic systems - Power conditioners - Procedure for measuring efficiency (IEC 61683:1999) [132]
IEEE 921, UL1741 2010 Standards for inverters, converters and controller for use in independent power system [133]
Design & Testing Procedure verification
CEI 62124 2004 Photovoltaic (PV) standalone systems - Design verification [134]
DIN EN 62108 (VDE 0126–33) 2008–07 Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) modules and assemblies Design qualification and type approval (IEC 62108:2007) [135]
IEEE 1547.1 2005 Standard for conformance test procedures for equipment interconnecting distributed resources with electric power [136]
system
Measurement and Analysis
IEEE 929 2000 Recommended practice for utility interface of photovoltaic system [137]
IEC 61000–4–15 2010 Electromagnetic compatibility testing end measurement technique [138]
IEC 60904–8 2014 Photovoltaic devices - Part 8: Measurement of spectral responsively of a photovoltaic (PV) device [139]
IEC 61829 2015 Photovoltaic (PV) array On-site measurement of current voltage characteristics [140]
IEC 61724 1998 Photovoltaic system performance monitoring Guidelines for measurement, data exchange and analysis [141]
IEEE 512 1999 IEEE recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems [142]
EN 50160 1999 Public distribution voltage quality [143]
Islanding
IEC 62116 2008 Utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters - Test procedure of islanding prevention measures. [144]
DIN EN 62116 (VDE 0126–2): 2012–01 Test procedure of islanding prevention measures for utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters (IEC 62116:2008, [145]
modified)
IEC 60364–7–712 2002 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7–712: Requirements for special installations or locations - Solar photovoltaic [146]
(PV) power supply systems
Safety
VDE 0126–1–1 2006 Automatic disconnection device between a generator and the public low-voltage grid [14]
IEC 60269–6 2014 Low-voltage fuses - Part 6: Supplementary requirements for fuse-links for the protection of solar photovoltaic energy [147]
systems
IEC 62109–1 2010 Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems - Part 1: General requirements [148]
DIN EN 61730–2 (VDE 0126– 2007–10 Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification - Part 2: Requirements for testing (IEC 61730–2:2004, modified) [149]
30–2)

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Table 2
Grid connected PV inverter Configuration.

disconnected from the utility grid while load are connected with error, discrimination of maintenance services etc [7].
power generation unit. The major concern of islanding are uncertain Section 9 discusses different types of islanding detection methods
intermit of irregularity like automatic voltage shutdown, human and their anti-islanding methods; Section 10 gives a technical compar-

Fig. 2. Block diagram of grid connected PV system with control structure.

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ison between commercial available PV-inverter in the market. In
Section 11 different drawbacks in prevailing technology have been
addressed.
This paper aims in giving a broad comprehensive overview of all the
components present in a grid connected PV system by studying more
than 100 research papers. The comparison table of different commer-
cially available PV inverter system by some of the technology leaders in
this field, will enable the researchers working in this area, to have a
clear picture of the overall PV market. Section 11 of the paper where
the drawbacks of the prevailing technology is discussed will help the
readers to identify the areas in which they can progress their research
in order to mitigate the shortcomings of the existing system.
2. Standards for grid connected PV system
As the electricity generation using photovoltaic system are increas-
ing, safety of such system and grid connected to it has also became an
important issue [4]. Lots of standards have been developed by various
countries for improving safety, quality factor, islanding problem etc.
These standards are presented by various commissions. Some of them
as follows: (a) International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) (b)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), (c) German
Commission for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies of
DIN and VDE (DKE) (d) National Electrical Code (NEC), (e) National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NERL). The different standards for grid
connected PV system is shown in Table 2. Some of widely used
standard are described as follows:
2.1. IEEE 1547:2008 – Standard for interconnecting distributed
resources with electric power systems
For interconnection of distributed resources with electric power
Systems in distributive grid connection, the institute of electrical and
electronics engineering had created an standard IEEE 1547 which has
significant effect on those industry that does business related to
electrical energy. IEEE 1547 has helped to modify distribution
generation and energy storage technology as well as it also supports
to provide a beginning rule for integrating clean renewable energy
technology [8]. IEEE 1547 has delivered information related to voltage
regulation, grounding problem, disconnects, islanding etc. IEEE
1574:2003 was first series of standard that were developed by
Standards Coordinating Committee 21 (SCC21) for photovoltaic,
energy storage etc. There are some limitation of the standard IEEE
1547 like this is applicable only to all distributed resources technolo-
gies with aggregate capacity 10 MVA or less.
2.2. IEC 61727:2004 – Photovoltaic (PV) systems – characteristics of
the utility interface
In the grid connection requirement IEC 61727, Photovoltaic
system- characteristics of utility interference is prepared by IEC
technical committee 82 [9]. This standard applies to utility intercon-
nected photovoltaic power system. In utility power system for conver-
sion of AC to DC, static non-islanding inverter are used in parallel with
the utility. This standard is used for the system which has power rating
of 10 KVA or less. The main focus of this standard is on power quality
parameter, voltage and frequency range, dc injection, flicker, harmo-
nics and waveform distribution. The document was prepared with
reference to many other previous existing standards like IEC 61000-3-
2, electromagnetic compatibility [10]. This standard is developed for
minimizing the effect of unintentional generation, propagation and
reception of electromagnetic energy with reference to unwanted effect,
besides this IEC 61034-7-712 is the process of installation of building
[11]. IEC 61724 are prepared for photovoltaic system performance
monitoring guidelines for measurement, data exchange and analysis.
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2.3. IEC 62116:2008 – Utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters
– test procedure of islanding prevention measures
IEC 62116-Utility interconnected photovoltaic inverters- test pro-
cedure of islanding prevention measures was introduced in 2008 by
TC-82 [12]. There are two editions of IEC 62116. Initially first edition
was documented, later on the first edition had been replaced by second
edition with some modification. In IEC 62116, Voltage and frequency
trip settings according to National standards and/or local code have
been described [13]. This standard describes guidelines for testing the
performance of automatic islanding prevention measures installed with
single or multi-phase utility interactive PV inverters connected to the
utility grid. The test procedures and criteria described in this standard
have minimum requirements that allows repeatability [4]. Additional
requirements or more criteria may be specified if demonstrable risk can
be shown. Inverters and other devices meeting the requirements as per
this standard are considered for non-islanding operation.
2.4. VDE 0126-1-1:2006 – automatic disconnection device between a
generator and the public low-voltage grid
VDE-0126-1-1 is the most important German safety standard. This
standard refers for automatic disconnection device between a generator
and the public low voltage grid [14]. In order to achieve automatic
disconnect an ENS device was introduced. This device was initially
presented as hardware equipment, later on as a software based
algorithm. The principle of the ENS device was to observe impedance
change with resolution 0.5Ω .
In software algorithm, the grid impedance detection limit was
extended from 0.5Ω to 1Ω due to problem like unnecessary tripping,
degradation in power quality, etc. This standard also includes the
detection technique for overdrive voltage and frequency and it have
following specification: Leakage current limit = 300 mA, Active mon-
itoring of fault current with sensitivity = 30 mA, Isolation = > 1 kΩ /V .
It is also not allowed for the installation of ≥30 kW Ac output power.
VDE 0126-1-1 allows only three methods for automatic disconnection
under grid fault condition; by using impedance measurement techni-
que, three phase voltage monitoring and fault detection using a grid
frequency oscillator [4].
Table 3 shows a comparison of different standards used in grid
connected PV system.
3. MPPT
MPPT algorithms are defined in such a way that the PV panel can
operate at its maximum power point(MPP) while depending on the
states of load, PV power generation capacity, PV temperature, solar
irradiance and vibration [15]. Ref [16,17] have proposed PC-based
MPPT system in which neural network detects the optimal operating
condition under different operating condition and PC has been used to
execute the control algorithm and store the data.
Sometime the operating regions are partially shaded exhibiting
multiple local maximum power points or region with rapidly changing
irradiance condition, in this under varying situation tracking algorithm
are different. Ref [18] proposed a low cost method to predict the global
MPP region which evaluated the I-V characteristics curve first and then
used a combination of the measured current at each stair to predict the
global MPP region. Ref [19] has proposed a modified method for
tracking MPP under partially shaded condition in which different
groups are made on the basis of voltage detected at each PV module.
Each of those groups which have maximum power locates the global
and local MPP. This cuts down the tracking time and also avoids blind
scanning. [20] has proposed an improved perturb and observe MPPT
algorithm based on variable step Newton-Raphson method. Different
types of MPPT algorithms are categorised in Fig. 3 and explained as
follows:
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Table 3
Comparison between different parameters of standards used in Grid connected PV system [128–149].

