Solid surface-geometrical,

mechanical and physico

chemical concepts
2. Combination of Mechanical, Thermal, Electrical, Physical and Chemical effects at
the surface during the processing of the object.

3. Cyclic or continuous Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical or Physical action of the

environment of the object during its service.
The surface exerts a fundamental influence on the usable properties of objects and
solids.
Several physico-chemical effects, depend on and occur at the material surface or
with its participation.

The concept of the surface is perceptible and understandable by intuition; it is,

however, quite difficult to define and understand in a precise manner.

This concept has been defined in a number of ways, depending on the discipline of
science or technology for the purpose of which it is used.
Geometrical concept
• In the mathematical sense, and more strictly, geometrical, the surface
is a two-dimensional geometrical figure, e.g., a sphere or a cylinder,
and constitutes one of the basic concepts of geometry.

• In elementary geometry, surfaces are described as certain sets of

points or straight lines with certain properties, i.e., loci of points with
a given characteristic.

• It is evident from such definitions that the mathematical concept of

the surface is purely theoretical and not material.
Mechanical concept
• The concept of the surface used in applied mechanics and related
technical sciences - Closer to reality.
• The surface is defined here as the edge (or limit) of material bodies.
• This is a very general concept, dependent on the scale of the effect
considered - molecular, micro and macro.
• The material surface is defined as a continuous material system in
the form of a surface, comprising material points.
Finer differentiation in the description of surface concepts (Polish Standard PN-73/M-
04250) –

Nominal surface - the surface as described by a blueprint or technical documentation,

with the omission of roughness, waviness and shape errors. This, of course, is the
theoretical surface; earlier called the geometrical surface.

True or real surface - the surface limiting the object (its solid shape), separating it
from the environment. The concept of the real surface, correct in the general sense,
depends, however, on the scale of the phenomena considered. For the “macro” scale
the concept is adequate to the definition. But for the “micro” scale, especially down
to the scale of the atom, where there is a necessity to take into account the subtle
interaction of the environment with the object, this concept is more difficult to be
precisely understood.
The observed (measured)
surface - an approximated image
of the real surface of an object,
obtained as a result of
observation (e.g. with the aid of
a scanning electron microscope)
or measured within the bounds if
precision achievable by
observation or measurement (by
a given method of
measurement)
The above concepts may be supplemented by general descriptions connected with
the processing of the object, proper not only for machining but for all types of
processing.

The surface being processed - the surface which constitutes the boundary of the
processed object in the area subjected to processing.

The processed surface - the surface which constitutes the boundary of the
processed object in the area where the processing was carried out.
Physico-chemical concept
The phase

• The phase is a homogenous part of a system with same physical

properties in its entire mass and with same chemical composition,
separated by an interface surface.

• For example, a gas or a gas mixture constitutes one phase, similarly to

a homogenous liquid or a solution.

• The phases of the system may be separated from one another by

mechanical means, e.g., by decanting, filtration, centrifuging, sifting.
• A phase or a system, composed of only one independent constituent is called
homogenous, and one that is composed of many such constituents, is termed a
heterogeneous system.

1. Monophase and one-constituent system (e.g., pure water), or uniform and

homogenous system,
2. Monophase and multi-constituent system (e.g., solution of sugar in water) or
uniform and heterogeneous system,
3. Multi-phase and one-constituent system (e.g., ice and water) or non uniform
and homogenous system,
4. Multi-phase and multi-constituent system or non-uniform and heterogeneous
system.
 • A non-homogenous metal alloy is multi-phased.

• The particular alloy phases usually differ quite significantly in properties, and
their number, type, as well as properties depend on the chemical composition of
the alloy.

A transition within the considered system from one crystallographic form to another (e.g., -iron to -iron) or the
creation of a new chemical bond (e.g., of an intermetallic compound during solidification of a metal alloy) is
always accompanied by the creation of a new phase.

In all dispersed systems (e.g., in emulsions) one of the phases is made up of the entire mass of the
dispersing medium (e.g., water), while the second phase is the entire mass (all droplets) of the dispersed
substance (e.g., oil).

A homogenous metal alloy constitutes only one phase; although it contains many grains of varying shapes
and sizes, which can be separated from one another, all grains have the same chemical composition,
therefore they constitute only a portion of the system.
Interphase surface - a physical surface

Figure 1. Schematic representation of an interface, i.e. surface separating two phases.

The dividing surface between phases (phase boundary) constitutes an interface,

termed also inter-phase boundary or boundary surface (in fluid mechanics).
• One can distinguish three areas in the figure 1:

1. a homogeneous zone of phase A,

2. a homogenous zone of phase B and
3. a heterogeneous interface zone C

• Zone C does not constitute a third phase in the strict sense of the
phase rule.

• Can be treated as a fictitious individual portion of the system which is

in equilibrium with the extraneous interactions between the phases A
and B, i.e. temperature, pressure, chemical potentials, concentration,
specific mass, etc.
• The interface is treated as a physical inter-phase surface.

• Concept of a mathematical two-dimensional boundary surface,

characterized by a directed force of surface tension, connected with
pressure. Such a surface embodies the physical interface.
• Physico-chemical concept: surface is constituted by a boundary
between two (or more) phases.
• Boundary between the chief object of our interest, i.e., the solid, in
the form of a metal or its alloy (treated generally as one phase
although it may also constitute a multi-phase system) and the phase
surrounding it, e.g., gas (most frequent case), or liquid or even solid
(usually in the form of small particles dispersed in a gas).
• For this reason the meaning of the surface in the physical sense is a material,
three-dimensional object, although the third dimension - its thickness – is very
small.

• This thickness is very difficult to determine.

• Can be determined experimentally that the overwhelming portion of the surface

energy of the solid is concentrated in a layer equal in thickness to only several
diameters of molecules forming that solid.

Reference
Surface Engineering of Metals: Principles, Equipment, Technologies By Tadeusz
Burakowski, Tadeusz Wierzchon