Fig. 4. P-V characteristics of PV array under different condition [21].

operating voltage. As the temperature and radiation change the

Fig. 3. Classification of MPP tracking methods.
3.1. Perturb and observe (P & O)
Perturb and observe method is the simplest and widely used
method. The PV array current and power depends on the terminal
maximum power also changes. The graph of change in power with
respect to the array terminal voltage is shown in Fig. 4. In this method,
power drawn by the PV modules are calculated at every instant and
accordingly the PV arrays are adjusted in an appropriate point of
maximum power [21]. The algorithm for P & O method is shown in
Fig. 5.
Some P & O MPPT tracking method are given for sudden change in
the irradiance by using current perturbation, adaptive control, and

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Fig. 5. Flow Chart for P & O method [22].
variable control algorithm [22]. By these methods the oscillation near
the MPP can also be reduced. Ref [23] has used P & O method with
particle swarm optimization. By using this algorithm, the searching
space for MPP gets reduced which in turn reduces the time for finding
the MPP. Ref [24] proposed a MPPT algorithm for PV system to
operate at MPP under partially shaded condition. It shows guaranteed
convergence to MPP and improved transient response. Besides many
modification have been done in P & O based MPPT algorithm in order
to achieve oscillation free global MPP in very less time, some of them
are explained in [25–30].
3.2. Incremental conductance (INC)
Due to some limitation of P & O method like improper tracking of
MPP, oscillation at MPP under rapidly changing atmospheric condition
etc. INC method came into focus. In this method the terminal voltage
are adjusted as per maximum power operating point (MPOP) voltage
or by differentiating the power with respect to voltage [31]. The
algorithm of incremental conductance is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Flow chart Incremental Conductance algorithm [31].
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Fig. 7. Flow chart Fractional open circuit Voltage MPPT algorithm [34].
Incremental conductance can be realized using state space control
and modeling method. So rigorous assessment of PV system robustness
under different condition and stability of INC algorithm can be checked
by using control design tools [31]. Another method for MPP tracking is
a combination of IC method and fuzzy logic in which fuzzy logic
controller enables the intelligent control of tracking parameter and
improvises the efficiency. Besides this for tracking of MPP there are
many modification and implementation in INC algorithm and its
hardware architecture has been proposed by researchers in [32,33].
3.3. Fractional open circuit voltage (FOCV)
Fractional open circuit voltage method comes into existence due to
linear relationship between voltage at maximum power point and
voltage at open circuit of PV array under different condition. This
relationship can be illustrate as Eq. (1).
VMPP = ki VOC (1)
where ki=Proportional constant whose value is about 0.76 and 0.92
[34]. For tracking of MPP, FOCV algorithm is shown in Fig. 7. In this
method the reference voltage is taken as operating voltage and open
circuit voltage (Voc) are calculated by opening the circuit for milli-
second time. Maximum power point voltage is calculated by using Eq.
(1). This is a low cost and high efficient MPP tracking method.
3.4. Fractional short circuit current (FSCI)
Under varying irradiance, the maximum power of the PV array is
proportional to the operating short circuit current. FCSI is accurate and
high speed MPP tracking method which is based on finding optimum
current by observing short circuit current. Here the relation between
optimum operating current and short circuit under different of
luminance is given in Eq. (2) [36].
Iop = kIsc (E ) (2)
where k=Proportional constant
3.5. Fuzzy logic control (FLC)
Due to decision making tendency of fuzzy logic controller, it shows
flexibility in operation as well as adaptive in nature. Ref [35] has
proposed a method of MPP tracking using fuzzy logic controller. Initially
they have calculated the value peak power of PV array then, using this
peak value as a reference signal the MPP has been estimated. The flow
chart for Fuzzy logic based MPPT algorithm is as shown in Fig. 8.
S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 8. Algorithm for Fuzzy logic controller [35].
3.6. Artificial neural network based method
MPP tracking using neural networking is a smart and smart way
with good accuracy and rapidly. In this method the MPP tracking is
divided into two process; first is the estimation of the maximum
power of PV module and second is estimation of the normal
operating point of PV module at any given solar radiation and
surface temperature [37]. Hence by calculating difference between
these two points, Maximum power are assigned and controller sets
the PV module at desired MPP position. [38] proposes a configura-
tion of neural network for designing the controller which is shown in
Fig. 9(a). The neural network contains three layers: input layer,
hidden layer and output layer. The input node has five nodes on
which different input condition are applied on it. Ref [38] has
proposed flow chart for Artificial neural network based controlling
process which is shown in Fig. 9(b).
3.7. Power analysis MPPT
Power analysis MPPT method is based on operating the PV
module in power region of the I-V characteristics [39]. The power
region of I-V characteristics is determined by taking the effect of
series and shunt resistance on output voltage & current of PV
panels. The algorithm for power analysis MPPT method is shown in
Fig. 10. By using this method, a robust control can be achieved
without any oscillation in steady state. Also the overall cost of this
hardware is less so it can easily be implemented.
3.8. Sliding mode control
Sliding mode observe method does not use current drawn by PV
array. In this method a sliding mode observer which is designed
using system dynamic equation are presented (Fig. 11) that gives
information about the current [40]. The current signal is feed to
controller to generate appropriate reference signal for MPP tracking.
For constructing system dynamic equation, it is difficult to calculate
steady state value. So the reference voltage is updated at every zero-
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crossing point of grid voltage and by using the updated reference
signal, it is easy to track MPP rapidly against changing illumination
level.
3.9. One cycle control (OCC)
One cycle control method is a non-linear control method which is
based on considering the average value of measured solar array voltage
& current for controller design. and it allows the constant switching
frequency mode operation. In this method, the average value of voltage
and current are controlled by single stage inverter according to
reference signal. By tracking the reference signal, the MPP can easily
found for different irradiance level [41]. The use of single stage
converter make cheap and reliable to the whole system. OCC based
MPPT method requires lesser number of hardware components due to
absence of multiplier or digital signal processors.
3.10. Hybrid MPPT
Hybrid MPPT is combination of different conventional MPPT
methods. [18] uses the combination of P & O and artificial neural
network. The flow chart for hybrid MPPT are as shown in Fig. 12. In
this method the maximum power are set by ANN on the basis of
observation of power at different point by P & O method. Also the value
of maximum power point power is set according to PV system and
environment condition. The proposed method does not use any
individual irradiance sensor that helps to decrease the cost of system.
There have been various hybrid methods prosed for tracking MPP
[42–53]. These hybrid MPPT algorithm apply combination of different
conventional MPP methods & advance algorithm like Bang-Big
Crunch (BB-BC )algorithm [44], Estimation and Revision (ER) method
[46], Artificial fish swarm algorithm [53] and their strategies contrast
in terms of unpredictability, speed of reaction, measure of speculation,
the number and sorts of sensors required and the hardware execution.
3.11. Advanced MPPT algorithm
In Ref [54] an Radial Basis Function Network (RBFN) based MPPT
algorithm has been proposed, The proposed algorithm performs better
than conventional P & O and INC methods in terms of generating
maximum O/P power, reducing conduction loss and improved static
gain. In Ref [55] a novel bee colony based MPPT algorithm gas been
proposed. This algorithm has advantages like simple configuration, use of
less control parameter, better convergence, robustness, and efficient
tracking of MPP under varying atmospheric condition. In Ref [47] a
PSO based single stage MPPT algorithm has been propose. The proposed
algorithm uses voltage of the PV panel as the particle of search space and
generates the suitable reference voltage for the DC-link capacitor in order
to operate the system at MPP. The proposed algorithm has advantage like
reduced oscillation at MPP, efficient tracking of MPP under partially
shaded condition, simple structure etc. Ref [56] proposed a Levy
distribution based Cuckoo search optimization algorithm which presents
increased robustness, increased efficiency, high convergence rate etc.
4. Inverter
In grid connected PV system, single phase or three phase inverters are
utilized for power conversion. But in three phase inverter, due to lower
switching frequency, destitute spectral performance has been recorded in
output voltage and current. The designing of inverter are done in such a
way by which it can able to produce less harmonics that should not exceed
the harmonic limit as per the grid utility standard [57]. Sometime due to
high switching frequency, high radio interference is present so, the
inverter should also able to control this interference. Different of PV
inverter topologies divided according to number of levels is shown in Fig
Fig 13.
S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 9. Artificial neural network based method [38].
Fig. 10. Algorithm of power analysis MPPT [39].
Full bridge is one of the widely used inverter in grid connected PV
application. The basic full bridge PV inverter is shown in Fig. 14. For
better efficiency unipolar, bipolar and hybrid modulation strategies are
used in this inverter. On switching there is no possible state in which
the output current will be zero which is advantage in full bridge
inverter and also output voltage only contains grid frequency compo-
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Fig. 11. Block diagram for sliding mode observer [40].
nent. Besides in bipolar modulation, switching ripple present in current
is equal to switching frequency which is drawback of this type of
inverters. Ref [58] has proposed a modified full bridge inverter which is
a combination of unipolar and bipolar modulation with dead-time
freewheeling mode and zero-vector freewheeling mode. Ref [60] has
proposed a five level full bridge inverter that shows high power density
and higher conversion efficiency.
H5 has advantages of having common mode current and increased
efficiency. H5 inverter is an inverter that uses a switch to disconnect
the side during the freewheeling stage in order to keep the common
mode voltage constant [59]. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 15.
It avoids high frequency voltage at input terminal and allows high
efficiency due to its simple and cost optimized circuit layout. This is
done by using bridge circuit comprising switching elements and
freewheeling element. It has advantage of avoiding lower core losses.
But in his inverter the conductive losses are very high.
HERIC inverter is formed by adding bypass system in AC side as
shown in Fig. 16. HERIC inverter stands to be the highly efficient and
S. Chatterjee et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397

Fig. 15. H5 Inverter (SMA) [59].

Fig. 12. Algorithm for P & O and artificial neural network based hybrid MPPT [18].

Fig. 16. HERIC Inverter (Sunways) [61].

Fig. 13. Classification of Inverter.

Fig. 17. REFU Inverter [62].

Fig. 14. Full bridge inverter [58].

reliable inverter concepts. This bypass legs enables it to prevent

reactive power exchanges that helps to increase efficiency [61].
HERIC inverter has approximately same feature as of H5 inverter. It
have feature as of having very low leakage current and Electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
A generic REFU inverter is shown in Fig. 17. This topology is the
upgraded version of high bridge topology by adding the AC bypass to
create zero voltage with minimum losses [62]. It also shows high
Fig. 18. Full Bridge Inverter with DC Bypass (FBDCBP) (Ingeteam) [63].
efficiency while achieving low leakage current and EMI.

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Fig. 19. Full Bridge Zero Voltage Rectifier [64].

The full bridge inverter with DC-bypass is shown in Fig. 18. It

contains two extra switch in DC link as well as two extra diodes for
clamping the output with ground. This inverter has tendency to operate
at any power factor as well as common mode voltage does not get
generated in this inverter, but high conductive loss has been detected
[63]. Fortunately it does not affect the systems overall efficiency.
Full bridge zero voltage rectifier (FB-ZVR) is another modification
of FB inverter topology. In this inverter zero voltage can be achieved
also. The schematic for FB-ZVR is shown in Fig. 19. This inverter has
also features like low leakage current and reduced EMI [64] while
achieving 96% of efficiency. But this inverter increases the losses across
the filter as it provides bipolar output voltage during dead time Fig. 21. Flying Capacitor Inverter [66].
clamping.
Neutral point clamped inverter(NPC) is the most widely used
inverter topology nowadays due to its versatility and can be used as
single phase and three phase inverter with different types of levels. The
schematic diagram of NPC inverter is shown in Fig. 20. It has features
like reduced switching loss, very low leakage current and almost zero
EMI as well as high efficiency [65]. But unbalanced switches create
some problem in some cases.
Flying capacitor is an alternative to the diode-clamped topologies.
The circuit diagram of flying capacitor is shown in Fig. 21. In this
topology more capacitors are used in comparison to diode clamped
topology. With respect to earth potential, the capacitor floats which is
reason behind calling it flying capacitor [66,70]. This inverter can work
on that voltage where switching element and diodes of power cell stops Fig. 22. Z-source Inverter [67].
working.
In Ref [67], Z-source inverter (ZSI) has been proposed for PV based
DG system. There is an additional impedance network in Z-source
inverter which makes it different from VSI and CSI. The schematic
diagram of Z-source inverter is shown in Fig. 22. The inductor L
present in ZSI allows safe shoot through of inverter arms. Z-source
provides more flexibility and control freedom while using it in PV
system.
In [68], a there phase four leg Inverter has been proposed for grid
connected PV DGs. Proposed topology eliminates the leakage current
component. Reduction of the leakage current make the system satisfies
the standard VDE-0126-1-1. The use of this topology also eliminates the
common mode voltage which is generated by the PWM technique. The
limitation of four leg three phase inverter is that the modulation index must
be less than 0.666 or more than 1.108. Fig. 23 depicts the circuit diagram of
the four leg inverter where the 3 leg are connected with the grid and the 4th
leg is connected to the neutral point of the capacitor bank.
Ref [69] has proposed a soft computing based three phase PWM
inverter with active resonant commutated leg link snubber (ARCS). The
configuration consists of PV sources at input side and three bidirectional
ARCS connected between each phase and the midpoint of the inverter leg
(Point A, B, and C) as shown in Fig. 24. The soft switching based
configuration enables the inverter to be used in very high power
Fig. 20. Neutral point clamped Inverter [65]. applications.

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Fig. 23. Three phase four leg Inverter [68].
Fig. 24. Bi-directional soft switching based Inverter [69].
5. Grid synchronization technique
In grid connected PV system, the factors related to stable and safe
operation of grid are very vital issues. In grid synchronization, the
internal reference signals generated by control algorithm of grid
connected power converter is brought into line with a particular grid
variable, usually the fundamental component of grid voltage.
The processes of monitoring the grid variables include monitoring of
phase angle, amplitude and frequency of utility voltage. The principle of
grid voltage monitoring is mainly based on accurate screening of the grid
voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) in order to trip the
disconnection procedure, when they go beyond the limits given as per the
grid codes. Zero crossing detection is one of the simplest method for
monitoring of grid variables. By counting the zero crossing of grid voltage,
the frequency of fundamental can be evaluated. In this method as shown
in Fig. 25, the phase of grid voltage can be calculated by integrating the
estimated frequency. No phase controller is involved in this method [71].
Grid synchronization can be mostly done using phase angle, besides
this it can also be used for anti-islanding algorithms. The grid
synchronization methods can be classified into two groups which is
shown in Fig. 26.
Fig. 25. Grid monitoring using zero crossing detection without using any phase controller [71].
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Fig. 26. Classification of Grid synchronization Technique.
5.1. Phase locked loop (PLL)
Phase locked loop are the most widely used grid synchronization
method for tracking the phase of time varying input signal. PLL are
designed in such a manner that it has can provide accurate synchro-
nization of information with a motive of higher immunity and
insensitivity towards disturbance, harmonics and unbalance in the
input signal [72]. The basic building blocks of PLL are as shown in
Fig. 27. PLL contains phase detector (PD), loop filter (LF) and voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO). The voltage, v, from the point of common
coupling is given as input to the phase detector which is compared with
the output voltage provided by the internal oscillator. Phase detector
generates an error signal, εpd, which is feed to the loop filter for
attenuating its higher frequency AC components. The different topol-
ogies of PLL is shown in Fig. 28.
5.1.1. Synchronous reference frame PLL (SRF-PLL)
The operation of synchronous reference frame PLL is based on
synchronization of PLL rotating reference frame to the utility voltage
frame in order to detect the instantaneous phase angle θ. The basic
structure of synchronous frame PLL is shown in Fig. 29. The system
under consideration is single phase and unlike three phase system,
single phase system doesn't produce orthogonal signal inherently.
Hence in single phase SRF-PLL an orthogonal signal generation system
must be employed along with the PLL in to order produce orthogonal
signal in αβ reference frame [4]. The orthogonal signal Vα, Vβ for a three
phase or single phase system are transformed into rotating dq-
reference frame. In order to archive grid synchronization the quad-
rature axis reference voltage (Vq) is set to zero by PI controller as a
result of which the reference is locked according to the phase angle of
the grid voltage vector. The expression of reference voltages Vd is given
in Eq. (3).
vd = vα sin θ + vβ cos θ (3)
vd = V cos θ. sin θ − V sin θ. cos θ (4)
vd = −V sin (θ − θ ) (5)
Where θ and θ are the phase angle of the PLL and Grid respectively.
S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 27. A generalized block diagram of PLL.
Fig. 28. Different topologies of PLL grid connected system.
Fig. 29. Basic structure of SRF-PLL [4].
Beside this when the grid voltages are in balanced condition there is no
fundamental negative sequence component present, but negative
fundamental sequence component exists when the grid voltages are
in unbalanced condition.
5.1.2. ZCD based PLL
In ZCD based PLL, the reference phase angle of PLL is produced by
zero crossing detection technique. Zero crossing detection based PLL is
shown in Fig. 30. By setting the phase angle difference to zero the PI
controller generates the reference phase angle [71].
5.1.3. PLL with an ideal in-quadrature PD
Fig. 31 shows the schematic diagram of PLL with an ideal in-
quadrature phase delay. In PLL with in-quadrature phase delay, an
extra phase detector is introduced while designing the PLL in order to
cancel out the oscillation present in phase angle error signal which is
greater than twice the grid frequency, [73]. As there are no steady state
oscillations, so the bandwidth of PLL increases which enables it to
calculate the phase angle quite efficiently.
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Fig. 30. ZCD based PLL [71].
Fig. 31. PLL with an ideal in-quadrature PD [73].
5.1.4. PLL based on T/4 transport delay
In single phase application PLL based on T/4 transportation delay
is the simplest way to generate the correct orthogonal signal [74]. PLL
based on T/4 transportation delay is shown in Fig. 32(a). The
transportation delay block is programmed with a buffer, the size of
which is one fourth of the sample present in the fundamental
frequency. Hence if the applied voltage is purely sinusoidal in nature
the transportation delay block works efficiently to generate correct
orthogonal signal without creating any error in the phase synchroniza-
tion. PLL with dual delay block is shown in Fig. 32(b).
5.1.5. PLL based on Hilbert transform
Hilbert transform based PLL are based on property of Hilbert
transform as this transform shifts the phase angle of input signal,
depending upon the sign of their frequency calculated in Fourier
analysis [75]. The type of PLL is shown in Fig. 33. For a input signal
V(t) the Hilbert transform is defined in Eq. (6).
∞
1
H (x ) =
π
∫−∞ tV−(ττ) dτ = πt1 *V (6)
For frequency domain it can be defined by Eq. (7).
⎛1⎞
f (H (V )) = f ⎜ ⎟ F (V ) = [−jsign (ω)] f (V )
⎝ πτ ⎠ (7)
For this equation it seen that Hilbert transform are used as a multiplier
operator.
5.1.6. PLL based on park transform
The park transformation is expressed by Eq. (8).
⎡ Id ⎤ ⎡Cosθ Sinθ ⎤ ⎡ Iα ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ Iq ⎦ ⎣− Sinθ Cosθ ⎦ ⎣ Iβ ⎦ (8)
S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 32. PLL based on a T/4 Transport Delay [74].
Fig. 33. PLL based on Hilbert Transform [75].
Id,Iq are rotating reference frame, Iα , Iβ are orthogonal stationary frame
and θ is rotating angle
In this PLL, the input voltage is transformed into orthogonal form
based on park's transformation as shown in Fig. 34. Based on this
transformation the error signal that is provided by the PI-controller can
be estimated [76].
5.1.7. PLL based on inverse park transform
For generating orthogonal signal for PLL implementation the
inverse park transform are used. Inverse park transform can be
Fig. 34. PLL based on Park transform [76].
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Fig. 35. PLL based on Inverse Park transform [4].
expressed by Eq. (9).
⎡ Iα ⎤ ⎡Cosθ − Sinθ ⎤ ⎡ Id ⎤
⎢I ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ β ⎦ ⎣ Sinθ Cosθ ⎦ ⎣ Iq ⎦ (9)
And the input of inverse park transform are
⎡ I *⎤ ⎡ I * (s ) ⎤
* (s ) = ⎢ α ⎥ = G−1 ⎢ d ⎥
Iαβ
⎢⎣ Iβ ⎥⎦
* ⎣⎢ Iq* (s )⎥⎦ (10)
Where G is park transform matrix. The schematic diagram for PLL
based on Inverse park transform is shown in Fig. 35. This PLL is very
suited for single phase application due to easy to implement with
conventional PLL as two additional low pass filters [4].
5.1.8. Adaptive lattice synchronous frame PLL
The adaptive lattice synchronous frame PLL are based on adaptive
filtering method. By adaptive filtering technique, the error which may
be time invariant can be found by using recursive algorithm. This
method provides very low THD of injected current and high power
factor whenever the grid is polluted [77]. The block diagram for
adaptive filter based PLL is shown in Fig. 36. Here in order to reject
higher order odd harmonics in natural reference frame (NRF), if any
variation in grid frequency occurs it automatically varies the tuning
frequency. It rejects the varying frequency harmonics present at PCC
while tracking the reference signal accurately.
5.1.9. Multi-sequence harmonics decoupling (MSHDC) based PLL
MSHDC-PLL is mainly combination of αβ -PLL and MSHDC net-
work that provides better dynamic response and attenuation of
undesirable oscillation. MSHDC block is used for cancelling out the
oscillation of positive sequence voltage vector. MSHDC-based PLL has
fast and accurate response. It also improves the quality of injected
power under abnormal condition. It has a tendency to provide support
under balanced and unbalanced grid fault condition.
Due to abnormal grid condition the representation of rotating
voltage vectors are very useful in order to decouple and estimate all
the contained vectors accurately. These vectors contain DC and
Oscillation terms. MSHDC enables to estimate desirable DC terms
and attenuate oscillation [78]. The MSHDC block mainly uses cross-
feedback subtraction that makes first order low pass filter to become
Fig. 36. Adaptive Lattice Synchronous frame PLL [77].
S. Chatterjee et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397

Fig. 37. Multi-sequence Harmonics Decoupling based PLL [78].

much more complex recursive filter to give better stability. The block
diagram of MSHDC based PLL is shown in Fig. 37.
Here the MSHDC detects the clear positive sequence of grid voltage Fig. 39. Sinusoidal amplitude integrator based PLL(SAI-PLL) [80] (a) SAI-PLL (b)
very rapidly and dynamically provide oscillation free positive sequence Schematic of Positive sequence SAI block.

Vdq + 1 signal to αβ -PLL. MSHDC has been used to cancel out the
oscillation of three most significant harmonics h1, h2 & h3 as shown another virtual flux are used for phase angle calculation. The main
in Fig. 37. disadvantage of this PLL is slower response in time domain. The dual
virtual flux PLL is shown in Fig. 40.

5.1.10. Enhanced PLL

Another adaptive filter based PLL is enhanced PLL (EPLL). This
PLL has ability to lock the phase and amplitude of output voltage. The
diagram for enhancement PLL is shown in Fig. 38. If the frequency and
angle of the input signal matches with the reference signal, the output
of this PLL due to its adaptive nature become zero which enables the
multiplier PD to cancel out the signal oscillation and thereby the phase
angle of input signal are properly detected [79].
5.1.11. Sinusoidal amplitude integrator based PLL(SAI-PLL)
Sinusoidal amplitude integrator (SAI) based PLL is able to estimate
the amplitude and phase angle of fundamental component of grid
voltage in a very quick time with higher accuracy. This type of PLL
operates on the basis of complex vector notation. For extracting the DC
and AC component of grid, SAI structure and a separate block is used.
The schematic diagram of the separate block which is used to detect the
positive sequence component of frequency is shown in Fig. 39(a). For
grid synchronization, the SAI unit is connected in the base loop with
another separate block that completely separate the AC and DC
component of dq voltage which leads to accurate extraction of phase
by PLL [80]. The block diagram of SAI based PLL is shown in
Fig. 39(b).
5.2. Frequency locked loop (FLL)
In FLL, instead of phase the frequency of grid voltage and current
are estimated which enables the system to perform better in terms of
accuracy, reliability and dynamic response. The improvement is
because of the fact that the performance of FLL remains unaffected
even when there is a sudden change in phase or phase jump at the
input signal. So in order to achieve better grid synchronization under
weak grid condition FLL based technique proves to be more efficient.
The transfer function of first order FLL loop can be given by Eq. (11)
and the block diagram of basic FLL is shown in Fig 41.
ω G
=
ωref s+G (11)
Where G is the gain of FLL, ωref is reference signal frequency and ω is
detected frequency.
Ref [82] proposed a Second order generalized integrator (SOGI)
based FLL. The block diagram of SOGI-FLL is shown in Fig. 42. The
SOGI-FLL performs better than PLL in terms of efficiency in adapting
the centre frequency.
Ref [82] proposed a multiple second order generalized integrator

5.1.12. Dual virtual flux PLL (DVF-PLL)

Dual virtual flux PLL utilizes the concept of virtual flux for grid
voltage estimation. The dual virtual flux PLL gives faster time response,
small amplitude attenuation and precise phase shift [81]. In this one

Fig. 38. Enhanced PLL [79]. Fig. 40. Dual Virtual Flux PLL (DVF-PLL) [81].

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Fig. 41. Basic Building block of FLL.
Fig. 42. SOGI-FLL [82].
(MSOGI) in combination with FLL. It can capture the centre frequency
of the SOGI more efficiently as compared to SOGI-FLL. The multi-
resonant frequency adaptive property of MSOGI-FLL enables it to
capture not only the positive and negative sequence component of the
fundamental voltage but also adapts the other sequence components of
the harmonics voltage. This property of the MSOGI-FLL enables it to
perform better in weak grid condition as compared to SOGI-FLL.
6. Controllers
PR controllers are now one of the most widely used controllers in
renewable energy integration with the grid. The preference of using PR
controllers over PI controller is due to reduced steady state error, perfect
decoupling, ease of tuning, less settling time, elimination of selective
harmonics, regulation of sinusoidal voltage and robustness. The transfer
function of the PI and the Ideal PR controller are given in Eq. (12) and (13).
kI
GCon PI (s ) = kP +
s (12)
2kI s
GCon PR Ideal (s ) = kP + 2 4
s 2 + wGrid
Where kP, kI and ωgrid are the proportional gain, integral gain and
resonant frequency respectively. From the Fig. 43, it can easily be
seen that at resonant frequency when the ideal PR controller is used,
there is a very high gain within a very narrow frequency and that
frequency is called the resonant frequency. The presence of this
resonant peak reduces the steady state error i.e the reference signal
will be tracked in a much smaller time. But this peak hampers the
stability of the system. So to have the same performance without any
resonant peak the Non-Ideal PR controller is implemented having
transfer function as given in Eq. (14).
2kI wCut s
GCon PR Non − Ideal (s ) = kP + 2 connected through neutral point of the load than there has no existence
s 2 + 2wCut s + wGrid
Where ωcut is the cut off frequency. The bode plot of PI and PR
controller is shown in Fig. 44. From Fig. 44, it can be seen that the
amplitude of the resonant peak reduces and gets spread over a wide
range of frequency. If the value of kI increases the damping peak also
increases, thereby decreases the steady state error. Decrease in the
value of the kI decreases the damping peak and makes the system
stable but it accounts for increase in steady state error.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
Fig. 43. Bode plot of the Ideal and Non-Ideal PR controller.
Fig. 44. Bode plot of the PI and PR Controller.
7. PWM
The ac output voltage of inverter is usually non-sinusoidal in nature
and contains harmonics. In single phase full bridge inverter it is simple
to increase the amplitude but controlling of voltage is difficult.
Controlling of voltage implies controlling the fundamental component
of voltage. The harmonic content in single phase full bridge inverter is
given by Eq. (15).
⎡ ⎛π α ⎞⎤
(13) VAB = VDC sin ⎢n ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
nπ ⎣ ⎝2 2 ⎠⎦ (15)
π α
where β = (2 2
−)
By varying the value of α from 0 to π, the amplitude of output
4
voltage can be increased from π VDC to 0. But here the output is
α
proportional to cos 2 . Hence this is not a linear control. But in UPS or
other applications the output should be proportional to the function we
use. Also in an inverter as the number of level increases the number of
switches also increases thereby increasing the complexity of the system
[83]. In full bridge inverter, when load are connected in between the
inverter arm mid point and the mid point of the dc link voltage the
triplane order harmonic current also come in existence, but when it is
(14)
of triple order harmonic current. Still the waveform contains
5th , 7th , 11th etc order harmonics.
At this stage for controlling the amplitude of the inverter output
voltage the DC link voltage has to be changed, which is not feasible. So
to eliminate harmonics a filter is used at the output of the inverter, but
it increases the cost of system and also for wide range of frequency the
design of filter becomes an overwhelming task. Due to such type of
problem the concept of modulation comes into existence. In all
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Fig. 45. Classification of PWM.
modulation technique pulse width are economical and beneficial to
reduce harmonic and for obtaining the output just as the fundamental
of desired output [83]. The different topologies of PWM is shown in
Fig. 45.
7.1. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
In sinusoidal PWM, the sine waveform is compared with the carrier
waveform. The carrier waveform is generally fixed amplitude triangular
waveform whose frequency is odd multiple of the sine waveform
frequency. Due to which the width of pulse varies according to the
amplitude of sine waveform. Also due to large odd symmetry of carrier
frequency phase of the pulse varies according to sine wave fundamental
[58]. The generated modulated signal are feed to the switches of half
bridge inverter and full bridge inverter. Here the switches must have
constant switching because the carrier have constant period. So when
amplitude of sine wave is greater than triangular wave, top switch will
be ON due to which voltage drop across load will be VDC /2 . When
amplitude of sine wave is less than triangular wave, bottom switch will
be ON due to which voltage drop across load will be −VDC /2.
In three phase inverter the frequency of carrier waveform is even
multiple of the sine waveform frequency. The lower order components
of harmonic like 3rd, 5th, 7th etc will be highly suppressed due to this
PWM modulation technique. Beside this the current drawn by the
remaining harmonic present in load voltage VAo is nearly sinusoidal
and have small ripple. Thus by using sine triangular wave PWM we get
the fundamental amplitude variation control now to limit the fc and
sideband.
7.2. Space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM)
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation is an advanced PWM
technique in which the PWM pulses are generated forming a state
space representation of voltage by taking the active and null voltage
vector states. The advantages of SVPWM over SPWM are higher
utilization of DC link voltage, reduced switching loss and lower THD
[84]. To operate the three phase basic inverter 3 switches have to be
turned on at the same time. The number of legal switching combination
can be calculated by SCn - (Illegal Combination), where S = Number of
switches and n = Number of switches to be turned on. The no of illegal
switching combination in a 3-ϕ inverter = 3×4, as for every legs there
are 4 illegal combination. Hence the number of legal combination will
be 8 and for each legal combination there will be a corresponding
switching vector from V0 to V7. The voltage vector diagram is shown in
Fig. 46.
Here V0 and V7 are null voltage vector and V1 to V6 are active
voltage vector states. Also during the sampling time tS the average
voltage produced by the reference voltage vector VS* should be same as
the average voltage produced by the inverter. So, VS* is produced by the
combination of zeros and non-zero voltage vector. This voltage space
vector VS in terms of phase output voltage of inverter can be presented
by Eq. (16) [85].
2
Vs = [Va + aVb + a2Vc]
3 (16)
1 The L-filter is first order filter thus it has a lower attenuation power
Vs* = (t1 v1 + t2 v2 + t3 v3)
τs (17)
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Fig. 46. Space Vector diagram for 3-phase basic Inverter [84].
1 3
where a = − 2 + j 2
and Ts = t1 + t2 + t3
7.3. Selective harmonics elimination PWM (SHE-PWM)
Selective Harmonics Elimination PWM has tendency to control the
harmonics present in fundamental voltage or current generated by
inverter as well as reduce the total harmonic distortion. The main
objective of Selective Harmonics Elimination PWM are to get a
fundamental sinusoidal variation by putting notches in such a manner
by which the positive half cycle that means 1st 180° and 2nd 180° period
are symmetric to sine wave. Harmonics can be controlled by using
more number of notches also at the same time the fundamental voltage
as required by load can be controlled. In this PWM voltage waveform
are fallen apart using Fourier series. SHE-PWM has several features
[86]: (1) elimination of low order harmonics (2) low switching loss (3)
improves THD (4) high voltage gain as well as wide converter
bandwidth (5) less need of filtering.
7.4. Current hysteresis controlled PWM
To generate PWM signal, the current ripple in hysteresis controller
is confined within a hysteresis band. Current limiting capability,
stability, quick response makes current hysteresis control PWM most
suitable to be used in grid connected PV inverter. By hysteresis current
control it is easy to eliminate voltage distortion, bias current and
discontinuous current. There are mainly two methods in current
hysteresis control [87]: single side band hysteresis current controlled
inverter and double band hysteresis current controlled inverter. In
single side band as shown in Fig. 47 at every time the current error
reaches its lower hysteresis limit (i0 − h ), the positive output voltage is
produced by the inverter and if the current error reaches its upper
hysteresis limit (i0 + h ), the negative output voltage is produced by the
inverter
8. Filters
IEEE 519, IEEE 1992, IEEE 1547 indicates the permissible level of
harmonics that can be injected into the grid. The different types of
filters used in PV system are broadly categorized as shown in Fig. 48.
8.1. L-Filer
of higher frequency region and restricted dynamics response. In order
S. Chatterjee et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397

Fig. 49. Filter connected between grid and inverter.

IGrid (s )
Fig. 47. Single-band hysteresis current controller [87]. G 1 (s ) =
VInv (s ) VGrid =0
sCf RDam + 1
=−
s 3LInv L Grid Cf + s 2Cf RDam (LInv + L Grid ) + s (LInv + L Grid ) (18)

IGrid (s )
G 2 (s ) =
VGrid (s ) VInv =0

s 2LInv Cf + sCf RDam + 1

=
s 3LInv L Grid Cf + s 2Cf RDam (LInv + L Grid ) + sDam (LInv + L Grid )
(19)
Fig. 50 shows that the LCL filter with passive damping shows higher
peak overshoot in comparison to the L-filter and LC-filter.

8.3.1. LCL filter with active damping

The control strategies with grid current feedback and inverter
current feedback are shown in Fig. 51 and 52 respectively. The control
Fig. 48. Different types of filters used in grid connected PV system. loop gain for the system with filter gain GFilter(s) are given by Eq. (20).
Gloop (s ) = Gc. GINV . GFilter . H (20)

Fig. 53 shows the bode plots of open loop transfer function for grid
to attenuate switching current ripple of the inverter to an acceptable
current feedback and inverter current feedback.
amount a high value of inductances is required which on the hand
In WAC based control, weighted average value of inverter side
make the system bulky and increases power losses [88]. This type of
current and grid side current are used feedback to control the inverter.
filter is used for high switching application.
The WAC based control with nondamped LCL filter is shown in Fig. 54
[92]. If 1 − β and β are considered as weighted value for two inductor
8.2. LC-Filter
current (I1 and I2), then current feedback and open loop transfer
function is given in Eq. (21) & (22). In control loop gain, the peak
LC filter is 2nd order filter so it has a higher attenuating power as
amplitude present in LCL filter at resonant frequency is canceled by
compared to L filter at high frequency region but due to the presence of
using this methodology.
a shunt capacitor, it presents a resonant peak at resonant frequency
which disturbs the stability of the system [89]. In order to eliminate the i f = (1 − β ) βi1 i2 (21)
resonant peak two types of damping technique are used: (1) Active
damping and (2) Passive damping. In passive damping, a resistance/
damping resistance is added in series with the capacitance but addition
of the damping resistance increases the power loss which in turns
increases heat sink requirement and cost of the overall system. On the
other hand passive damping method decreases the attenuation power
at the high frequency region. In active damping the grid side and
converter side current are taken feedback and thereby no power loss or
lower attenuation is obtained in this method.

8.3. LCL filter

Nowadays among all filters LCL filter has taken much attention.
LCL Filter is third order filter with attenuation of 60 dB/decade for
frequency above full resonant frequency [90]. For this purpose this
filter is used. Transfer function of LCL filter is given by Eq. (18) and
Fig. 49 shows complete circuit diagram of the system.
Transfer function of LCL Filter with damping resistance in given by
Eq. (18) and (19) [91]. Fig. 50. Bode plot of different types filter.

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Fig. 51. LCL filter with grid current feedback control [92].

Fig. 55. LCCL filter [93].

As per the value of the capacitor Cf1 and Cf2 the feedback control
strategies can be altered as grid current feedback and inverter current
feedback. If Cf2 are taken as zero, the controller work as grid current
feedback and if Cf1 is taken zero, it will act as inverter current feedback
control.

Fig. 52. LCL filter with inverter current feedback control [92]. 8.5. LLCL filter

LLCL filter is a 4th order filter and is used to capture the switching
frequency component. The switching bandwidth of this filter can be
written by Eq. (24). Eq. (24) can also be used to find out the value of
the Lf.
1
ωsw =
L f Cf (24)
LLCL filter is shown in Fig. 56 and transfer function can be derived
by Eq. (25) and (26) [94].
(L 2 + L f ) Cf s 2 + 1
Gui → i1 (s ) ug =0 =
(L1 L 2 Cf + (L1 + L 2 ) L f Cf ) s 3 + (L1 + L 2 ) s (25)

L f Cf s2 +1
Gui → ig (s ) u =
g =0 (L1 L 2 Cf + (L1 + L 2 ) L f Cf ) s 3 + (L1 + L 2 ) s (26)
Within half of the range of switching frequency the LLCL gives
Fig. 53. Bode plot of LCL filter with grid current feedback control and inverter current same response as that of LCL from where it can be concluded that
feedback.
introduction of LLCL filter will not introduce any control complexity.
Moreover the smaller magnitude of grid side inductance (L2) will be
more advantageous in terms of bandwidth control as it boosts up the
resonant frequency [95].

9. Anti-islanding

Islanding is the one of the important safety issue in grid connected

PV system. Islanding problem gets created when the utility grid has
been terminated from the local load but the PV still continuous to
supply power. This results in a huge amount of charge accumulation at
the point of common coupling (PCC) which form island of charge near
Fig. 54. Weighted Average Current based Control (WAC) [92].
PCC. This phenomena is termed as islanding which is shown in Fig. 57
[96]. The accumulated charge may create following problems [97]: (1)
I f (s ) (1 − β )(1 − α ) LCs 2 + Rdamp Cs + 1 It may be dangerous for the maintenance operators. (2) If the
G (s ) = = connection gets re-established between the island and the grid, large
Vi (s ) Ls (α (1 − α ) LCs 2 + Rdamp Cs + 1) (22) current may flow through the connection which can damage the
Here L is the inductance of inductor used in L-filter, and the value equipment connected to it.
L So, detection of islanding is very important. A better way for
of α is L1 .

8.4. LCCL filter

If the feedback capacitor Cf is slitted into two parts Cf1 and Cf2 and
the feedback current is taken from the middle point as shown in Fig. 55
[93]. The transfer function for this filter can be described by Eq. (23).

i12 (s ) (Cf 1 + Cf 2 ) + Cf 1 Cf 2 Ls 2
GLCCL (s ) = =
Vi (s ) Cf 1 Cf 2 L2s 3 + (Cf 1 + Cf 2 ) Ls (23)
Fig. 56. LLCL filter [94].

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Fig. 57. Concept of Islanding [96].

Fig. 59. Algorithm for Passive method [99].

Fig. 60. OUF/OUV range [99].

Fig. 58. Classification of Islanding detection method.

detection of islanding is usually to monitor the amplitude and

frequency variation of the grid voltage. Standard regarding the anti-
islanding capability of the Grid connected PV system are IEEE Std.
929–2000, IEEE 1547 etc [98]. The classification of islanding detection
method is shown in Fig. 58 and has been explained as follows:

9.1. Passive method

Passive method attempts to detect transient change in the grid

variables and use that information for determination of whether or not
the grid has failed, or some other condition has resulted in a temporary
charge. The algorithm for passive method is shown in Fig. 59.

9.1.1. Under/over voltage(OUV) and under/over frequency(OUF)

This method is based on limiting the operating range of voltage or
frequency at PCC. The over/under voltage and frequency limit of this
method is shown in Fig. 60. If the amplitude of voltage or frequency at
PCC exceeds from its corresponding limit of voltage and frequency, the
supply provided by inverter has to be stopped. According to [99], by
controlling the active and reactive power of the load the islanding
situation can be controlled as these power depends upon the voltage
and frequency. The equation for active and reactive power are given in
Eq. (27) and (28).
2
VPcc
Pload = ,
Rload
2 nics. So for detection of islanding, harmonic can be considered an
VPCC
Qload = (1 − LCω 2 )
ωL
9.1.2. Voltage-phase jump detection
When the islanding condition occurs, it changes the phase angle of
the voltage at the PCC. If the difference between the phase angle of
inverter current and voltage at PCC as shown in Fig. 61 can be observed
Fig. 61. Phase jump detection [100].
continuously, then it is easy to detect islanding situation. This method
is very accurate method because there are very less possibilities of
occurrence of disturbance in the phase angle. Besides, this method has
less impact on transient response and output power quality [100].
9.1.3. Harmonic detection method
(27) Inverter voltage and current contains some percentage of harmo-
important parameter. The reasons behind this harmonic in islanding
(28)
situation are as follows [100]: (1) The switching process of the inverter
is one of the cause of existence of harmonic current. (2) The grid
impedance goes high as the utility gets disconnected from the supply.
In harmonics detection based anti-islanding method, when the total
harmonics present in the inverter output voltage oversteps from its
threshold value then a trip signal gets generated which disconnects the

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S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 62. Order of Harmonics.
inverter from distributed generation system (DGs). Ref [101] has
shown that the third harmonic component of the voltage plays a vital
role for islanding detection as shown in Fig. 62.
9.1.4. Wavelet based islanding detection
Wavelet based islanding detection is a passive islanding detection
technique as it doesnt inject by external disturbance signal to observe
the change in grid parameters [102]. The time frequency localization
property of the wavelet transformation enables it to detect the
islanding situation in a very efficient and faster way. The wavelet
transformation basically splits the signal into many samples of different
frequencies which is known as wavelet co-efficient [103]. If the value of
the wavelet co-efficient exceeds the predefined reference threshold
signal and retain in that position for a specified duration of time then
the islanding phenomena is detected and the system gets cutoff from
the grid. Wavelet islanding detection technique can reduce the NDZ to
almost zero level but will degrade the quality of power [104]. The
algorithm of wavelet transformation based islanding detection is given
in Fig. 63.
9.2. Active method
Active method attempts to detect a grid failure by injecting small
disturbance signal into the grid variables in order to detect any change
in grid parameters. Active methods are described as follows:
9.2.1. Active frequency drift method
Active drift method is based on detection of zero crossing of voltage
at PCC. In this method comparison between the frequency of current
and voltage are done by setting lower and higher value of grid current.
The current are set with small deviation and the frequency of voltage at
PCC are observed by Eq. (29) and (30) [105]:
finv (k ) = fPCC (k − 1) + Δf0 (29)
2T2 δf
cf = =
T f + Δf (30)
Where cf is the chooping fraction. When utility grid is connected to
the inverter,due to stability of grid no deviation will be observed in grid
frequency but when grid has been disconnected and islanding situation
occurs, the frequency deviation creates too much disturbance in load
current. Due to this reason over frequency protection comes into
action.
9.2.2. Slip mode frequency shift
Slip mode frequency shift is based on applying a positive feedback
to the phase of voltage present at PCC. In normal situation when the
utility grid is in operating condition, this algorithm stabilises the
system by adjusting the phase angle between the inverter and the
RLC load or load impedance with unity power factor. But in islanding
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
Fig. 63. Algorithm for Wavelet based islanding detection [104].
situation the grid is not present. As a result the phase of the inverter
increase rapidly with respect to load impedance. This phenomena leads
to increase of inverter frequency beyond the frequency trip point and
thereby the inverter will be turned off [106].
9.2.3. Sandia frequency shift
In Sandia frequency shift method the positive feedbacks that are
provided by frequency estimator is applied at the frequency of voltage
present at PCC. This method is also called active frequency drift with
positive feedback [107]. In normal operating condition when the utility
grid is connected through distributed generation system(DGs) the
positive feedback frequency tries to change the frequency of the PCC
but due to stability of utility grid the frequency of the voltage at the PCC
remains stable [108].
In islanding situation when the utility grid is disconnected from the
system the frequency of voltage at PCC goes high and shows an error in
chooping factor that can be given by Eq. (31). The flow chart of this
method is shown in Fig. 64.
cf = cf0 + k ( fPCC − fline ) (31)
The frequency of voltage at PCC increases continuously and at a
point it reaches the over frequency trip point. In response of which the
inverter gets tripped and decreases its output power.
9.2.4. GE frequency shift
In GE frequency shift method, positive feedback derived from
frequency estimator are fed to the reactive current present at PCC
[110]. Due to which the reactive power goes higher. In islanding
situation the reactive power goes very high enough to cross the over
voltage protection limits and thereby the inverter gets tripped. The flow
chat of GE frequency shift method is as shown in Fig. 65 [109].
9.2.5. Harmonic injection method
Harmonic injection based islanding detection are based in injection
of harmonic current into grid impedance and resulting voltage
harmonics are extracted. According to value of voltage harmonics the
islanding situation can easily be detected [111]. The block diagram of
S. Chatterjee et al.
Fig. 64. Sandia frequency shift method [108].
Fig. 65. GE frequency shift [109].
harmonics injection method are shown in Fig. 66. Here disturbance
current signal idis is injected and according to the voltage harmonic
fluctuation islanding is verified.
9.2.6. Grid impedance estimation method
As per standard VDE 0126-1-1(ENS), if grid impedance is in-
creased by 0.5 at perfect balance load condition, it creates complicated
situation like islanding problem. In such case, the islanding can be
detected by considering the active reactive power variation [113]. If
Fig. 66. Harmonic Injection method [111].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
Fig. 67. PLL based detection method [112].
small variation is detected in power component, then it is reported to
the inverter by control signal.
9.2.7. PLL based detection method
In this method PLL are used to detect the situation of islanding due
to input output proportional feature of PLL. Any change in PLL input
changes the output angle of the PLL which are feed to the inverter [7].
So if any changes in current due to islanding condition occurs, the
inverter output also changes which can be easily detected on the PCC.
Ref [112] proposed a method of islanding detection which uses perturb
& observe method. For the detection of change in the output of the
inverter, they have used Goertzel Algorithm. The flow chart of this
method is as shown in Fig. 67.
9.2.8. Hybrid islanding detection method
Ref [114] proposed a combination of wavelet & neuro fuzzy based
islanding detection technique. The use of neuro fuzzy technique along
with wavelet enables the system to avoid the threshold value evaluation
mechanism and thereby the hybrid algorithm multiplies the NDZ
without comprising the power quality. Different combination of active
and passive methods have been also been proposed to increase the
efficiency of detection, reducing the NDZ, false operation and reduction
of configuration cost [115]. Hybrid algorithms enable the algorithm to
have the advantage of all combined algorithm while eliminating the
demerits of each one.
The comparison between islanding detection method in terms of
power quality, NDZ etc is presented in Table 4.
10. Techno-commercial review
According to IHS report of 2015, German based company SMA
recorded the highest market share of 14% in earning revenue from PV
inverter supply followed by Huawei (9%), Sungrow, ABB and
Solaredge. Different types of standard are used by different countries
so there inverter specifications are also different. Here, Table 5
provides a comparison of grid connected PV inverters which have been
manufactured by inverter supplier companies in terms of specific
parameter used by different countries [116–125].
11. Gaps in prevailing technology
Though photovoltaic power is one of the adequately available, never
ending and environmental hazards less resource but there are many
scopes of improvement in standalone as well as grid connected
 Table 4
S. Chatterjee et al.

Comparison table of anti-islanding methods.

Sr. NO Islanding Method Similar Methodologies Parameter to Effect of NDZ Trip time Advantages Limitation
monitor

1 OUF-OUV Method
2 Voltage Phase jump
Detection
3 Harmonic detection
4 Active Frequency
Drift Method
5 Slip Mode Frequency
Shift
Standard Protection Relays,
Abnormal voltage detection
Power factor detection,
Transient phase detection
Detection of impedance at a
specific frequency
Frequency, Bias, Frequency
shift up/down
Slide mode frequency shift,
Phase lock loop slip
Voltage or for OUV −17%, ≤ΔP ≤ 24% for Not applicable Low cost islanding detection method, Used for Relatively large NDZ, Reaction time may
Frequency OUF −5%, ≤ΔQ ≤ 5% several other reason besides islanding be variable or predictable
prevention, also used in other islanding
prevention method.
Difference in Phase −5%, ≤ΔQ ≤ 5% Not applicable Implementation is easy,No effect on output Difficult to choose threshold for reliable
angle of Voltage and power quality and impact system transient islanding detection,Nuisance trips in PV
current response, No change in effectiveness under inverter under certain load condition if
multiple inverter connection. thresholds are set too low.
Total harmonic High value of Q,Low distortion <200 ms Operation under wide range of grid Difficult to choose threshold for reliable
distortion outputs conditions,Under multiple-inverter case islanding detection,Nuisance trips in PV
effectiveness of this should not change inverter under certain load condition if
significantly. thresholds are set too low.
Frequency of current For small chopping fraction Implementation is easy in micro-controller Radiated and conducted radio frequency
and voltage at PCC (cf < 1%) it is same as SMS. For inverters. interference (RFI) due to discontinuous
low Q it shifts toward capacitive waveform,Some specific rules to follow
loads under multiple-inverter condition.
Frequency of PCC High Q loads when resonant Easy to implement, Highly effective in Transient problem and System level
voltage frequencies are very near to the multiple inverter applications, Less effect on power quality problems under very high
line frequency. output power quality and impact system gains and penetration levels in feedback
transient response with good effect on loop.

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islanding detection.
6 Sandia frequency Accelerated frequency drift, Chopping frequency For Very high value of Q Easy to implement, Less effect on output Output power quality of PV inverter
Shift Active frequency drift with of PCC voltage power quality and impact system transient should be high for this method.
positive feedback response with good effect on islanding
detection.
7 GE Frequency shift Not Specified Reactive current
reference
8 Sandia Voltage Shift Voltage shift, Positive Amplitude of voltage Implementation is easy in micro-controller Requires very small reduction in output
feedback on voltage at PCC inverters.,Highly effective when used power quality,Utility system transient
combination with Sandia frequency shift response and power quality may be
method. affected.
9 Harmonic Injection Not Specified Voltage harmonics 0.1–0.2 in,
at PCC function to set
threshold
10 PLL based detection Not Specified First harmonics 0.105 to 0.115
Method present in voltage at
PCC
11 Hybrid Method Not Specified Amplitude of
Frequency or
Voltage at PCC
12 Communication Not Specified Status of circuit Load inside the island Under normal functioning loads this method Requirement of transmitter on utility
Based method breakers and recluse does not have an NDZ,No effect on output system,Very large expense due to
at utility power quality and impact system transient installation of transmitter
response
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
S. Chatterjee et al.
Table 5
Comparison between different parameters of commercial available inverter used in Grid Connected PV system [116–125].
photovoltaic system. The gaps in prevailing technology can be pre-
sented as shown in Fig. 68. Present day commercially available
inverters have an average life time ranging from 5 to 10 years. So the
inverters become the most unreliable component in the whole chain
linking the PV to the grid. So the inverter life span must be increased.
The available multilevel inverters used in literature are mainly experi-
mental prototype and are used for low power application. Mostly the
PV power is able to meet only the local electrification to household. So
to provide power to industry or large scale application, now the tend is
on improving the design of the inverter for higher power ratting. This
Fig. 68. Grid connected PV system Prevailing Technology Gaps.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
will reduce the cost per watt. Switching losses are pretty much evident
during the high switching frequency operation of the hard switching
based conventional inverter. This increases the size of the heat sink and
also reduces the efficiency of the overall system.
The schemes present for grid synchronization in the literature are
not reliable for high power industrial applications. The control of multi
Level inverters must be designed in a way so as to ensure high power
quality, system robustness, high reliability and support grid voltage
and frequency stability. According to the survey none of the commer-
cially available grid connected inverter has employed grid supportive
ancillary feature. Researches are going on to earn revenues from the PV
system during the night [126,127]. The solar inverter is fully utilized
during the noon, partly used during rest of the day time and remains
totally unutilized during the night time i.e almost 70% of the time the
inverter remains idle. Utilizing the Inverter as STATCOM for reactive
power compensation helps not only to increase connectivity to the
neighbouring wind farm but also increase power transmission cap-
ability, improve power regulation and power factor correction. Besides
there are some commercial complexity present in the prevailing
system. Electricity industry infused with short- to long term risks are
difficult to commercialise correctly or allocate to industry participants.
S. Chatterjee et al.
12. Conclusion
This paper presents a technological review of almost every parts of
the grid connected PV system. At the very beginning of the paper a brief
review of all the grid codes applicable for a grid tied system has been
documented in Table 1. A comprehensive analysis of different widely
used important standards has been presented in Table 3 based on
different parameter like nominal power maximum, allowable limit of
current THD, DC current injection limit etc.
In the subsequent part of the paper detailed review of different
MPPT algorithm has been discussed. It could be concluded that
different bio-inspired soft computing based and hybrid MPPT algo-
rithm gives better performances in terms of convergence rate, oscilla-
tion of obtained near the MPP, tracking efficiency, probability of
obtaining the global MPP, degree of freedom in controller designing,
robustness, reliability etc as compared to conventional techniques.
Inverter plays an important part in grid connected PV DGs.
Increasing power demand and advancement in power electronic front
have lead towards the use of different improved version of power
inverters with high efficiency, lower switching losses and better
harmonics performance. In this paper some of the conventional and
advanced inverter topologies like Z-source inverter, soft computing
based inverter etc have been presented. Some of the inverter topologies
patented by leading companies like REFU, Sunways, SMA (H5
Inverter), Ingeteam.
In this paper different grid synchronization techniques have been
reviewed. It can be concluded that time domain based synchronization
technique performs superior than the frequency domain techniques in
terms of tracking efficiency, faster dynamic response, compatibility,
robustness etc. Time domain based synchronization is broadly classi-
fied into 2 categories: PLL and FLL. Different types of PLL have been
presented in this paper. It is observed that three phase system can
produce quadrature signal inherently in αβ - reference frame while
single phase systems employ T /4 transportation delay, Hilbert trans-
form and park transform in order to generate proper orthogonal signal.
FLL based grid synchronization has high adaptability as compared to
PLL. Moreover the computational burden also gets reduced in FLL as it
doesnt use any trigonometric function for grid synchronization.
Many PWM techniques like SPWM, SVPWM etc have been used in
PV application. SVPWM performs better than SPWM not only in terms
of maximizing the utilization of DC bus voltage but also reduces
switching loss by optimizing the switching sequence. Section 8 of this
paper presents a detailed report of different types of filters used in grid
connected PV connected system. From this section, it can be concluded
that as the order of the filter increased the attenuation power at high
frequencies region also increases. Therefore the use of LCCL or LLCL
filters proves out to be the most appropriate solution, but the use of
2nd, 3rd and 4th order filters bring with it a resonant peak at resonant
frequency which hampers the stability of the overall system. In order to
minimize the amplitude of the resonant peak passive damping proce-
dure has been introduced where the resistance is connected in series or
parallel with the filter capacitance. But the introduction of passive
damping produced overheating and decreased attenuation. In order to
overcome this drawback active damping procedure is introduced where
the grid side or the inverter current is taken as feedback to the current
loop.
Islanding detection is integral measures for safety of grid connected
PV system. Passive islanding detection method detects grid failure by
directly monitoring the change in grid parameters while the active
islanding detection method injects a disturbance signal in order to detect
any change in grid variable. In this paper almost all types of anti-islanding
methods have been addressed and a comparison table based on trip time,
NDZ, reliability etc has been presented. However, proper selection of anti-
islanding method depends upon the user priority of parameter selection.
Each anti-islanding method has its own merits and demerits so, it become
very difficult to choose proper anti-islanding scheme.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 2371–2397
This paper concludes with gaps in prevailing technology along with
techno-economic comparison of commercially available PV inverter
like maximum DC voltage, power, current MPP voltage range, fre-
quency, power factor etc. It is expected that this paper will deliver an
insightful reference for the researchers working in the field of grid
connected PV system. It will also help them in selecting appropriate
topology for their particular application.
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